ToMonsieurleMarquisdePastoret，MemberoftheAcademiedesBeaux-Arts。
WhenwethinkoftheenormousnumberofvolumesthathavebeenpublishedonthequestionastowhereHannibalcrossedtheAlps，withoutourbeingabletodecideto-daywhetheritwasaccordingtoWhittakerandRivazbyLyon，Geneva，theGreatSaint-Bernard，andthevalleyofAosta；oraccordingtoLetronne，Follard，Saint-SimonandFortiad’UrbanobytheIsere，Grenoble，Saint-
Bonnet，MonteGenevra，Fenestrella，andtheSusapassage；oraccordingtoLarauzabytheMontCenisandtheSusa；oraccordingtoStrabo，PolybiusandLucanusbytheRhone，Vienne，Yenne，andtheDentduChat；oraccordingtosomeintelligentmindsbyGenoa，LaBochetta，andLaScrivia，——anopinionwhichI
shareandwhichNapoleonadopted，——nottospeakoftheverjuicewithwhichtheAlpinerockshavebeenbespatteredbyotherlearnedmen，——isitsurprising，Monsieurlemarquis，toseemodernhistorysobemuddledthatmanyimportantpointsarestillobscure，andthemostodiouscalumniesstillrestonnamesthatoughttoberespected？
Andletmeremark，inpassing，thatHannibal’scrossinghasbeenmadealmostproblematicalbytheseveryelucidations。Forinstance，PereMenestrierthinksthattheScorasmentionedbyPolybiusistheSaona；Letronne，LarauzaandSchweighauserthinkitistheIsere；Cochard，alearnedLyonnais，callsittheDrome，andforallwhohaveeyestoseetherearebetweenScorasandScriviagreatgeographicalandlinguisticalresemblances，——tosaynothingoftheprobability，amountingalmosttocertainty，thattheCarthaginianfleetwasmooredintheGulfofSpezziaortheroadsteadofGenoa。IcouldunderstandthesepatientresearchesiftherewereanydoubtastothebattleofCanna；butinasmuchastheresultsofthatgreatbattleareknown，whyblackenpaperwithallthesesuppositionswhichare，asitwere，thearabesquesofhypothesiswhilethehistorymostimportanttothepresentday，thatoftheReformation，isfullofsuchobscuritiesthatweareignorantoftherealnameofthemanwhonavigatedavesselbysteamtoBarcelonaattheperiodwhenLutherandCalvinwereinauguratingtheinsurrectionofthought。[*]
YouandIhold，Ithink，thesameopinion，afterhavingmade，eachinhisownway，closeresearchesastothegrandandsplendidfigureofCatherinede’Medici。Consequently，IhavethoughtthatmyhistoricalstudiesuponthatqueenmightproperlybededicatedtoanauthorwhohaswrittensomuchonthehistoryoftheReformation；whileatthesametimeIoffertothecharacterandfidelityofamonarchicalwriterapublichomagewhichmay，perhaps，bevaluableonaccountofitsrarity。
[*]ThenameofthemanwhotriedthisexperimentatBarcelonashouldbegivenasSalomondeCaux，notCaus。Thatgreatmanhasalwaysbeenunfortunate；evenafterhisdeathhisnameismangled。Salomon，whoseportraittakenattheageofforty-sixwasdiscoveredbytheauthorofthe”ComedyofHumanLife”atHeidelberg，wasbornatCauxinNormandy。Hewastheauthorofabookentitled”TheCausesofMovingForces，”inwhichhegavethetheoryoftheexpansionandcondensationofsteam。
Hediedin1635。
CATHERINEDE’MEDICI
INTRODUCTION
Thereisageneralcryofparadoxwhenscholars，struckbysomehistoricalerror，attempttocorrectit；but，forwhoeverstudiesmodernhistorytoitsdepths，itisplainthathistoriansareprivilegedliars，wholendtheirpentopopularbeliefspreciselyasthenewspapersoftheday，ormostofthem，expresstheopinionsoftheirreaders。
HistoricalindependencehasshownitselfmuchlessamonglaywritersthanamongthoseoftheChurch。ItisfromtheBenedictines，oneofthegloriesofFrance，thatthepurestlighthascometousinthematterofhistory，——solong，ofcourse，astheinterestsoftheorderwerenotinvolved。Aboutthemiddleoftheeighteenthcenturygreatandlearnedcontroversialists，struckbythenecessityofcorrectingpopularerrorsendorsedbyhistorians，madeandpublishedtotheworldveryremarkableworks。ThusMonsieurdeLaunoy，nicknamedthe”ExpellerofSaints，”madecruelwaruponthesaintssurreptitiouslysmuggledintotheChurch。ThustheemulatorsoftheBenedictines，thememberstoolittlerecognizedoftheAcademiedesInscriptionsetBelles-lettres，beganonmanyobscurehistoricalpointsaseriesofmonographs，whichareadmirableforpatience，erudition，andlogicalconsistency。ThusVoltaire，foramistakenpurposeandwithill-judgedpassion，frequentlycastthelightofhismindonhistoricalprejudices。Diderotundertookinthisdirectionabookmuchtoolong
ontheeraofimperialRome。IfithadnotbeenfortheFrenchRevolution，/criticism/appliedtohistorymightthenhavepreparedtheelementsofagoodandtruehistoryofFrance，theproofsforwhichhadlongbeengatheredbytheBenedictines。LouisXVI。，ajustmind，himselftranslatedtheEnglishworkinwhichWalpoleendeavoredtoexplainRichardIII。，——aworkmuchtalkedofinthelastcentury。
Whydopersonagessocelebratedaskingsandqueens，soimportantasthegeneralsofarmies，becomeobjectsofhorrororderision？HalftheworldhesitatesbetweenthefamoussongonMarlboroughandthehistoryofEngland，anditalsohesitatesbetweenhistoryandpopulartraditionastoCharlesIX。Atallepochswhengreatstrugglestakeplacebetweenthemassesandauthority，thepopulacecreatesforitselfan/ogre-esque/personage——ifitisallowabletocoinawordtoconveyajustidea。Thus，totakeanexampleinourowntime，ifithadnotbeenforthe”MemorialofSaintHelena，”andthecontroversiesbetweentheRoyalistsandtheBonapartists，therewaseveryprobabilitythatthecharacterofNapoleonwouldhavebeenmisunderstood。AfewmoreAbbedePradits，afewmorenewspaperarticles，andfrombeinganemperor，Napoleonwouldhaveturnedintoanogre。
Howdoeserrorpropagateitself？Themysteryisaccomplishedunderourveryeyeswithoutourperceivingit。Noonesuspectshowmuchsoliditytheartofprintinghasgivenbothtotheenvywhichpursuesgreatness，andtothepopularridiculewhichfastensacontrarysenseonagrandhistoricalact。Thus，thenameofthePrincedePolignacisgiventhroughoutthelengthandbreadthofFrancetoallbadhorsesthatrequirewhipping；andwhoknowshowthatwillaffecttheopinionofthefutureastothe/coupd’Etat/ofthePrincedePolignachimself？InconsequenceofawhimofShakespeare——orperhapsitmayhavebeenarevenge，likethatofBeaumarchaisonBergasseBergearss——
Falstaffis，inEngland，atypeoftheridiculous；hisverynameprovokeslaughter；heisthekingofclowns。Now，insteadofbeingenormouslypot-bellied，absurdlyamorous，vain，drunken，old，andcorrupted，Falstaffwasoneofthemostdistinguishedmenofhistime，aKnightoftheGarter，holdingahighcommandinthearmy。AttheaccessionofHenryV。SirJohnFalstaffwasonlythirty-fouryearsold。Thisgeneral，whodistinguishedhimselfatthebattleofAgincourt，andtheretookprisonertheDucd’Alencon，captured，in1420，thetownofMontereau，whichwasvigorouslydefended。Moreover，underHenryVI。hedefeatedtenthousandFrenchtroopswithfifteenhundredwearyandfamishedmen。
Somuchforwar。Nowletuspasstoliterature，andseeourownRabelais，asobermanwhodranknothingbutwater，butisheldtobe，nevertheless，anextravagantloverofgoodcheerandaresolutedrinker。AthousandridiculousstoriesaretoldabouttheauthorofoneofthefinestbooksinFrenchliterature，——”Pantagruel。”Aretino，thefriendofTitian，andtheVoltaireofhiscentury，has，inourday，areputationtheexactoppositeofhisworksandofhischaracter；areputationwhichheowestoagrossnessofwitinkeepingwiththewritingsofhisage，whenbroadfarcewasheldinhonor，andqueensandcardinalswrotetaleswhichwouldbecalled，inthesedays，licentious。Onemightgoonmultiplyingsuchinstancesindefinitely。
InFrance，andthat，too，duringthemostseriousepochofmodernhistory，nowoman，unlessitbeBrunehautorFredegonde，hassufferedfrompopularerrorsomuchasCatherinede’Medici；whereasMariede’
Medici，allofwhoseactionswereprejudicialtoFrance，hasescapedtheshamewhichoughttocoverhername。Mariede’MediciwastedthewealthamassedbyHenriIV。；sheneverpurgedherselfofthechargeofhavingknownoftheking’sassassination；her/intimate/wasd’Epernon，whodidnotwardoffRavaillac’sblow，andwhowasprovedtohaveknownthemurdererpersonallyforalongtime。Marie’sconductwassuchthatsheforcedhersontobanishherfromFrance，whereshewasencouragingherotherson，Gaston，torebel；andthevictoryRichelieuatlastwonoverherontheDayoftheDupeswasduesolelytothediscoverythecardinalmade，andimpartedtoLouisXIII。，ofsecretdocumentsrelatingtothedeathofHenriIV。
Catherinede’Medici，onthecontrary，savedthecrownofFrance；shemaintainedtheroyalauthorityinthemidstofcircumstancesunderwhichmorethanonegreatprincewouldhavesuccumbed。HavingtomakeheadagainstfactionsandambitionslikethoseoftheGuisesandthehouseofBourbon，againstmensuchasthetwoCardinalsofLorraine，thetwoBalafres，andthetwoCondes，againstthequeenJeanned’Albret，HenriIV。，theConnetabledeMontmorency，Calvin，thethreeColignys，TheodoredeBeze，sheneededtopossessandtodisplaytherarequalitiesandpreciousgiftsofastatesmanunderthemockingfireoftheCalvinistpress。
Thosefactsareincontestable。Therefore，towhosoeverburrowsintothehistoryofthesixteenthcenturyinFrance，thefigureofCatherinede’Mediciwillseemlikethatofagreatking。Whencalumnyisoncedissipatedbyfacts，recoveredwithdifficultyfromamongthecontradictionsofpamphletsandfalseanecdotes，allexplainsitselftothefameofthisextraordinarywoman，whohadnoneoftheweaknessesofhersex，wholivedchasteamidthelicenseofthemostdissolutecourtinEurope，andwho，inspiteofherlackofmoney，erectednoblepublicbuildings，asiftorepairthelosscausedbytheiconoclasmsoftheCalvinists，whodidasmuchharmtoartastothebodypolitic。HemmedinbetweentheGuiseswhoclaimedtobetheheirsofCharlemagneandthefactiousyoungerbranchwhosoughttoscreenthetreacheryoftheConnetabledeBourbonbehindthethrone，Catherine，forcedtocombatheresywhichwasseekingtoannihilatethemonarchy，withoutfriends，awareoftreacheryamongtheleadersoftheCatholicparty，foreseeingarepublicintheCalvinistparty，Catherineemployedthemostdangerousbutthesurestweaponofpublicpolicy，——craft。Sheresolvedtotrickandsodefeat，successively，theGuiseswhowereseekingtheruinofthehouseofValois，theBourbonswhosoughtthecrown，andtheReformerstheRadicalsofthosedays
whodreamedofanimpossiblerepublic——likethoseofourtime；whohave，however，nothingtoreform。Consequently，solongasshelived，theValoiskeptthethroneofFrance。Thegreathistorianofthattime，deThou，knewwellthevalueofthiswomanwhen，onhearingofherdeath，heexclaimed:”Itisnotawoman，itismonarchyitselfthathasdied！”
Catherinehad，inthehighestdegree，thesenseofroyalty，andshedefendeditwithadmirablecourageandpersistency。ThereproacheswhichCalvinistwritershavecastuponheraretoherglory；sheincurredthembyreasononlyofhertriumphs。Couldshe，placedasshewas，triumphotherwisethanbycraft？Thewholequestionliesthere。
Asforviolence，thatmeansisoneofthemostdisputedquestionsofpublicpolicy；inourtimeithasbeenansweredonthePlaceLouisXV。，wheretheyhavenowsetupanEgyptianstone，asiftoobliterateregicideandofferasymbolofthesystemofmaterialisticpolicywhichgovernsus；itwasansweredattheCarmesandattheAbbaye；
answeredonthestepsofSaint-Roch；answeredoncemorebythepeopleagainstthekingbeforetheLouvrein1830，asithassincebeenansweredbyLafayette’sbestofallpossiblerepublicsagainsttherepublicaninsurrectionatSaint-MerriandtherueTransnonnain。Allpower，legitimateorillegitimate，mustdefenditselfwhenattacked；
butthestrangethingisthatwherethepeopleareheldheroicintheirvictoryoverthenobility，poweriscalledmurderousinitsduelwiththepeople。Ifitsuccumbsafteritsappealtoforce，poweristhencalledimbecile。ThepresentgovernmentisattemptingtosaveitselfbytwolawsfromthesameevilCharlesX。triedtoescapebytwoordinances；isitnotabitterderision？Iscraftpermissibleinthehandsofpoweragainstcraft？mayitkillthosewhoseektokillit？ThemassacresoftheRevolutionhaverepliedtothemassacresofSaint-Bartholomew。Thepeople，becomeking，havedoneagainstthekingandthenobilitywhatthekingandthenobilitydidagainsttheinsurgentsofthesixteenthcentury。Thereforethepopularhistorians，whoknowverywellthatinalikecasethepeoplewilldothesamethingoveragain，havenoexcuseforblamingCatherinede’MediciandCharlesIX。”Allpower，”saidCasimirPerier，onlearningwhatpoweroughttobe，”isapermanentconspiracy。”Weadmiretheanti-socialmaximsputforthbydaringwriters；why，then，thisdisapprovalwhich，inFrance，attachestoallsocialtruthswhenboldlyproclaimed？Thisquestionwillexplain，initselfalone，historicalerrors。Applytheanswertothedestructivedoctrineswhichflatterpopularpassions，andtotheconservativedoctrineswhichrepressthemadeffortsofthepeople，andyouwillfindthereasonoftheunpopularityandalsothepopularityofcertainpersonages。LaubardemontandLaffemaswere，likesomemenofto-day，devotedtothedefenceofpowerinwhichtheybelieved。Soldiersorjudges，theyallobeyedroyalty。Inthesedaysd’Orthezwouldbedismissedforhavingmisunderstoodtheordersoftheministry，butCharlesX。lefthimgovernorofaprovince。Thepowerofthemanyisaccountabletonoone；thepowerofoneiscompelledtorenderaccounttoitssubjects，tothegreataswellastothesmall。
Catherine，likePhiliptheSecondandtheDukeofAlba，liketheGuisesandCardinalGranvelle，sawplainlythefuturethattheReformationwasbringinguponEurope。Sheandtheysawmonarchies，religion，authorityshaken。Catherinewrote，fromthecabinetofthekingsofFrance，asentenceofdeathtothatspiritofinquirywhichthenbegantothreatenmodernsociety；asentencewhichLouisXIV。
endedbyexecuting。TherevocationoftheEdictofNanteswasanunfortunatemeasureonlysofarasitcausedtheirritationofallEuropeagainstLouisXIV。AtanotherperiodEngland，Holland，andtheHolyRomanEmpirewouldnothavewelcomedbanishedFrenchmenandencouragedrevoltinFrance。
Whyrefuse，inthesedays，tothemajesticadversaryofthemostbarrenofheresiesthegrandeurshederivedfromthestruggleitself？
Calvinistshavewrittenmuchagainstthe”craftiness”ofCharlesIX。；
buttravelthroughFrance，seetheruinsofnoblechurches，estimatethefearfulwoundsgivenbythereligioniststothesocialbody，learnwhatvengeancetheyinflicted，andyouwillaskyourself，asyoudeploretheevilsofindividualismthediseaseofourpresentFrance，thegermofwhichwasinthequestionsoflibertyofconsciencethenagitated，——youwillaskyourself，Isay，onwhichsideweretheexecutioners。Thereare，unfortunately，asCatherineherselfsaysinthethirddivisionofthisStudyofhercareer，”inallageshypocriticalwritersalwaysreadytoweepoverthefateoftwohundredscoundrelskillednecessarily。”Caesar，whotriedtomovethesenatetopitytheattemptofCatiline，mightperhapshavegotthebetterofCicerocouldhehavehadanOppositionanditsnewspapersathiscommand。
AnotherconsiderationexplainsthehistoricalandpopulardisfavorinwhichCatherineisheld。TheOppositioninFrancehasalwaysbeenProtestant，becauseithashadnopolicybutthatof/negation/；itinheritsthetheoriesofLutherans，Calvinists，andProtestantsontheterriblewords”liberty，””tolerance，””progress，”and”philosophy。”
Twocenturieshavebeenemployedbytheopponentsofpowerinestablishingthedoubtfuldoctrineofthe/librearbitre/，——libertyofwill。Twoothercenturieswereemployedindevelopingthefirstcorollaryoflibertyofwill，namely，libertyofconscience。Ourcenturyisendeavoringtoestablishthesecond，namely，politicalliberty。
Placedbetweenthegroundalreadylostandthegroundstilltobedefended，CatherineandtheChurchproclaimedthesalutaryprincipleofmodernsocieties，/unafides，unusdominus/，usingtheirpoweroflifeanddeathupontheinnovators。ThoughCatherinewasvanquished，succeedingcenturieshaveprovedherjustification。Theproductoflibertyofwill，religiousliberty，andpoliticallibertynot，observethis，tobeconfoundedwithcivillibertyistheFranceofto-day。WhatistheFranceof1840？Acountryoccupiedexclusivelywithmaterialinterests，——withoutpatriotism，withoutconscience；
wherepowerhasnovigor；whereelection，thefruitoflibertyofwillandpoliticalliberty，liftstothesurfacenonebutcommonplacemen；
wherebruteforcehasnowbecomeanecessityagainstpopularviolence；
wherediscussion，spreadingintoeverything，stiflestheactionoflegislativebodies；wheremoneyrulesallquestions；whereindividualism——thedreadfulproductofthedivisionofproperty/adinfinitum/——willsuppressthefamilyanddevourall，eventhenation，whichegoismwillsomedaydeliverovertoinvasion。Menwillsay，”WhynottheCzar？”justastheysaid，”WhynottheDucd’Orleans？”Wedon’tclingtomanythingsevennow；butfiftyyearshenceweshallclingtonothing。
Thus，accordingtoCatherinede’Mediciandaccordingtoallthosewhobelieveinawell-orderedsociety，in/socialman/，thesubjectcannothavelibertyofwill，oughtnotto/teach/thedogmaoflibertyofconscience，ordemandpoliticalliberty。But，asnosocietycanexistwithoutguaranteesgrantedtothesubjectagainstthesovereign，thereresultsforthesubject/liberties/subjecttorestriction。Liberty，no；liberties，yes，——preciseandwell-definedliberties。Thatisinharmonywiththenatureofthings。
Itis，assuredly，beyondthereachofhumanpowertopreventthelibertyofthought；andnosovereigncaninterferewithmoney。Thegreatstatesmenwhowerevanquishedinthelongstruggleitlastedfivecenturiesrecognizedtherightofsubjectstogreatliberties；
buttheydidnotadmittheirrighttopublishanti-socialthoughts，nordidtheyadmittheindefinitelibertyofthesubject。Tothemthewords”subject”and”liberty”weretermsthatcontradictedeachother；
justasthetheoryofcitizensbeingallequalconstitutesanabsurditywhichnaturecontradictsateverymoment。Torecognizethenecessityofareligion，thenecessityofauthority，andthentoleavetosubjectstherighttodenyreligion，attackitsworship，opposetheexerciseofpowerbypublicexpressioncommunicableandcommunicatedbythought，wasanimpossibilitywhichtheCatholicsofthesixteenthcenturywouldnothearof。
Alas！thevictoryofCalvinismwillcostFrancemoreinthefuturethanithasyetcosther；forreligioussectsandhumanitarian，equality-levellingpoliticsare，to-day，thetailofCalvinism；and，judgingbythemistakesofthepresentpower，itscontemptforintellect，itsloveformaterialinterests，inwhichitseeksthebasisofitssupportthoughmaterialinterestsarethemosttreacherousofallsupports，wemaypredictthatunlesssomeprovidenceintervenes，thegeniusofdestructionwillagaincarrythedayoverthegeniusofpreservation。Theassailants，whohavenothingtoloseandalltogain，understandeachotherthoroughly；whereastheirrichadversarieswillnotmakeanysacrificeeitherofmoneyorself-lovetodrawtothemselvessupporters。
TheartofprintingcametotheaidoftheoppositionbegunbytheVaudoisandtheAlbigenses。Assoonashumanthought，insteadofcondensingitself，asitwasformerlyforcedtodotoremainincommunicableform，tookonamultitudeofgarmentsandbecame，asitwere，thepeopleitself，insteadofremainingasortofaxiomaticdivinity，thereweretwomultitudestocombat，——themultitudeofideas，andthemultitudeofmen。Theroyalpowersuccumbedinthatwarfare，andwearenowassisting，inFrance，atitslastcombinationwithelementswhichrenderitsexistencedifficult，nottosayimpossible。Powerisaction，andtheelectiveprincipleisdiscussion。
Thereisnopolicy，nostatesmanshippossiblewherediscussionispermanent。
Thereforeweoughttorecognizethegrandeurofthewomanwhohadtheeyestoseethisfutureandfoughtitbravely。ThatthehouseofBourbonwasabletosucceedtothehouseofValois，thatitfoundacrownpreservedtoit，wasduesolelytoCatherinede’Medici。SupposethesecondBalafrehadlived？NomatterhowstrongtheBearnaiswas，itisdoubtfulwhetherhecouldhaveseizedthecrown，seeinghowdearlytheDucdeMayenneandtheremainsoftheGuisepartysoldittohim。ThemeansemployedbyCatherine，whocertainlyhadtoreproachherselfwiththedeathsofFrancoisII。andCharlesIX。，whoselivesmighthavebeensavedintime，werenever，itisobservable，madethesubjectofaccusationsbyeithertheCalvinistsormodernhistorians。
Thoughtherewasnopoisoning，assomegravewritershavesaid，therewasotherconductalmostascriminal；thereisnodoubtshehinderedParefromsavingone，andallowedtheothertoaccomplishhisowndoombymoralassassination。ButthesuddendeathofFrancoisII。，andthatofCharlesIX。，werenoinjurytotheCalvinists，andthereforethecausesofthesetwoeventsremainedintheirsecretsphere，andwereneversuspectedeitherbythewritersofthepeopleofthatday；theywerenotdivinedexceptbydeThou，l’Hopital，andmindsofthatcalibre，orbytheleadersofthetwopartieswhowerecovetingordefendingthethrone，andbelievedsuchmeansnecessarytotheirend。
Popularsongsattacked，strangelyenough，Catherine’smorals。EveryoneknowstheanecdoteofthesoldierwhowasroastingagooseinthecourtyardofthechateaudeToursduringtheconferencebetweenCatherineandHenriIV。，singing，ashedidso，asonginwhichthequeenwasgrosslyinsulted。HenriIV。drewhisswordtogooutandkilltheman；butCatherinestoppedhimandcontentedherselfwithcallingfromthewindowtoherinsulter:——”Eh！butitwasCatherinewhogaveyouthegoose。”
ThoughtheexecutionsatAmboisewereattributedtoCatherine，andthoughtheCalvinistsmadeherresponsibleforalltheinevitableevilsofthatstruggle，itwaswithherasitwas，later，withRobespierre，whoisstillwaitingtobejustlyjudged。Catherinewas，moreover，rightlypunishedforherpreferencefortheDucd’Anjou，towhoseintereststhetwoelderbrothersweresacrificed。HenriIII。，likeallspoiltchildren，endedinbecomingabsolutelyindifferenttohismother，andheplungedvoluntarilyintothelifeofdebaucherywhichmadeofhimwhathismotherhadmadeofCharlesIX。，ahusbandwithoutsons，akingwithoutheirs。UnhappilytheDucd’Alencon，Catherine’slastmalechild，hadalreadydied，anaturaldeath。
Thelastwordsofthegreatqueenwerelikeasummingupofherlifelongpolicy，whichwas，moreover，soplaininitscommon-sensethatallcabinetsareseenundersimilarcircumstancestoputitinpractice。”Enoughcutoff，myson，”shesaidwhenHenriIII。cametoherdeath-
bedtotellherthatthegreatenemyofthecrownwasdead，”/nowpiecetogether/。”
BywhichshemeantthatthethroneshouldatoncereconcileitselfwiththehouseofLorraineandmakeuseofit，astheonlymeansofpreventingevilresultsfromthehatredoftheGuises，——byholdingouttothemthehopeofsurroundingtheking。ButthepersistentcraftanddissimulationofthewomanandtheItalian，whichshehadneverfailedtoemploy，wasincompatiblewiththedebauchedlifeofherson。
Catherinede’Medicioncedead，thepolicyoftheValoisdiedalso。
Beforeundertakingtowritethehistoryofthemannersandmoralsofthisperiodinaction，theauthorofthisStudyhaspatientlyandminutelyexaminedtheprincipalreignsinthehistoryofFrance，thequarreloftheBurgundiansandtheArmagnacs，thatoftheGuisesandtheValois，eachofwhichcoversacentury。HisfirstintentionwastowriteapicturesquehistoryofFrance。Threewomen——IsabellaofBavaria，CatharineandMariede’Medici——holdanenormousplaceinit，theirswayreachingfromthefourteenthtotheseventeenthcentury，endinginLouisXIV。Ofthesethreequeens，Catherineisthefinerandmoreinteresting。Herswasvirilepower，dishonoredneitherbytheterribleamoursofIsabellanorbythose，evenmoreterrible，thoughlessknown，ofMariede’Medici。IsabellasummonedtheEnglishintoFranceagainstherson，andlovedherbrother-in-law，theDucd’Orleans。TherecordofMariede’Mediciisheavierstill。Neitherhadpoliticalgenius。
ItwasinthecourseofthesestudiesthatthewriteracquiredtheconvictionofCatherine’sgreatness；ashebecameinitiatedintotheconstantlyreneweddifficultiesofherposition，hesawwithwhatinjusticehistorians——allinfluencedbyProtestants——hadtreatedthisqueen。Outofthisconvictiongrewthethreesketcheswhichherefollow；inwhichsomeerroneousopinionsformeduponCatherine，alsouponthepersonswhosurroundedher，andontheeventsofhertime，arerefuted。IfthisbookisplacedamongthePhilosophicalStudies，itisbecauseitshowstheSpiritofaTime，andbecausewemayclearlyseeinittheinfluenceofthought。
Butbeforeenteringthepoliticalarena，whereCatherinewillbeseenfacingthetwogreatdifficultiesofhercareer，itisnecessarytogiveasuccinctaccountofherprecedinglife，fromthepointofviewofimpartialcriticism，inordertotakeinasmuchaspossibleofthisvastandregalexistenceuptothemomentwhenthefirstpartofthepresentStudybegins。
Neverwasthereanyperiod，inanyland，inanysovereignfamily，agreatercontemptforlegitimacythaninthefamoushouseoftheMedici。OnthesubjectofpowertheyheldthesamedoctrinenowprofessedbyRussia，namely:towhicheverheadthecrowngoes，heisthetrue，thelegitimatesovereign。Mirabeauhadreasontosay:”Therehasbeenbutonemesallianceinmyfamily，——thatoftheMedici”；forinspiteofthepaideffortsofgenealogists，itiscertainthattheMedici，beforeEverardode’Medici，/gonfaloniero/ofFlorencein1314，weresimpleFlorentinemerchantswhobecameveryrich。ThefirstpersonageinthisfamilywhooccupiesanimportantplaceinthehistoryofthefamousTuscanrepublicisSilvestrode’Medici，/gonfaloniero/in1378。ThisSilvestrohadtwosons，CosmoandLorenzode’Medici。
FromCosmoaredescendedLorenzotheMagnificent，theDucdeNemours，theDucd’Urbino，fatherofCatherine，PopeLeoX。，PopeClementVII。，andAlessandro，notDukeofFlorence，ashistorianscallhim，butDuke/dellacittadiPenna/，atitlegivenbyPopeClementVII。，asahalf-
waystationtothatofGrand-dukeofTuscany。
FromLorenzoaredescendedtheFlorentineBrutusLorenzino，whokilledAlessandro，Cosmo，thefirstgrand-duke，andallthesovereignsofTuscanytill1737，atwhichperiodthehousebecameextinct。
Butneitherofthetwobranches——thebranchCosmoandthebranchLorenzo——reignedthroughtheirdirectandlegitimatelinesuntilthecloseofthesixteenthcentury，whenthegrand-dukesofTuscanybegantosucceedeachotherpeacefully。Alessandrode’Medici，hetowhomthetitleofDuke/dellacittadiPenna/wasgiven，wasthesonoftheDuked’Urbino，Catherine’sfather，byaMoorishslave。ForthisreasonLorenzinoclaimedadoublerighttokillAlessandro，——asausurperinhishouse，aswellasanoppressorofthecity。SomehistoriansbelievethatAlessandrowasthesonofClementVII。ThefactthatledtotherecognitionofthisbastardaschiefoftherepublicandheadofthehouseoftheMediciwashismarriagewithMargaretofAustria，naturaldaughterofCharlesV。
Francescode’Medici，husbandofBiancaCapello，acceptedashissonachildofpoorparentsboughtbythecelebratedVenetian；and，strangetosay，Ferdinando，onsucceedingFrancesco，maintainedthesubstitutedchildinallhisrights。Thatchild，calledAntoniode’
Medici，wasconsideredduringfourreignsasbelongingtothefamily；
hewontheaffectionofeverybody，renderedimportantservicestothefamily，anddieduniversallyregretted。
NearlyallthefirstMedicihadnaturalchildren，whosecareerswereinvariablybrilliant。Forinstance，theCardinalGiuliode’Medici，afterwardsPopeunderthenameofClementVII。，wastheillegitimatesonofGiulianoI。CardinalIppolitode’Mediciwasalsoabastard，andcameverynearbeingPopeandtheheadofthefamily。
LorenzoII。，thefatherofCatherine，marriedin1518，forhissecondwife，MadeleinedelaTourdeBoulogne，inAuvergne，anddiedApril25，1519，afewdaysafterhiswife，whodiedingivingbirthtoCatherine。Catherinewasthereforeorphanedoffatherandmotherassoonasshedrewbreath。Hencethestrangeadventuresofherchildhood，mixedupastheywerewiththebloodyeffortsoftheFlorentines，thenseekingtorecovertheirlibertyfromtheMedici。
Thelatter，desirousofcontinuingtoreigninFlorence，behavedwithsuchcircumspectionthatLorenzo，Catherine’sfather，hadtakenthenameofDuked’Urbino。
AtLorenzo’sdeath，theheadofthehouseoftheMediciwasPopeLeoX。，whosenttheillegitimatesonofGiuliano，Giuliode’Medici，thencardinal，togovernFlorence。LeoX。wasgreat-uncletoCatherine，andthisCardinalGiulio，afterwardClementVII。，washerunclebythelefthand。
ItwasduringthesiegeofFlorence，undertakenbytheMedicitoforcetheirreturnthere，thattheRepublicanparty，notcontentwithhavingshutCatherine，thennineyearsold，intoaconvent，afterrobbingherofallherproperty，actuallyproposed，onthesuggestionofonenamedBatistaCei，toexposeherbetweentwobattlementsonthewallstotheartilleryoftheMedici。BernardoCastiglionewentfurtherinacouncilheldtodeterminehowmattersshouldbeended:hewasofopinionthat，sofarfromreturninghertothePopeasthelatterrequested，sheoughttobegiventothesoldiersfordishonor。Thiswillshowhowallpopularrevolutionsresembleeachother。Catherine’ssubsequentpolicy，whichupheldsofirmlytheroyalpower，maywellhavebeeninstigatedinpartbysuchscenes，ofwhichanItaliangirlofnineyearsofagewasassuredlynotignorant。
TheriseofAlessandrode’Medici，towhichthebastardPopeClementVII。powerfullycontributed，wasnodoubtchieflycausedbytheaffectionofCharlesV。forhisfamousillegitimatedaughterMargaret。
ThusPopeandemperorwerepromptedbythesamesentiment。AtthisepochVenicehadthecommerceoftheworld；Romehaditsmoralgovernment；Italystillreignedsupremethroughthepoets，thegenerals，thestatesmenborntoher。Atnoperiodoftheworld’shistory，inanyland，wasthereeverseensoremarkable，soabundantacollectionofmenofgenius。Thereweresomany，infact，thateventhelesserprincesweresuperiormen。Italywascrammedwithtalent，enterprise，knowledge，science，poesy，wealth，andgallantry，allthewhiletornbyintestinalwarfareandoverrunwithconquerorsstrugglingforpossessionofherfinestprovinces。Whenmenaresostrong，theydonotfeartoadmittheirweaknesses。Hence，nodoubt，thisgoldenageforbastards。Wemust，moreover，dotheillegitimatechildrenofthehouseoftheMedicithejusticetosaythattheywereardentlydevotedtotheglory，power，andincreaseofwealthofthatfamousfamily。Thusassoonasthe/DucadellacittadiPenna/，sonoftheMoorishwoman，wasinstalledastyrantofFlorence，heespousedtheinterestofPopeClementVII。，andgaveahometothedaughterofLorenzoII。，thenelevenyearsofage。
Whenwestudythemarchofeventsandthatofmeninthiscurioussixteenthcentury，weoughtnevertoforgetthatpublicpolicyhadforitselementaperpetualcraftinessandadissimulationwhichdestroyed，inallcharacters，thestraightforward，uprightbearingourimaginationsdemandofeminentpersonages。Inthis，aboveall，isCatherine’sabsolution。ItdisposesofthevulgarandfoolishaccusationsoftreacherylaunchedagainstherbythewritersoftheReformation。ThiswasthegreatageofthatstatesmanshipthecodeofwhichwaswrittenbyMacchiavelliaswellasbySpinosa，byHobbesaswellasbyMontesquieu，——forthedialoguebetweenSyllaandEucratescontainsMontesquieu’struethought，whichhisconnectionwiththeEncyclopedistsdidnotpermithimtodevelopotherwisethanashedid。
Theseprinciplesareto-daythesecretlawofallcabinetsinwhichplansfortheconquestandmaintenanceofgreatpowerarelaid。InFranceweblamedNapoleonwhenhemadeuseofthatItaliangeniusforcraftwhichwasbredinhisbone，——thoughinhiscaseitdidnotalwayssucceed。ButCharlesV。，Catherine，PhilipII。，andPopeJuliuswouldnothaveactedotherwisethanashedidintheaffairofSpain。
History，inthedayswhenCatherinewasborn，ifjudgedfromthepointofviewofhonesty，wouldseemanimpossibletale。CharlesV。，obligedtosustainCatholicismagainsttheattacksofLuther，whothreatenedtheThroneinthreateningtheTiara，allowedthesiegeofRomeandheldPopeClementVII。inprison！ThissameClement，whohadnobittererenemythanCharlesV。，courtedhiminordertomakeAlessandrode’MedicirulerofFlorence，andobtainedhisfavoritedaughterforthatbastard。NosoonerwasAlessandroestablishedthanhe，conjointlywithClementVII。，endeavoredtoinjureCharlesV。byallyinghimselfwithFrancoisI。，kingofFrance，bymeansofCatherinede’Medici；andbothofthempromisedtoassistFrancoisinreconqueringItaly。Lorenzinode’MedicimadehimselfthecompanionofAlessandro’sdebaucheriesfortheexpresspurposeoffindinganopportunitytokillhim。FilippoStrozzi，oneofthegreatmindsofthatday，heldthismurderinsuchrespectthathesworethathissonsshouldeachmarryadaughterofthemurderer；andeachsonreligiouslyfulfilledhisfather’soathwhentheymightallhavemade，underCatherine’sprotection，brilliantmarriages；foronewastherivalofDoria，theotheramarshalofFrance。Cosmode’Medici，successorofAlessandro，withwhomhehadnorelationship，avengedthedeathofthattyrantinthecruellestmanner，withapersistencylastingtwelveyears；duringwhichtimehishatredcontinuedkeenagainstthepersonswhohad，asamatteroffact，givenhimthepower。Hewaseighteenyearsoldwhencalledtothesovereignty；hisfirstactwastodeclaretherightsofAlessandro’slegitimatesonsnullandvoid，——allthewhileavengingtheirfather’sdeath！CharlesV。confirmedthedisinheritingofhisgrandsons，andrecognizedCosmoinsteadofthesonofAlessandroandhisdaughterMargaret。Cosmo，placedonthethronebyCardinalCibo，instantlyexiledthelatter；andthecardinalrevengedhimselfbyaccusingCosmowhowasthefirstgrand-dukeofmurderingAlessandro’sson。Cosmo，asjealousofhispowerasCharlesV。wasofhis，abdicatedinfavorofhissonFrancesco，aftercausingthedeathofhisotherson，Garcia，toavengethedeathofCardinalGiovannide’Medici，whomGarciahadassassinated。CosmotheFirstandhissonFrancesco，whooughttohavebeendevoted，bodyandsoul，tothehouseofFrance，theonlypoweronwhichtheymightreallyhaverelied，madethemselvesthelacqueysofCharlesV。andPhilipII。，andwereconsequentlythesecret，base，andperfidiousenemiesofCatherinede’Medici，oneofthegloriesoftheirhouse。
Suchweretheleadingcontradictoryandillogicaltraits，thetreachery，knavery，andblackintriguesofasinglehouse，thatoftheMedici。Fromthissketch，wemayjudgeoftheotherprincesofItalyandEurope。AlltheenvoysofCosmosI。tothecourtofFrancehad，intheirsecretinstructions，anordertopoisonStrozzi，Catherine’srelation，whenhearrived。CharlesV。hadalreadyassassinatedthreeoftheambassadorsofFrancoisI。
ItwasearlyinthemonthofOctober，1533，thatthe/DucadellacittadiPenna/startedfromFlorenceforLivorno，accompaniedbythesoleheiressofLorenzoII。，namely，Catherinede’Medici。ThedukeandthePrincessofFlorence，forthatwasthetitlebywhichtheyounggirl，thenfourteenyearsofage，wasknown，leftthecitysurroundedbyalargeretinueofservants，officers，andsecretaries，precededbyarmedmen，andfollowedbyanescortofcavalry。Theyoungprincessknewnothingasyetofwhatherfatewastobe，exceptthatthePopewastohaveaninterviewatLivornowiththeDukeAlessandro；butheruncle，FilippoStrozzi，verysooninformedherofthefuturebeforeher。
FilippoStrozzihadmarriedClaricede’Medici，half-sisteronthefather’ssideofLorenzode’Medici，DukeofUrbino，fatherofCatherine；butthismarriage，whichwasbroughtaboutasmuchtoconvertoneofthefirmestsupportersofthepopularpartytothecauseoftheMediciastofacilitatetherecallofthatfamily，thenbanishedfromFlorence，nevershookthesternchampionfromhiscourse，thoughhewaspersecutedbyhisownpartyformakingit。Inspiteofallapparentchangesinhisconductforthisalliancenaturallyaffecteditsomewhatheremainedfaithfultothepopularparty，anddeclaredhimselfopenlyagainsttheMediciassoonasheforesawtheirintentiontoenslaveFlorence。ThisgreatmanevenrefusedtheofferofaprincipalitymadetohimbyLeoX。
AtthetimeofwhichwearenowwritingFilippoStrozziwasavictimtothepolicyoftheMedici，sovacillatinginitsmeans，sofixedandinflexibleinitsobject。AftersharingthemisfortunesandthecaptivityofClementVII。whenthelatter，surprisedbytheColonna，tookrefugeintheCastleofSaint-Angelo，StrozziwasdeliveredupbyClementasahostageandtakentoNaples。AsthePope，whenhegothisliberty，turnedsavagelyonhisenemies，Strozzicameverynearlosinghislife，andwasforcedtopayanenormoussumtobereleasedfromaprisonwherehewascloselyconfined。Whenhefoundhimselfatlibertyhehad，withaninstinctofkindnessnaturaltoanhonestman，thesimplicitytopresenthimselfbeforeClementVII。，whohadperhapscongratulatedhimselfonbeingwellridofhim。ThePopehadsuchgoodcausetoblushforhisownconductthathereceivedStrozziextremelyill。
Strozzithusbegan，earlyinlife，hisapprenticeshipinthemisfortunesofanhonestmaninpolitics，——amanwhoseconsciencecannotlenditselftothecapriciousnessofevents；whoseactionsareacceptableonlytothevirtuous；andwhoisthereforepersecutedbytheworld，——bythepeople，foropposingtheirblindpassions；bypowerforopposingitsusurpations。Thelifeofsuchgreatcitizensisamartyrdom，inwhichtheyaresustainedonlybythevoiceoftheirconscienceandanheroicsenseofsocialduty，whichdictatestheircourseinallthings。ThereweremanysuchmenintherepublicofFlorence，allasgreatasStrozzi，andasableastheiradversariestheMedici，thoughvanquishedbythesuperiorcraftandwilinessofthelatter。WhatcouldbemoreworthyofadmirationthantheconductofthechiefofthePazziatthetimeoftheconspiracyofhishouse，when，hiscommercebeingatthattimeenormous，hesettledallhisaccountswithAsia，theLevant，andEuropebeforebeginningthatgreatattempt；sothat，ifitfailed，hiscorrespondentsshouldlosenothing。
ThehistoryoftheestablishmentofthehouseoftheMediciinthefourteenthandfifteenthcenturiesisamagnificenttalewhichstillremainstobewritten，thoughmenofgeniushavealreadyputtheirhandstoit。Itisnotthehistoryofarepublic，norofasociety，norofanyspecialcivilization；itisthehistoryofSTATESMEN，theeternalhistoryofPolitics，——thatofusurpers，thatofconquerors。
AssoonasFilippoStrozzireturnedtoFlorencehere-establishedtheprecedingformofgovernmentandoustedIppolitode’Medici，anotherbastard，andtheveryAlessandrowithwhom，atthelaterperiodofwhichwearenowwriting，hewastravellingtoLivorno。Havingcompletedthischangeofgovernment，hebecamealarmedattheevidentinconstancyofthepeopleofFlorence，and，fearingthevengeanceofClementVII。，hewenttoLyontosuperintendavasthouseofbusinessheownedthere，whichcorrespondedwithotherbanking-housesofhisowninVenice，Rome，France，andSpain。Herewefindastrangething。
ThesemenwhoboretheweightofpublicaffairsandofsuchastruggleasthatwiththeMedicinottospeakofcontentionswiththeirownpartyfoundtimeandstrengthtobeartheburdenofavastbusinessandallitsspeculations，alsoofbanksandtheircomplications，whichthemultiplicityofcoinagesandtheirfalsificationrenderedevenmoredifficultthanitisinourday。Thename”banker”comesfromthe/banc/Anglice，/bench/uponwhichthebankersat，andonwhichherangthegoldandsilverpiecestotrytheirquality。AfteratimeFilippofoundinthedeathofhiswife，whomheadored，apretextforrenewinghisrelationswiththeRepublicanparty，whosesecretpolicebecomesthemoreterribleinallrepublics，becauseeveryonemakeshimselfaspyinthenameofalibertywhichjustifieseverything。
FilipporeturnedtoFlorenceattheverymomentwhenthatcitywascompelledtoadopttheyokeofAlessandro；buthehadpreviouslygonetoRomeandseenPopeClementVII。，whoseaffairswerenowsoprosperousthathisdispositiontowardStrozziwasmuchchanged。InthehouroftriumphtheMediciweresomuchinneedofamanlikeFilippo——wereitonlytosmooththereturnofAlessandro——thatClementurgedhimtotakeaseatattheCouncilofthebastardwhowasabouttooppressthecity；andStrozziconsentedtoacceptthediplomaofasenator。
But，forthelasttwoyearsandmore，hehadseen，likeSenecaandBurrhus，thebeginningsoftyrannyinhisNero。Hefelthimself，atthemomentofwhichwewrite，anobjectofsomuchdistrustonthepartofthepeopleandsosuspectedbytheMediciwhomhewasconstantlyresisting，thathewasconfidentofsomeimpendingcatastrophe。Consequently，assoonasheheardfromAlessandroofthenegotiationforCatherine’smarriagewiththesonofFrancoisI。，thefinalarrangementsforwhichweretobemadeatLivorno，wherethenegotiatorshadappointedtomeet，heformedtheplanofgoingtoFrance，andattachinghimselftothefortunesofhisniece，whoneededaguardian。
Alessandro，delightedtoridhimselfofamansounaccommodatingintheaffairsofFlorence，furtheredaplanwhichrelievedhimofonemurderatleast，andadvisedStrozzitoputhimselfattheheadofCatherine’shousehold。InordertodazzletheeyesofFrancetheMedicihadselectedabrilliantsuiteforherwhomtheystyled，veryunwarrantably，thePrincessofFlorence，andwhoalsowentbythenameofthelittleDuchessd’Urbino。Thecortege，attheheadofwhichrodeAlessandro，Catherine，andStrozzi，wascomposedofmorethanathousandpersons，notincludingtheescortandservants。WhenthelastofitissuedfromthegatesofFlorencetheheadhadpassedthatfirstvillagebeyondthecitywheretheynowbraidtheTuscanstrawhats。ItwasbeginningtoberumoredamongthepeoplethatCatherinewastomarryasonofFrancoisI。；buttherumordidnotobtainmuchbeliefuntiltheTuscansbeheldwiththeirowneyesthistriumphalprocessionfromFlorencetoLivorno。
Catherineherself，judgingbyallthepreparationsshebeheld，begantosuspectthathermarriagewasinquestion，andherunclethenrevealedtoherthefactthatthefirstambitiousprojectofhishousehadaborted，andthatthehandofthedauphinhadbeenrefusedtoher。
AlessandrostillhopedthattheDukeofAlbanywouldsucceedinchangingthisdecisionofthekingofFrancewho，willingashewastobuythesupportoftheMediciinItaly，wouldonlygrantthemhissecondson，theDucd’Orleans。ThispettyblunderlostItalytoFrance，anddidnotpreventCatherinefrombecomingqueen。
TheDukeofAlbany，sonofAlexanderStuart，brotherofJamesIII。，kingofScotland，hadmarriedAnnedelaTourdeBoulogne，sisterofMadeleinedelaTourdeBoulogne，Catherine’smother；hewasthereforehermaternaluncle。ItwasthroughhermotherthatCatherinewassorichandalliedtosomanygreatfamilies；for，strangelyenough，herrival，DianedePoitiers，wasalsohercousin。JeandePoitiers，fatherofDiane，wassonofJeannedeBoulogne，auntoftheDuchessd’Urbino。CatherinewasalsoacousinofMaryStuart，herdaughter-in-
law。
Catherinenowlearnedthatherdowryinmoneywasahundredthousandducats。AducatwasagoldpieceofthesizeofanoldFrenchlouis，thoughlessthick。Theoldlouiswasworthtwenty-fourfrancs——thepresentoneisworthtwenty。TheComtesofAuvergneandLauraguaiswerealsomadeapartofthedowry，andPopeClementaddedonehundredthousandducatsinjewels，preciousstones，andotherweddinggifts；
towhichAlessandrolikewisecontributedhisshare。
OnarrivingatLivorno，Catherine，stillsoyoung，musthavebeenflatteredbytheextrememagnificencedisplayedbyPopeClement”heruncleinNotre-Dame，”thenheadofthehouseoftheMedici，inordertooutdothecourtofFrance。HehadalreadyarrivedatLivornoinoneofhisgalleys，whichwaslinedwithcrimsonsatinfringedwithgold，andcoveredwithatent-likeawninginclothofgold。Thisgalley，thedecorationofwhichcosttwentythousandducats，containedseveralapartmentsdestinedforthebrideofHenriofFrance，allofwhichwerefurnishedwiththerichesttreasuresofarttheMedicicouldcollect。Therowers，magnificentlyapparelled，andthecrewwereunderthecommandofaprioroftheorderoftheKnightsofRhodes。ThehouseholdofthePopewereinthreeothergalleys。ThegalleysoftheDukeofAlbany，anchorednearthoseofClementVII。，addedtothesizeanddignityoftheflotilla。
DukeAlessandropresentedtheofficersofCatherine’shouseholdtothePope，withwhomhehadasecretconference，inwhich，itwouldappear，hepresentedtohisHolinessCountSebastianoMontecuculi，whohadjustleft，somewhatabruptly，theserviceofCharlesV。andthatofhistwogenerals，AntoniodiLeyvaandFerdinandodiGonzago。Wastherebetweenthetwobastards，GiulioandAlessandro，apremeditatedintentionofmakingtheDucd’Orleansdauphin？WhatrewardwaspromisedtoSebastianoMontecuculi，who，beforeenteringtheserviceofCharlesV。hadstudiedmedicine？Historyissilentonthatpoint。
Weshallseepresentlywhatcloudshangroundthatfact。Theobscurityissogreatthat，quiterecently，graveandconscientioushistorianshaveadmittedMontecuculi’sinnocence。
CatherinethenheardofficiallyfromthePope’sownlipsofthealliancereservedforher。TheDukeofAlbanyhadbeenabletodonomorethanholdthekingofFrance，andthatwithdifficulty，tohispromiseofgivingCatherinethehandofhissecondson，theDucd’Orleans。ThePope’simpatiencewassogreat，andhewassoafraidthathisplanswouldbethwartedeitherbysomeintrigueoftheemperor，orbytherefusalofFrance，orbythegrandeesofthekingdomlookingwithevileyeuponthemarriage，thathegaveorderstoembarkatonce，andsailedforMarseille，wherehearrivedtowardtheendofOctober，1533。
Notwithstandingitswealth，thehouseoftheMediciwaseclipsedonthisoccasionbythecourtofFrance。ToshowthelengthstowhichtheMedicipushedtheirmagnificence，itisenoughtosaythatthe”dozen”
putintothebride’spursebythePopeweretwelvegoldmedalsofpricelesshistoricalvalue，whichwerethenunique。ButFrancoisI。，wholovedthedisplayoffestivals，distinguishedhimselfonthisoccasion。TheweddingfestivitiesofHenrideValoisandCatherinede’
Medicilastedthirty-fourdays。
Itisuselesstorepeatthedetails，whichhavebeengiveninallthehistoriesofProvenceandMarseille，astothiscelebratedinterviewbetweenthePopeandthekingofFrance，whichwasopenedbyajestoftheDukeofAlbanyastothedutyofkeepingfasts，——ajestmentionedbyBrantomeandmuchenjoyedbythecourt，whichshowsthetoneofthemannersofthatday。
ManyconjectureshavebeenmadeastoCatherine’sbarrenness，whichlastedtenyears。Strangecalumniesstillrestuponthisqueen，allofwhoseactionswerefatedtobemisjudged。ItissufficienttosaythatthecausewassolelyinHenriII。Afterthedifficultywasremoved，Catherinehadtenchildren。Thedelaywas，inonerespect，fortunateforFrance。IfHenriII。hadhadchildrenbyDianedePoitiersthepoliticsofthekingdomwouldhavebeendangerouslycomplicated。WhenthedifficultywasremovedtheDuchessedeValentinoishadreachedtheperiodofawoman’ssecondyouth。ThismatteralonewillshowthatthetruelifeofCatherinede’Mediciisstilltobewritten，andalso——asNapoleonsaidwithprofoundwisdom——thatthehistoryofFranceshouldbeeitherinonevolumeonly，oronethousand。
HereisacontemporaneousandsuccinctaccountofthemeetingofClementVII。andthekingofFrance:”HisHolinessthePope，havingbeenconductedtothepalace，whichwas，asIhavesaid，preparedbeyondtheport，everyoneretiredtotheirownquarterstillthemorrow，whenhisHolinesswastomakehisentry；thewhichwasmadewithgreatsumptuousnessandmagnificence，hebeingseatedinachaircarriedontheshouldersoftwomenandwearinghispontificalrobes，butnotthetiara。
Pacingbeforehimwasawhitehackney，bearingthesacramentofthealtar，——thesaidhackneybeingledbyreinsofwhitesilkheldbytwofootmenfinelyequipped。Nextcameallthecardinalsintheirrobes，onpontificalmules，andMadamelaDuchessed’Urbinoingreatmagnificence，accompaniedbyavastnumberofladiesandgentlemen，bothFrenchandItalian。”TheHolyFatherhavingarrivedinthemidstofthiscompanyattheplaceappointedforhislodging，everyoneretired；andallthis，beingwell-ordered，tookplacewithoutdisorderortumult。
WhilethePopewasthusmakinghisentry，thekingcrossedthewaterinafrigateandwenttothelodgingthePopehadjustquitted，inordertogothenextdayandmakeobeisancetotheHolyFatherasaMostChristianking。”ThenextdaythekingbeingpreparedsetforthforthepalacewherewasthePope，accompaniedbytheprincesoftheblood，suchasMonseigneurleDucdeVendomoisfatheroftheVidamedeChartres，theComtedeSainct-Pol，MessieursdeMontpensierandlaRoche-sur-Yon，theDucdeNemoursbrotheroftheDucdeSavoiewhodiedinthissaidplace，theDukeofAlbany，andmanyothers，whethercounts，barons，orseigneurs；nearesttothekingwastheSeigneurdeMontmorency，hisGrand-master。”Theking，beingarrivedatthepalace，wasreceivedbythePopeandallthecollegeofcardinals，assembledinconsistory，mostcivilly。Thisdone，eachretiredtotheplaceordainedforhim，thekingtakingwithhimseveralcardinalstofeastthem，——amongthemCardinalde’Medici，nephewofthePope，averysplendidmanwithafineretinue。”OnthemorrowthosepersonschosenbyhisHolinessandbythekingbegantoassembletodiscussthemattersforwhichthemeetingwasmade。First，thematteroftheFaithwastreatedof，andabullwasputforthrepressingheresyandpreventingthatthingscometogreatercombustionthantheynoware。”AfterthiswasconcludedthemarriageoftheDucd’Orleans，secondsonoftheking，withCatherinede’Medici，Duchessed’Urbino，nieceofhisHoliness，undertheconditionssuch，orliketothose，aswereproposedformerlybytheDukeofAlbany。
Thesaidespousalswerecelebratedwithgreatmagnificence，andourHolyFatherhimselfweddedthepair。Themarriagethusconsummated，theHolyFatherheldaconsistoryatwhichhecreatedfourcardinalsanddevotedthemtotheking，——towit:CardinalLeVeneur，formerlybishopofLisieuxandgrandalmoner；theCardinaldeBoulogneofthefamilyoflaChambre，brotheronthemother’ssideoftheDukeofAlbany；theCardinaldeChatillonofthehouseofColigny，nephewoftheSiredeMontmorency，andtheCardinaldeGivry。”
WhenStrozzideliveredthedowryinpresenceofthecourthenoticedsomesurpriseonthepartoftheFrenchseigneurs；theyevensaidaloudthatitwaslittleenoughforsuchamesalliancewhatwouldtheyhavesaidinthesedays？。CardinalIppolitoreplied，saying:——”Youmustbeill-informedastothesecretsofyourking。HisHolinesshasboundhimselftogivetoFrancethreepearlsofinestimablevalue，namely:Genoa，Milan，andNaples。”
ThePopeleftSebastianoMontecuculitopresenthimselftothecourtofFrance，towhichthecountofferedhisservices，complainingofhistreatmentbyAntoniodiLeyvaandFerdinandodiGonzago，forwhichreasonhisserviceswereaccepted。MontecuculiwasnotmadeapartofCatherine’shousehold，whichwaswhollycomposedofFrenchmenandwomen，for，byalawofthemonarchy，theexecutionofwhichthePopesawwithgreatsatisfaction，Catherinewasnaturalizedbyletters-
patentasaFrenchwomanbeforethemarriage。Montecuculiwasappointedinthefirstinstancetothehouseholdofthequeen，thesisterofCharlesV。Afterawhilehepassedintotheserviceofthedauphinascup-bearer。
ThenewDuchessed’OrleanssoonfoundherselfanullityatthecourtofFrancoisI。HeryounghusbandwasinlovewithDianedePoitiers，whocertainly，inthematterofbirth，couldrivalCatherine，andwasfarmoreofagreatladythanthelittleFlorentine。ThedaughteroftheMediciwasalsooutdonebyQueenEleonore，sisterofCharlesV。，andbyMadamed’Etampes，whosemarriagewiththeheadofthehouseofBrossemadeheroneofthemostpowerfulandbesttitledwomeninFrance。Catherine’saunttheDuchessofAlbany，theQueenofNavarre，theDuchessedeGuise，theDuchessedeVendome，MadamelaConnetabledeMontmorency，andotherwomenoflikeimportance，eclipsedbybirthandbytheirrights，aswellasbytheirpoweratthemostsumptuouscourtofFrancenotexceptingthatofLouisXIV。，thedaughteroftheFlorentinegrocers，whowasricherandmoreillustriousthroughthehouseoftheTourdeBoulognethanbyherownfamilyofMedici。
ThepositionofhisniecewassobadanddifficultthattherepublicanFilippoStrozzi，whollyincapableofguidingherinthemidstofsuchconflictinginterests，leftherafterthefirstyear，beingrecalledtoItalybythedeathofClementVII。Catherine’sconduct，whenwerememberthatshewasscarcelyfifteenyearsold，wasamodelofprudence。Sheattachedherselfcloselytotheking，herfather-in-law；
shelefthimaslittleasshecould，followinghimonhorsebackbothinhuntingandinwar。HeridolatryforFrancoisI。savedthehouseoftheMedicifromallsuspicionwhenthedauphinwaspoisoned。Catherinewasthen，andsowasherhusband，attheheadquartersofthekinginProvence；forCharlesV。hadspeedilyinvadedFranceandthelatesceneofthemarriagefestivitieshadbecomethetheatreofacruelwar。
AtthemomentwhenCharlesV。wasputtoflight，leavingthebonesofhisarmyinProvence，thedauphinwasreturningtoLyonbytheRhone。
HestoppedtosleepatTournon，and，bywayofpastime，practisedsomeviolentphysicalexercises，——whichwerenearlyalltheeducationhisbrotherandhe，inconsequenceoftheirdetentionashostages，hadeverreceived。Theprincehadtheimprudence——itbeingthemonthofAugust，andtheweatherveryhot——toaskforaglassofwater，whichMontecuculi，ashiscup-bearer，gavetohim，withiceinit。Thedauphindiedalmostimmediately。FrancoisI。adoredhisson。Thedauphinwas，accordingtoallaccounts，acharmingyoungman。Hisfather，indespair，gavetheutmostpublicitytotheproceedingsagainstMontecuculi，whichheplacedinthehandsofthemostablemagistratesofthatday。Thecount，afterheroicallyenduringthefirsttortureswithoutconfessinganything，finallymadeadmissionsbywhichheimplicatedCharlesV。andhistwogenerals，AntoniodiLeyvaandFerdinandodiGonzago。Noaffairwasevermoresolemnlydebated。
Hereiswhatthekingdid，inthewordsofanocularwitness:——”ThekingcalledanassemblyatLyonofalltheprincesofhisblood，alltheknightsofhisorder，andothergreatpersonagesofthekingdom；alsothelegalandpapalnuncio，thecardinalswhowereathiscourt，togetherwiththeambassadorsofEngland，Scotland，Portugal，Venice，Ferrara，andothers；alsoalltheprincesandnoblestrangers，bothItalianandGerman，whowerethenresidingathiscourtingreatnumbers。Theseallbeingassembled，hecausedtobereadtothem，inpresenceofeachother，frombeginningtoend，thetrialoftheunhappymanwhopoisonedMonseigneurthelatedauphin，——withalltheinterrogatories，confessions，confrontings，andotherceremoniesusualincriminaltrials；he，theking，notbeingwillingthatthesentenceshouldbeexecuteduntilallpresenthadgiventheiropiniononthisheinousandmiserablecase。”
Thefidelity，devotion，andcautiousskilloftheComtedeMontecuculimayseemextraordinaryinourtime，whenalltheworld，evenministersofState，telleverythingabouttheleastlittleeventwithwhichtheyhavetodo；butinthosedaysprincescouldfinddevotedservants，orknewhowtochoosethem。MonarchicalMoreysexistedbecauseinthosedaystherewas/faith/。Neveraskdevotionof/self-interest/，becausesuchinterestmaychange；butexpectallfromsentiments，religiousfaith，monarchicalfaith，patrioticfaith。ThosethreebeliefsproducedsuchmenastheBerthereausofGeneva，theSydneysandStraffordsofEngland，themurderersofThomasaBecket，theJacquesCoeurs，theJeanned’Arcs，theRichelieus，Dantons，Bonchamps，Talmonts，andalsotheClements，Chabots，andothers。
Thedauphinwaspoisonedinthesamemanner，andpossiblybythesamedrugwhichafterwardsservedMADAMEunderLouisXIV。PopeClementVII。
hadbeendeadtwoyears；DukeAlessandro，plungedindebauchery，seemedtohavenointerestintheelevationoftheDucd’Orleans；
Catherine，thenseventeen，andfullofadmirationforherfather-in-
law，waswithhimatthetime；CharlesV。aloneappearedtohaveaninterestinhisdeath，forFrancoisI。wasnegotiatingforhissonanalliancewhichwouldassuredlyhaveaggrandizedFrance。Thecount’sconfessionwasthereforeveryskilfullybasedonthepassionsandpoliticsofthemoment；CharlesV。wasthenflyingfromFrance，leavinghisarmiesburiedinProvencewithhishappiness，hisreputation，andhishopesofdominion。Itistoberemarkedthatiftorturehadforcedadmissionsfromaninnocentman，FrancoisI。gaveMontecuculifulllibertytospeakinpresenceofanimposingassembly，andbeforepersonsinwhoseeyesinnocencehadsomechancetotriumph。
Theking，whowantedthetruth，soughtitingoodfaith。
Inspiteofhernowbrilliantfuture，Catherine’ssituationatcourtwasnotchangedbythedeathofthedauphin。Herbarrennessgavereasontofearadivorceincaseherhusbandshouldascendthethrone。
ThedauphinwasunderthespellofDianedePoitiers，whoassumedtorivalMadamed’Etampes，theking’smistress。Catherineredoubledincareandcajoleryofherfather-in-law，beingwellawarethathersolesupportwasinhim。ThefirsttenyearsofCatherine’smarriedlifewereyearsofever-renewedgrief，causedbythefailure，onebyone，ofherhopesofpregnancy，andthevexationsofherrivalrywithDiane。Imaginewhatmusthavebeenthelifeofayoungprincess，watchedbyajealousmistresswhowassupportedbyapowerfulparty，——
theCatholicparty，——andbythetwopowerfulalliancesDianehadmadeinmarryingonedaughtertoRobertdelaMark，DucdeBouillon，PrinceofSedan，andtheothertoClaudedeLorraine，Ducd’Aumale。
Catherine，helplessbetweenthepartyofMadamed’EtampesandthepartyoftheSenechalesuchwasDiane’stitleduringthereignofFrancoisI。，whichdividedthecourtandpoliticsintofactionsforthesemortalenemies，endeavoredtomakeherselfthefriendofbothDianedePoitiersandMadamed’Etampes。She，whowasdestinedtobecomesogreataqueen，playedthepartofaservant。Thussheservedherapprenticeshipinthatdouble-facedpolicywhichwaseverthesecretmotorofherlife。Later，the/queen/wastostandbetweenCatholicsandCalvinists，justasthe/woman/hadstoodfortenyearsbetweenMadamed’EtampesandMadamedePoitiers。ShestudiedthecontradictionsofFrenchpolitics；shesawFrancoisI。sustainingCalvinandtheLutheransinordertoembarrassCharlesV。，andthen，aftersecretlyandpatientlyprotectingtheReformationinGermany，andtoleratingtheresidenceofCalvinatthecourtofNavarre，hesuddenlyturnedagainstitwithexcessiverigor。Catherinebeheldontheonehandthecourt，andthewomenofthecourt，playingwiththefireofheresy，andontheother，DianeattheheadoftheCatholicpartywiththeGuises，solelybecausetheDuchessed’EtampessupportedCalvinandtheProtestants。
Suchwasthepoliticaleducationofthisqueen，whosawinthecabinetofthekingofFrancethesameerrorscommittedasinthehouseoftheMedici。Thedauphinopposedhisfatherineverything；hewasabadson。Heforgotthecruelbutmostvitalmaximofroyalty，namely，thatthronesneedsolidarity；andthatasonwhocreatesoppositionduringthelifetimeofhisfathermustfollowthatfather’spolicywhenhemountsthethrone。Spinosa，whowasasgreatastatesmanashewasaphilosopher，said——inthecaseofonekingsucceedinganotherbyinsurrectionorcrime，——”Ifthenewkingdesirestosecurethesafetyofhisthroneandofhisownlifehemustshowsuchardorinavengingthedeathofhispredecessorthatnooneshallfeeladesiretocommitthesamecrime。Buttoavengeit/worthily/itisnotenoughtoshedthebloodofhissubjects，hemustapprovetheaxiomsofthekinghereplaces，andtakethesamecourseingoverning。”
ItwastheapplicationofthismaximwhichgaveFlorencetotheMedici。CosmoI。causedtobeassassinatedatVenice，afterelevenyears’sway，theFlorentineBrutus，and，aswehavealreadysaid，persecutedtheStrozzi。ItwasforgetfulnessofthismaximwhichruinedLouisXVI。Thatkingwasfalsetoeveryprincipleofroyalgovernmentwhenhere-establishedtheparliamentssuppressedbyhisgrandfather。LouisXV。sawthematterclearly。Theparliaments，andnotablythatofParis，countedforfullyhalfinthetroubleswhichnecessitatedtheconvocationoftheStates-general。ThefaultofLouisXV。was，thatinbreakingdownthatbarrierwhichseparatedthethronefromthepeoplehedidnoterectastronger；inotherwords，thathedidnotsubstituteforparliamentastrongconstitutionoftheprovinces。Therelaytheremedyfortheevilsofthemonarchy；thenceshouldhavecomethevotingontaxes，theregulationofthem，andaslowapprovalofreformsthatwerenecessarytothesystemofmonarchy。
ThefirstactofHenriII。wastogivehisconfidencetotheConnetabledeMontmorency，whomhisfatherhadenjoinedhimtoleaveindisgrace。TheConnetabledeMontmorencywas，withDianedePoitiers，towhomhewascloselybound，themasteroftheState。
CatherinewasthereforelesshappyandlesspowerfulaftershebecamequeenofFrancethanwhileshewasdauphiness。From1543shehadachildeveryyearfortenyears，andwasoccupiedwithmaternalcaresduringtheperiodcoveredbythelastthreeyearsofthereignofFrancoisI。andnearlythewholeofthereignofHenriII。Wemayseeinthisrecurringfecunditytheinfluenceofarival，whowasablethustoridherselfofthelegitimatewife，——abarbarityoffemininepolicywhichmusthavebeenoneofCatherine’sgrievancesagainstDiane。