Preface
　　ThepresentistheonlycollectededitionoftheprincipalworksofSchillerwhichisaccessibletoEnglishreaders。Detachedpoemsordramashavebeentranslatedatvarioustimes，andsometimesbymenofeminence，sincethefirstpublicationoftheoriginalworks；
　　andinseveralinstancestheseversionshavebeenincorporated，aftersomerevisionornecessarycorrection，intothefollowingcollection；
　　butontheotherhandalargeproportionofthecontentshavebeenspeciallytranslatedforthisedition，inwhichcategoryarethehistoricalworkswhichoccupythisvolumeandaportionofthenext。
　　Schillerwasnotlessefficientlyqualifiedbynatureforanhistorianthanforadramatist。Hewasformedtoexcelinalldepartmentsofliterature，andtheadmirablelucidityofstyleandsoundnessandimpartialityofjudgmentdisplayedinhishistoricalwritingswillnoteasilybysurpassed，andwillalwaysrecommendthemaspopularexpositionsoftheperiodsofwhichtheytreat。
　　Sincethefirstpublicationofthiseditionmanycorrectionsandimprovementshavebeenmade，withaviewtorenderingitasacceptableaspossibletoEnglishreaders。
　　HistoryoftheThirtyYears’WarinGermany。
　　BookI。
　　FromthebeginningofthereligiouswarsinGermany，tothepeaceofMunster，scarcelyanythinggreatorremarkableoccurredinthepoliticalworldofEuropeinwhichtheReformationhadnotanimportantshare。
　　Alltheeventsofthisperiod，iftheydidnotoriginatein，soonbecamemixedupwith，thequestionofreligion，andnostatewaseithertoogreatortoolittletofeeldirectlyorindirectlymoreorlessofitsinfluence。
　　Againstthereformeddoctrineanditsadherents，theHouseofAustriadirected，almostexclusively，thewholeofitsimmensepoliticalpower。
　　InFrance，theReformationhadenkindledacivilwarwhich，underfourstormyreigns，shookthekingdomtoitsfoundations，broughtforeignarmiesintotheheartofthecountry，andforhalfacenturyrendereditthesceneofthemostmournfuldisorders。
　　ItwastheReformation，too，thatrenderedtheSpanishyokeintolerabletotheFlemings，andawakenedinthemboththedesireandthecouragetothrowoffitsfetters，whileitalsoprincipallyfurnishedthemwiththemeansoftheiremancipation。AndastoEngland，alltheevilswithwhichPhiliptheSecondthreatenedElizabeth，weremainlyintendedinrevengeforherhavingtakenhisProtestantsubjectsunderherprotection，andplacingherselfattheheadofareligiouspartywhichitwashisaimandendeavourtoextirpate。InGermany，theschismsinthechurchproducedalsoalastingpoliticalschism，whichmadethatcountryformorethanacenturythetheatreofconfusion，butatthesametimethrewupafirmbarrieragainstpoliticaloppression。Itwas，too，theReformationprincipallythatfirstdrewthenorthernpowers，DenmarkandSweden，intothepoliticalsystemofEurope；andwhileontheonehandtheProtestantLeaguewasstrengthenedbytheiradhesion，itontheotherwasindispensabletotheirinterests。Stateswhichhithertoscarcelyconcernedthemselveswithoneanother’sexistence，acquiredthroughtheReformationanattractivecentreofinterest，andbegantobeunitedbynewpoliticalsympathies。Andasthroughitsinfluencenewrelationssprangupbetweencitizenandcitizen，andbetweenrulersandsubjects，soalsoentirestateswereforcedbyitintonewrelativepositions。Thus，byastrangecourseofevents，religiousdisputeswerethemeansofcementingacloserunionamongthenationsofEurope。
　　Fearfulindeed，anddestructive，wasthefirstmovementinwhichthisgeneralpoliticalsympathyannounceditself；adesolatingwarofthirtyyears，which，fromtheinteriorofBohemiatothemouthoftheScheldt，andfromthebanksofthePotothecoastsoftheBaltic，devastatedwholecountries，destroyedharvests，andreducedtownsandvillagestoashes；whichopenedagraveformanythousandcombatants，andforhalfacenturysmotheredtheglimmeringsparksofcivilizationinGermany，andthrewbacktheimprovingmannersofthecountryintotheirpristinebarbarityandwildness。YetoutofthisfearfulwarEuropecameforthfreeandindependent。Initshefirstlearnedtorecognizeherselfasacommunityofnations；andthisintercommunionofstates，whichoriginatedinthethirtyyears’war，mayalonebesufficienttoreconcilethephilosophertoitshorrors。Thehandofindustryhasslowlybutgraduallyeffacedthetracesofitsravages，whileitsbeneficentinfluencestillsurvives；andthisgeneralsympathyamongthestatesofEurope，whichgrewoutofthetroublesinBohemia，isourguaranteeforthecontinuanceofthatpeacewhichwastheresultofthewar。AsthesparksofdestructionfoundtheirwayfromtheinteriorofBohemia，Moravia，andAustria，tokindleGermany，France，andthehalfofEurope，soalsowillthetorchofcivilizationmakeapathforitselffromthelattertoenlightentheformercountries。
　　Allthiswaseffectedbyreligion。Religionalonecouldhaverenderedpossibleallthatwasaccomplished，butitwasfarfrombeingtheSOLEmotiveofthewar。Hadnotprivateadvantagesandstateinterestsbeencloselyconnectedwithit，vainandpowerlesswouldhavebeentheargumentsoftheologians；andthecryofthepeoplewouldneverhavemetwithprincessowillingtoespousetheircause，northenewdoctrineshavefoundsuchnumerous，brave，andperseveringchampions。TheReformationisundoubtedlyowinginagreatmeasuretotheinvinciblepoweroftruth，orofopinionswhichwereheldassuch。Theabusesintheoldchurch，theabsurdityofmanyofitsdogmas，theextravaganceofitsrequisitions，necessarilyrevoltedthetempersofmen，alreadyhalf-wonwiththepromiseofabetterlight，andfavourablydisposedthemtowardsthenewdoctrines。
　　Thecharmofindependence，therichplunderofmonasticinstitutions，madetheReformationattractiveintheeyesofprinces，andtendednotalittletostrengthentheirinwardconvictions。Nothing，however，butpoliticalconsiderationscouldhavedriventhemtoespouseit。
　　HadnotCharlestheFifth，intheintoxicationofsuccess，madeanattemptontheindependenceoftheGermanStates，aProtestantleaguewouldscarcelyhaverushedtoarmsindefenceoffreedomofbelief；
　　butfortheambitionoftheGuises，theCalvinistsinFrancewouldneverhavebeheldaCondeoraColignyattheirhead。
　　Withouttheexactionofthetenthandthetwentiethpenny，theSeeofRomehadneverlosttheUnitedNetherlands。Princesfoughtinself-defenceorforaggrandizement，whilereligiousenthusiasmrecruitedtheirarmies，andopenedtothemthetreasuresoftheirsubjects。Ofthemultitudewhoflockedtotheirstandards，suchaswerenotluredbythehopeofplunderimaginedtheywerefightingforthetruth，whileinfacttheyweresheddingtheirbloodforthepersonalobjectsoftheirprinces。
　　Andwellwasitforthepeoplethat，onthisoccasion，theirinterestscoincidedwiththoseoftheirprinces。Tothiscoincidencealoneweretheyindebtedfortheirdeliverancefrompopery。Wellwasitalsofortherulers，thatthesubjectcontendedtooforhisowncause，whilehewasfightingtheirbattles。FortunatelyatthisdatenoEuropeansovereignwassoabsoluteastobeable，inthepursuitofhispoliticaldesigns，todispensewiththegoodwillofhissubjects。
　　Yethowdifficultwasittogainandtosettoworkthisgoodwill！
　　Themostimpressiveargumentsdrawnfromreasonsofstatefallpowerlessontheearofthesubject，whoseldomunderstands，andstillmorerarelyisinterestedinthem。Insuchcircumstances，theonlycourseopentoaprudentprinceistoconnecttheinterestsofthecabinetwithsomeonethatsitsnearertothepeople’sheart，ifsuchexists，orifnot，tocreateit。
　　InsuchapositionstoodthegreaterpartofthoseprinceswhoembracedthecauseoftheReformation。Byastrangeconcatenationofevents，thedivisionsoftheChurchwereassociatedwithtwocircumstances，withoutwhich，inallprobability，theywouldhavehadaverydifferentconclusion。Thesewere，theincreasingpoweroftheHouseofAustria，whichthreatenedthelibertiesofEurope，anditsactivezealfortheoldreligion。Thefirstarousedtheprinces，whilethesecondarmedthepeople。
　　Theabolitionofaforeignjurisdictionwithintheirownterritories，thesupremacyinecclesiasticalmatters，thestoppingofthetreasurewhichhadsolongflowedtoRome，therichplunderofreligiousfoundations，weretemptingadvantagestoeverysovereign。Why，then，itmaybeasked，didtheynotoperatewithequalforceupontheprincesoftheHouseofAustria？Whatpreventedthishouse，particularlyinitsGermanbranch，fromyieldingtothepressingdemandsofsomanyofitssubjects，and，aftertheexampleofotherprinces，enrichingitselfattheexpenseofadefencelessclergy？ItisdifficulttocreditthatabeliefintheinfallibilityoftheRomishChurchhadanygreaterinfluenceonthepiousadherenceofthishouse，thantheoppositeconvictionhadontherevoltoftheProtestantprinces。Infact，severalcircumstancescombinedtomaketheAustrianprinceszealoussupportersofpopery。
　　SpainandItaly，fromwhichAustriaderiveditsprincipalstrength，werestilldevotedtotheSeeofRomewiththatblindobediencewhich，eversincethedaysoftheGothicdynasty，hadbeenthepeculiarcharacteristicoftheSpaniard。Theslightestapproximation，inaSpanishprince，totheobnoxioustenetsofLutherandCalvin，wouldhavealienatedforevertheaffectionsofhissubjects，andadefectionfromthePopewouldhavecosthimthekingdom。
　　ASpanishprincehadnoalternativebutorthodoxyorabdication。
　　ThesamerestraintwasimposeduponAustriabyherItaliandominions，whichshewasobligedtotreat，ifpossible，withevengreaterindulgence；
　　impatientastheynaturallywereofaforeignyoke，andpossessingalsoreadymeansofshakingitoff。Inregardtothelatterprovinces，moreover，therivalpretensionsofFrance，andtheneighbourhoodofthePope，weremotivessufficienttopreventtheEmperorfromdeclaringinfavourofapartywhichstrovetoannihilatethepapalsee，andalsotoinducehimtoshowthemostactivezealinbehalfoftheoldreligion。
　　Thesegeneralconsiderations，whichmusthavebeenequallyweightywitheverySpanishmonarch，were，intheparticularcaseofCharlesV。，stillfurtherenforcedbypeculiarandpersonalmotives。
　　InItalythismonarchhadaformidablerivalintheKingofFrance，underwhoseprotectionthatcountrymightthrowitselftheinstantthatCharlesshouldincurtheslightestsuspicionofheresy。
　　DistrustonthepartoftheRomanCatholics，andarupturewiththechurch，wouldhavebeenfatalalsotomanyofhismostcherisheddesigns。
　　Moreover，whenCharleswasfirstcalledupontomakehiselectionbetweenthetwoparties，thenewdoctrinehadnotyetattainedtoafullandcommandinginfluence，andtherestillsubsistedaprospectofitsreconciliationwiththeold。Inhissonandsuccessor，PhiliptheSecond，amonasticeducationcombinedwithagloomyanddespoticdispositiontogenerateanunmitigatedhostilitytoallinnovationsinreligion；afeelingwhichthethoughtthathismostformidablepoliticalopponentswerealsotheenemiesofhisfaithwasnotcalculatedtoweaken。AshisEuropeanpossessions，scatteredastheywereoversomanycountries，wereonallsidesexposedtotheseductionsofforeignopinions，theprogressoftheReformationinotherquarterscouldnotwellbeamatterofindifferencetohim。
　　Hisimmediateinterests，therefore，urgedhimtoattachhimselfdevotedlytotheoldchurch，inordertocloseupthesourcesofthehereticalcontagion。
　　Thus，circumstancesnaturallyplacedthisprinceattheheadoftheleaguewhichtheRomanCatholicsformedagainsttheReformers。
　　TheprincipleswhichhadactuatedthelongandactivereignsofCharlesV。andPhiliptheSecond，remainedalawfortheirsuccessors；
　　andthemorethebreachinthechurchwidened，thefirmerbecametheattachmentoftheSpaniardstoRomanCatholicism。
　　TheGermanlineoftheHouseofAustriawasapparentlymoreunfettered；
　　but，inreality，thoughfreefrommanyoftheserestraints，itwasyetconfinedbyothers。Thepossessionoftheimperialthrone——
　　adignityitwasimpossibleforaProtestanttohold，forwithwhatconsistencycouldanapostatefromtheRomishChurchwearthecrownofaRomanemperor？boundthesuccessorsofFerdinandI。
　　totheSeeofRome。Ferdinandhimselfwas，fromconscientiousmotives，heartilyattachedtoit。Besides，theGermanprincesoftheHouseofAustriawerenotpowerfulenoughtodispensewiththesupportofSpain，which，however，theywouldhaveforfeitedbytheleastshowofleaningtowardsthenewdoctrines。Theimperialdignity，also，requiredthemtopreservetheexistingpoliticalsystemofGermany，withwhichthemaintenanceoftheirownauthoritywascloselyboundup，butwhichitwastheaimoftheProtestantLeaguetodestroy。IftothesegroundsweaddtheindifferenceoftheProtestantstotheEmperor’snecessitiesandtothecommondangersoftheempire，theirencroachmentsonthetemporalitiesofthechurch，andtheiraggressiveviolencewhentheybecameconsciousoftheirownpower，wecaneasilyconceivehowsomanyconcurringmotivesmusthavedeterminedtheemperorstothesideofpopery，andhowtheirowninterestscametobeintimatelyinterwovenwiththoseoftheRomanChurch。AsitsfateseemedtodependaltogetherontheparttakenbyAustria，theprincesofthishousecametoberegardedbyallEuropeasthepillarsofpopery。Thehatred，therefore，whichtheProtestantsboreagainstthelatter，wasturnedexclusivelyuponAustria；andthecausebecamegraduallyconfoundedwithitsprotector。
　　ButthisirreconcileableenemyoftheReformation——theHouseofAustria——
　　byitsambitiousprojectsandtheoverwhelmingforcewhichitcouldbringtotheirsupport，endangered，innosmalldegree，thefreedomofEurope，andmoreespeciallyoftheGermanStates。Thiscircumstancecouldnotfailtorousethelatterfromtheirsecurity，andtorenderthemvigilantinself-defence。Theirordinaryresourceswerequiteinsufficienttoresistsoformidableapower。Extraordinaryexertionswererequiredfromtheirsubjects；andwheneventheseprovedfarfromadequate，theyhadrecoursetoforeignassistance；and，bymeansofacommonleague，theyendeavouredtoopposeapowerwhich，singly，theywereunabletowithstand。
　　ButthestrongpoliticalinducementswhichtheGermanprinceshadtoresistthepretensionsoftheHouseofAustria，naturallydidnotextendtotheirsubjects。Itisonlyimmediateadvantagesorimmediateevilsthatsetthepeopleinaction，andfortheseasoundpolicycannotwait。
　　Illthenwouldithavefaredwiththeseprinces，ifbygoodfortuneanothereffectualmotivehadnotoffereditself，whichrousedthepassionsofthepeople，andkindledinthemanenthusiasmwhichmightbedirectedagainstthepoliticaldanger，ashavingwithitacommoncauseofalarm。
　　ThismotivewastheiravowedhatredofthereligionwhichAustriaprotected，andtheirenthusiasticattachmenttoadoctrinewhichthatHousewasendeavouringtoextirpatebyfireandsword。Theirattachmentwasardent，theirhatredinvincible。Religiousfanaticismanticipateseventheremotestdangers。Enthusiasmnevercalculatesitssacrifices。
　　Whatthemostpressingdangerofthestatecouldnotgainfromthecitizens，waseffectedbyreligiouszeal。Forthestate，orfortheprince，fewwouldhavedrawnthesword；butforreligion，themerchant，theartist，thepeasant，allcheerfullyflewtoarms。Forthestate，orfortheprince，eventhesmallestadditionalimpostwouldhavebeenavoided；butforreligionthepeoplereadilystakedatoncelife，fortune，andallearthlyhopes。
　　Ittrebledthecontributionswhichflowedintotheexchequeroftheprinces，andthearmieswhichmarchedtothefield；and，intheardentexcitementproducedinallmindsbytheperiltowhichtheirfaithwasexposed，thesubjectfeltnotthepressureofthoseburdensandprivationsunderwhich，incoolermoments，hewouldhavesunkexhausted。TheterrorsoftheSpanishInquisition，andthemassacreofSt。Bartholomew’s，procuredforthePrinceofOrange，theAdmiralColigny，theBritishQueenElizabeth，andtheProtestantprincesofGermany，suppliesofmenandmoneyfromtheirsubjects，toadegreewhichatpresentisinconceivable。
　　But，withalltheirexertions，theywouldhaveeffectedlittleagainstapowerwhichwasanovermatchforanysingleadversary，howeverpowerful。
　　Atthisperiodofimperfectpolicy，accidentalcircumstancesalonecoulddeterminedistantstatestoaffordoneanotheramutualsupport。
　　Thedifferencesofgovernment，oflaws，oflanguage，ofmanners，andofcharacter，whichhithertohadkeptwholenationsandcountriesasitwereinsulated，andraisedalastingbarrierbetweenthem，renderedonestateinsensibletothedistressesofanother，savewherenationaljealousycouldindulgeamaliciousjoyatthereversesofarival。ThisbarriertheReformationdestroyed。Aninterestmoreintenseandmoreimmediatethannationalaggrandizementorpatriotism，andentirelyindependentofprivateutility，begantoanimatewholestatesandindividualcitizens；aninterestcapableofunitingnumerousanddistantnations，evenwhileitfrequentlylostitsforceamongthesubjectsofthesamegovernment。WiththeinhabitantsofGeneva，forinstance，ofEngland，ofGermany，orofHolland，theFrenchCalvinistpossessedacommonpointofunionwhichhehadnotwithhisowncountrymen。
　　Thus，inoneimportantparticular，heceasedtobethecitizenofasinglestate，andtoconfinehisviewsandsympathiestohisowncountryalone。Thesphereofhisviewsbecameenlarged。
　　Hebegantocalculatehisownfatefromthatofothernationsofthesamereligiousprofession，andtomaketheircausehisown。Nowforthefirsttimedidprincesventuretobringtheaffairsofothercountriesbeforetheirowncouncils；forthefirsttimecouldtheyhopeforawillingeartotheirownnecessities，andpromptassistancefromothers。
　　Foreignaffairshadnowbecomeamatterofdomesticpolicy，andthataidwasreadilygrantedtothereligiousconfederatewhichwouldhavebeendeniedtothemereneighbour，andstillmoretothedistantstranger。
　　TheinhabitantofthePalatinateleaveshisnativefieldstofightsidebysidewithhisreligiousassociateofFrance，againstthecommonenemyoftheirfaith。TheHuguenotdrawshisswordagainstthecountrywhichpersecuteshim，andshedshisbloodindefenceofthelibertiesofHolland。
　　SwissisarrayedagainstSwiss；GermanagainstGerman，todetermine，onthebanksoftheLoireandtheSeine，thesuccessionoftheFrenchcrown。
　　TheDanecrossestheEider，andtheSwedetheBaltic，tobreakthechainswhichareforgedforGermany。
　　ItisdifficulttosaywhatwouldhavebeenthefateoftheReformation，andthelibertiesoftheEmpire，hadnottheformidablepowerofAustriadeclaredagainstthem。This，however，appearscertain，thatnothingsocompletelydampedtheAustrianhopesofuniversalmonarchy，astheobstinatewarwhichtheyhadtowageagainstthenewreligiousopinions。UndernoothercircumstancescouldtheweakerprinceshaverousedtheirsubjectstosuchextraordinaryexertionsagainsttheambitionofAustria，ortheStatesthemselveshaveunitedsocloselyagainstthecommonenemy。
　　ThepowerofAustrianeverstoodhigherthanafterthevictorywhichCharlesV。gainedovertheGermansatMuehlberg。
　　WiththetreatyofSmalcaldethefreedomofGermanylay，asitseemed，prostrateforever；butitrevivedunderMauriceofSaxony，onceitsmostformidableenemy。AllthefruitsofthevictoryofMuehlbergwerelostagaininthecongressofPassau，andthedietofAugsburg；
　　andeveryschemeforcivilandreligiousoppressionterminatedintheconcessionsofanequitablepeace。
　　ThedietofAugsburgdividedGermanyintotworeligiousandtwopoliticalparties，byrecognizingtheindependentrightsandexistenceofboth。HithertotheProtestantshadbeenlookedonasrebels；
　　theywerehenceforthtoberegardedasbrethren——notindeedthroughaffection，butnecessity。BytheInterim*，theConfessionofAugsburgwasallowedtemporarilytotakeasisterlyplacealongsideoftheoldenreligion，thoughonlyasatoleratedneighbour。
　　Toeverysecularstatewasconcededtherightofestablishingthereligionitacknowledgedassupremeandexclusivewithinitsownterritories，andofforbiddingtheopenprofessionofitsrival。Subjectsweretobefreetoquitacountrywheretheirownreligionwasnottolerated。
　　ThedoctrinesofLutherforthefirsttimereceivedapositivesanction；
　　andiftheyweretrampledunderfootinBavariaandAustria，theypredominatedinSaxonyandThuringia。Butthesovereignsaloneweretodeterminewhatformofreligionshouldprevailwithintheirterritories；
　　thefeelingsofsubjectswhohadnorepresentativesinthedietwerelittleattendedtointhepacification。Intheecclesiasticalterritories，indeed，wheretheunreformedreligionenjoyedanundisputedsupremacy，thefreeexerciseoftheirreligionwasobtainedforallwhohadpreviouslyembracedtheProtestantdoctrines；butthisindulgencerestedonlyonthepersonalguaranteeofFerdinand，KingoftheRomans，bywhoseendeavourschieflythispeacewaseffected；aguarantee，which，beingrejectedbytheRomanCatholicmembersoftheDiet，andonlyinsertedinthetreatyundertheirprotest，couldnotofcoursehavetheforceoflaw。
　　*AsystemofTheologysocalled，preparedbyorderoftheEmperorCharlesV。
　　fortheuseofGermany，toreconcilethedifferencesbetweentheRomanCatholicsandtheLutherans，which，however，wasrejectedbybothparties——Ed。
　　Ifithadbeenopinionsonlythatthusdividedthemindsofmen，withwhatindifferencewouldallhaveregardedthedivision！
　　Butontheseopinionsdependedriches，dignities，andrights；
　　anditwasthiswhichsodeeplyaggravatedtheevilsofdivision。
　　Oftwobrothers，asitwere，whohadhithertoenjoyedapaternalinheritanceincommon，onenowremained，whiletheotherwascompelledtoleavehisfather’shouse，andhencearosethenecessityofdividingthepatrimony。
　　Forthisseparation，whichhecouldnothaveforeseen，thefatherhadmadenoprovision。Bythebeneficentdonationsofpiousancestorstherichesofthechurchhadbeenaccumulatingthroughathousandyears，andthesebenefactorswereasmuchtheprogenitorsofthedepartingbrotherasofhimwhoremained。Wastherightofinheritancethentobelimitedtothepaternalhouse，ortobeextendedtoblood？
　　ThegiftshadbeenmadetothechurchincommunionwithRome，becauseatthattimenootherexisted，——tothefirst-born，asitwere，becausehewasasyettheonlyson。Wasthenarightofprimogenituretobeadmittedinthechurch，asinnoblefamilies？Werethepretensionsofonepartytobefavouredbyaprescriptionfromtimeswhentheclaimsoftheothercouldnothavecomeintoexistence？CouldtheLutheransbejustlyexcludedfromthesepossessions，towhichthebenevolenceoftheirforefathershadcontributed，merelyonthegroundthat，atthedateoftheirfoundation，thedifferencesbetweenLutheranismandRomanismwereunknown？Bothpartieshavedisputed，andstilldispute，withequalplausibility，onthesepoints。Bothalikehavefounditdifficulttoprovetheirright。Lawcanbeappliedonlytoconceivablecases，andperhapsspiritualfoundationsarenotamongthenumberofthese，andstilllesswheretheconditionsofthefoundersgenerallyextendedtoasystemofdoctrines；forhowisitconceivablethatapermanentendowmentshouldbemadeofopinionsleftopentochange？
　　Whatlawcannotdecide，isusuallydeterminedbymight，andsuchwasthecasehere。Theonepartyheldfirmlyallthatcouldnolongerbewrestedfromit——theotherdefendedwhatitstillpossessed。
　　AllthebishopricsandabbeyswhichhadbeensecularizedBEFOREthepeace，remainedwiththeProtestants；but，byanexpressclause，theunreformedCatholicsprovidedthatnoneshouldthereafterbesecularized。
　　Everyimpropriatorofanecclesiasticalfoundation，whoheldimmediatelyoftheEmpire，whetherelector，bishop，orabbot，forfeitedhisbeneficeanddignitythemomentheembracedtheProtestantbelief；hewasobligedinthateventinstantlytoresignitsemoluments，andthechapterwastoproceedtoanewelection，exactlyasifhisplacehadbeenvacatedbydeath。BythissacredanchoroftheEcclesiasticalReservation，`ReservatumEcclesiasticum’，
　　whichmakesthetemporalexistenceofaspiritualprinceentirelydependentonhisfidelitytotheoldenreligion，theRomanCatholicChurchinGermanyisstillheldfast；andprecarious，indeed，wouldbeitssituationwerethisanchortogiveway。TheprincipleoftheEcclesiasticalReservationwasstronglyopposedbytheProtestants；andthoughitwasatlastadoptedintothetreatyofpeace，itsinsertionwasqualifiedwiththedeclaration，thatpartieshadcometonofinaldeterminationonthepoint。
　　CoulditthenbemorebindingontheProtestantsthanFerdinand’sguaranteeinfavourofProtestantsubjectsofecclesiasticalstateswasupontheRomanCatholics？Thusweretwoimportantsubjectsofdisputeleftunsettledinthetreatyofpeace，andbythemthewarwasrekindled。
　　Suchwasthepositionofthingswithregardtoreligioustolerationandecclesiasticalproperty:itwasthesamewithregardtorightsanddignities。
　　TheexistingGermansystemprovidedonlyforonechurch，becauseoneonlywasinexistencewhenthatsystemwasframed。Thechurchhadnowdivided；
　　theDiethadbrokenintotworeligiousparties；wasthewholesystemoftheEmpirestillexclusivelytofollowtheone？TheemperorshadhithertobeenmembersoftheRomishChurch，becausetillnowthatreligionhadnorival。ButwasithisconnexionwithRomewhichconstitutedaGermanemperor，orwasitnotratherGermanywhichwastoberepresentedinitshead？TheProtestantswerenowspreadoverthewholeEmpire，andhowcouldtheyjustlystillberepresentedbyanunbrokenlineofRomanCatholicemperors？IntheImperialChambertheGermanStatesjudgethemselves，fortheyelectthejudges；itwastheveryendofitsinstitutionthattheyshoulddoso，inorderthatequaljusticeshouldbedispensedtoall；butwouldthisbestillpossible，iftherepresentativesofbothprofessionswerenotequallyadmissibletoaseatintheChamber？ThatonereligiononlyexistedinGermanyatthetimeofitsestablishment，wasaccidental；thatnooneestateshouldhavethemeansoflegallyoppressinganother，wastheessentialpurposeoftheinstitution。Nowthisobjectwouldbeentirelyfrustratedifonereligiouspartyweretohavetheexclusivepowerofdecidingfortheother。Must，then，thedesignbesacrificed，becausethatwhichwasmerelyaccidentalhadchanged？WithgreatdifficultytheProtestants，atlast，obtainedfortherepresentativesoftheirreligionaplaceintheSupremeCouncil，butstilltherewasfarfrombeingaperfectequalityofvoices。TothisdaynoProtestantprincehasbeenraisedtotheimperialthrone。
　　WhatevermaybesaidoftheequalitywhichthepeaceofAugsburgwastohaveestablishedbetweenthetwoGermanchurches，theRomanCatholichadunquestionablystilltheadvantage。
　　AllthattheLutheranChurchgainedbyitwastoleration；
　　allthattheRomishChurchconceded，wasasacrificetonecessity，notanofferingtojustice。Veryfarwasitfrombeingapeacebetweentwoequalpowers，butatrucebetweenasovereignandunconqueredrebels。
　　FromthisprinciplealltheproceedingsoftheRomanCatholicsagainsttheProtestantsseemedtoflow，andstillcontinuetodoso。
　　Tojointhereformedfaithwasstillacrime，sinceitwastobevisitedwithsosevereapenaltyasthatwhichtheEcclesiasticalReservationheldsuspendedovertheapostacyofthespiritualprinces。
　　Eventothelast，theRomishChurchpreferredtorisktolossofeverythingbyforce，thanvoluntarilytoyieldthesmallestmattertojustice。
　　Thelosswasaccidentalandmightberepaired；buttheabandonmentofitspretensions，theconcessionofasinglepointtotheProtestants，wouldshakethefoundationsofthechurchitself。Eveninthetreatyofpeacethisprinciplewasnotlostsightof。WhateverinthispeacewasyieldedtotheProtestantswasalwaysundercondition。Itwasexpresslydeclared，thataffairsweretoremainonthestipulatedfootingonlytillthenextgeneralcouncil，whichwastobecalledwiththeviewofeffectinganunionbetweenthetwoconfessions。Thenonly，whenthislastattemptshouldhavefailed，wasthereligioustreatytobecomevalidandconclusive。
　　Howeverlittlehopetheremightbeofsuchareconciliation，howeverlittleperhapstheRomaniststhemselveswereinearnestwithit，stillitwassomethingtohavecloggedthepeacewiththesestipulations。
　　Thusthisreligioustreaty，whichwastoextinguishforevertheflamesofcivilwar，was，infact，butatemporarytruce，extortedbyforceandnecessity；notdictatedbyjustice，noremanatingfromjustnotionseitherofreligionortoleration。
　　AreligioustreatyofthiskindtheRomanCatholicswereasincapableofgranting，tobecandid，asintruththeLutheranswereunqualifiedtoreceive。FarfromevincingatolerantspirittowardstheRomanCatholics，whenitwasintheirpower，theyevenoppressedtheCalvinists；
　　whoindeedjustaslittledeservedtoleration，sincetheywereunwillingtopractiseit。Forsuchapeacethetimeswerenotyetripe——
　　themindsofmennotyetsufficientlyenlightened。Howcouldonepartyexpectfromanotherwhatitselfwasincapableofperforming？
　　WhateachsidesavedorgainedbythetreatyofAugsburg，itowedtotheimposingattitudeofstrengthwhichitmaintainedatthetimeofitsnegociation。Whatwaswonbyforcewastobemaintainedalsobyforce；ifthepeacewastobepermanent，thetwopartiestoitmustpreservethesamerelativepositions。
　　Theboundariesofthetwochurcheshadbeenmarkedoutwiththesword；
　　withtheswordtheymustbepreserved，orwoetothatpartywhichshouldbefirstdisarmed！AsadandfearfulprospectforthetranquillityofGermany，whenpeaceitselfboresothreateninganaspect。
　　Amomentarylullnowpervadedtheempire；atransitorybondofconcordappearedtouniteitsscatteredlimbsintoonebody，sothatforatimeafeelingalsoforthecommonwealreturned。Butthedivisionhadpenetrateditsinmostbeing，andtorestoreitsoriginalharmonywasimpossible。
　　Carefullyasthetreatyofpeaceappearedtohavedefinedtherightsofbothparties，itsinterpretationwasneverthelessthesubjectofmanydisputes。Intheheatofconflictithadproducedacessationofhostilities；itcovered，notextinguished，thefire，andunsatisfiedclaimsremainedoneitherside。TheRomanistsimaginedtheyhadlosttoomuch，theProtestantsthattheyhadgainedtoolittle；
　　andthetreatywhichneitherpartycouldventuretoviolate，wasinterpretedbyeachinitsownfavour。
　　Theseizureoftheecclesiasticalbenefices，themotivewhichhadsostronglytemptedthemajorityoftheProtestantprincestoembracethedoctrinesofLuther，wasnotlesspowerfulafterthanbeforethepeace；
　　ofthosewhosefoundershadnotheldtheirfiefsimmediatelyoftheempire，suchaswerenotalreadyintheirpossessionwoulditwasevidentsoonbeso。
　　ThewholeofLowerGermanywasalreadysecularized；andifitwereotherwiseinUpperGermany，itwasowingtothevehementresistanceoftheCatholics，whohadtherethepreponderance。Eachparty，whereitwasthemostpowerful，oppressedtheadherentsoftheother；theecclesiasticalprincesinparticular，asthemostdefencelessmembersoftheempire，wereincessantlytormentedbytheambitionoftheirProtestantneighbours。
　　Thosewhoweretooweaktorepelforcebyforce，tookrefugeunderthewingsofjustice；andthecomplaintsofspoliationwereheapedupagainsttheProtestantsintheImperialChamber，whichwasreadyenoughtopursuetheaccusedwithjudgments，butfoundtoolittlesupporttocarrythemintoeffect。
　　ThepeacewhichstipulatedforcompletereligioustolerationforthedignitariesoftheEmpire，hadprovidedalsoforthesubject，byenablinghim，withoutinterruption，toleavethecountryinwhichtheexerciseofhisreligionwasprohibited。Butfromthewrongswhichtheviolenceofasovereignmightinflictonanobnoxioussubject；
　　fromthenamelessoppressionsbywhichhemightharassandannoytheemigrant；
　　fromtheartfulsnaresinwhichsubtiltycombinedwithpowermightenmeshhim——fromthese，thedeadletterofthetreatycouldaffordhimnoprotection。
　　TheCatholicsubjectofProtestantprincescomplainedloudlyofviolationsofthereligiouspeace——theLutheransstillmoreloudlyoftheoppressiontheyexperiencedundertheirRomanistsuzerains。Therancourandanimositiesoftheologiansinfusedapoisonintoeveryoccurrence，howeverinconsiderable，andinflamedthemindsofthepeople。Happywouldithavebeenhadthistheologicalhatredexhausteditszealuponthecommonenemy，insteadofventingitsvirusontheadherentsofakindredfaith！
　　UnanimityamongsttheProtestantsmight，bypreservingthebalancebetweenthecontendingparties，haveprolongedthepeace；
　　butasiftocompletetheconfusion，allconcordwasquicklybroken。
　　ThedoctrineswhichhadbeenpropagatedbyZuingliinZurich，andbyCalvininGeneva，soonspreadtoGermany，anddividedtheProtestantsamongthemselves，withlittleinunisonsavetheircommonhatredtopopery。
　　TheProtestantsofthisdateborebutslightresemblancetothosewho，fiftyyearsbefore，drewuptheConfessionofAugsburg；
　　andthecauseofthechangeistobesoughtinthatConfessionitself。
　　IthadprescribedapositiveboundarytotheProtestantfaith，beforethenewlyawakenedspiritofinquiryhadsatisfieditselfastothelimitsitoughttoset；andtheProtestantsseemedunwittinglytohavethrownawaymuchoftheadvantageacquiredbytheirrejectionofpopery。
　　CommoncomplaintsoftheRomishhierarchy，andofecclesiasticalabuses，andacommondisapprobationofitsdogmas，formedasufficientcentreofunionfortheProtestants；butnotcontentwiththis，theysoughtarallyingpointinthepromulgationofanewandpositivecreed，inwhichtheysoughttoembodythedistinctions，theprivileges，andtheessenceofthechurch，andtothistheyreferredtheconventionenteredintowiththeiropponents。
　　Itwasasprofessorsofthiscreedthattheyhadaccededtothetreaty；
　　andinthebenefitsofthispeacetheadvocatesoftheconfessionwerealoneentitledtoparticipate。Inanycase，therefore，thesituationofitsadherentswasembarrassing。IfablindobediencewereyieldedtothedictaoftheConfession，alastingboundwouldbesettothespiritofinquiry；if，ontheotherhand，theydissentedfromtheformulaeagreedupon，thepointofunionwouldbelost。
　　Unfortunatelybothincidentsoccurred，andtheevilresultsofbothwerequicklyfelt。Onepartyrigorouslyadheredtotheoriginalsymboloffaith，andtheotherabandonedit，onlytoadoptanotherwithequalexclusiveness。
　　Nothingcouldhavefurnishedthecommonenemyamoreplausibledefenceofhiscausethanthisdissension；nospectaclecouldhavebeenmoregratifyingtohimthantherancourwithwhichtheProtestantsalternatelypersecutedeachother。WhocouldcondemntheRomanCatholics，iftheylaughedattheaudacitywithwhichtheReformershadpresumedtoannouncetheonlytruebelief？——iffromProtestantstheyborrowedtheweaponsagainstProtestants？——if，inthemidstofthisclashingofopinions，theyheldfasttotheauthorityoftheirownchurch，forwhich，inpart，therespokeanhonourableantiquity，andayetmorehonourablepluralityofvoices。ButthisdivisionplacedtheProtestantsinstillmoreseriousembarrassments。
　　AsthecovenantsofthetreatyappliedonlytothepartisansoftheConfession，theiropponents，withsomereason，calleduponthemtoexplainwhoweretoberecognizedastheadherentsofthatcreed。
　　TheLutheranscouldnot，withoutoffendingconscience，includetheCalvinistsintheircommunion，exceptattheriskofconvertingausefulfriendintoadangerousenemy，couldtheyexcludethem。
　　ThisunfortunatedifferenceopenedawayforthemachinationsoftheJesuitstosowdistrustbetweenbothparties，andtodestroytheunityoftheirmeasures。Fetteredbythedoublefearoftheirdirectadversaries，andoftheiropponentsamongthemselves，theProtestantslostforevertheopportunityofplacingtheirchurchonaperfectequalitywiththeCatholic。Allthesedifficultieswouldhavebeenavoided，andthedefectionoftheCalvinistswouldnothaveprejudicedthecommoncause，ifthepointofunionhadbeenplacedsimplyintheabandonmentofRomanism，insteadofintheConfessionofAugsburg。
　　Buthoweverdividedonotherpoints，theyconcurredinthis——
　　thatthesecuritywhichhadresultedfromequalityofpowercouldonlybemaintainedbythepreservationofthatbalance。
　　Inthemeanwhile，thecontinualreformsofoneparty，andtheopposingmeasuresoftheother，keptbothuponthewatch，whiletheinterpretationofthereligioustreatywasanever-endingsubjectofdispute。Eachpartymaintainedthateverysteptakenbyitsopponentwasaninfractionofthepeace，whileofeverymovementofitsownitwasassertedthatitwasessentialtoitsmaintenance。
　　YetallthemeasuresoftheCatholicsdidnot，astheiropponentsalleged，proceedfromaspiritofencroachment——manyofthemwerethenecessaryprecautionsofself-defence。TheProtestantshadshownunequivocallyenoughwhattheRomanistsmightexpectiftheywereunfortunateenoughtobecometheweakerparty。Thegreedinessoftheformerforthepropertyofthechurch，gavenoreasontoexpectindulgence；——
　　theirbitterhatredleftnohopeofmagnanimityorforbearance。
　　ButtheProtestants，likewise，wereexcusableiftheytooplacedlittleconfidenceinthesincerityoftheRomanCatholics。
　　BythetreacherousandinhumantreatmentwhichtheirbrethreninSpain，France，andtheNetherlands，hadsuffered；bythedisgracefulsubterfugeoftheRomishprinces，whoheldthatthePopehadpowertorelievethemfromtheobligationofthemostsolemnoaths；andaboveall，bythedetestablemaxim，thatfaithwasnottobekeptwithheretics，theRomanChurch，intheeyesofallhonestmen，hadlostitshonour。
　　Noengagement，nooath，howeversacred，fromaRomanCatholic，couldsatisfyaProtestant。Whatsecuritythencouldthereligiouspeaceafford，when，throughoutGermany，theJesuitsrepresenteditasameasureofmeretemporaryconvenience，andinRomeitselfitwassolemnlyrepudiated。
　　TheGeneralCouncil，towhichreferencehadbeenmadeinthetreaty，hadalreadybeenheldinthecityofTrent；but，asmighthavebeenforeseen，withoutaccommodatingthereligiousdifferences，ortakingasinglesteptoeffectsuchaccommodation，andevenwithoutbeingattendedbytheProtestants。
　　Thelatter，indeed，werenowsolemnlyexcommunicatedbyitinthenameofthechurch，whoserepresentativetheCouncilgaveitselfouttobe。
　　Could，then，aseculartreaty，extortedmoreoverbyforceofarms，affordthemadequateprotectionagainstthebanofthechurch；atreaty，too，basedonaconditionwhichthedecisionoftheCouncilseemedentirelytoabolish？Therewasthenashowofrightforviolatingthepeace，ifonlytheRomanistspossessedthepower；andhenceforwardtheProtestantswereprotectedbynothingbuttherespectfortheirformidablearray。
　　Othercircumstancescombinedtoaugmentthisdistrust。Spain，onwhosesupporttheRomanistsinGermanychieflyrelied，wasengagedinabloodyconflictwiththeFlemings。Byit，thefloweroftheSpanishtroopsweredrawntotheconfinesofGermany。Withwhateasemighttheybeintroducedwithintheempire，ifadecisivestrokeshouldrendertheirpresencenecessary？GermanywasatthattimeamagazineofwarfornearlyallthepowersofEurope。Thereligiouswarhadcrowdeditwithsoldiers，whomthepeaceleftdestitute；itsmanyindependentprincesfounditeasytoassemblearmies，andafterwards，forthesakeofgain，ortheinterestsofparty，hirethemouttootherpowers。WithGermantroops，PhiliptheSecondwagedwaragainsttheNetherlands，andwithGermantroopstheydefendedthemselves。EverysuchlevyinGermanywasasubjectofalarmtotheonepartyortheother，sinceitmightbeintendedfortheiroppression。Thearrivalofanambassador，anextraordinarylegateofthePope，aconferenceofprinces，everyunusualincident，must，itwasthought，bepregnantwithdestructiontosomeparty。Thus，fornearlyhalfacentury，stoodGermany，herhanduponthesword；
　　everyrustleofaleafalarmedher。
　　FerdinandtheFirst，KingofHungary，andhisexcellentson，MaximiliantheSecond，heldatthismemorableepochthereinsofgovernment。
　　Withaheartfullofsincerity，withatrulyheroicpatience，hadFerdinandbroughtaboutthereligiouspeaceofAugsburg，andafterwards，intheCouncilofTrent，labouredassiduously，thoughvainly，attheungratefultaskofreconcilingthetworeligions。
　　Abandonedbyhisnephew，PhilipofSpain，andhardpressedbothinHungaryandTransylvaniabythevictoriousarmiesoftheTurks，itwasnotlikelythatthisemperorwouldentertaintheideaofviolatingthereligiouspeace，andtherebydestroyinghisownpainfulwork。
　　TheheavyexpensesoftheperpetuallyrecurringwarwithTurkeycouldnotbedefrayedbythemeagrecontributionsofhisexhaustedhereditarydominions。Hestood，therefore，inneedoftheassistanceofthewholeempire；andthereligiouspeacealonepreservedinonebodytheotherwisedividedempire。FinancialnecessitiesmadetheProtestantasneedfultohimastheRomanist，andimposeduponhimtheobligationoftreatingbothpartieswithequaljustice，which，amidstsomanycontradictoryclaims，wastrulyacolossaltask。Veryfar，however，wastheresultfromansweringhisexpectations。HisindulgenceoftheProtestantsservedonlytobringuponhissuccessorsawar，whichdeathsavedhimselfthemortificationofwitnessing。
　　ScarcelymorefortunatewashissonMaximilian，withwhomperhapsthepressureofcircumstanceswastheonlyobstacle，andalongerlifeperhapstheonlywant，tohisestablishingthenewreligionupontheimperialthrone。NecessityhadtaughtthefatherforbearancetowardstheProtestants——necessityandjusticedictatedthesamecoursetotheson。Thegrandsonhadreasontorepentthatheneitherlistenedtojustice，noryieldedtonecessity。
　　Maximilianleftsixsons，ofwhomtheeldest，theArchdukeRodolph，inheritedhisdominions，andascendedtheimperialthrone。
　　Theotherbrotherswereputoffwithpettyappanages。Afewmesnefiefswereheldbyacollateralbranch，whichhadtheiruncle，CharlesofStyria，atitshead；andeventhesewereafterwards，underhisson，FerdinandtheSecond，incorporatedwiththerestofthefamilydominions。
　　Withthisexception，thewholeoftheimposingpowerofAustriawasnowwieldedbyasingle，butunfortunatelyweakhand。
　　RodolphtheSecondwasnotdevoidofthosevirtueswhichmighthavegainedhimtheesteemofmankind，hadthelotofaprivatestationfallentohim。
　　Hischaracterwasmild，helovedpeaceandthesciences，particularlyastronomy，naturalhistory，chemistry，andthestudyofantiquities。Totheseheappliedwithapassionatezeal，which，attheverytimewhenthecriticalpostureofaffairsdemandedallhisattention，andhisexhaustedfinancesthemostrigideconomy，divertedhisattentionfromstateaffairs，andinvolvedhiminperniciousexpenses。Histasteforastronomysoonlostitselfinthoseastrologicalreveriestowhichtimidandmelancholytemperamentslikehisarebuttoodisposed。This，togetherwithayouthpassedinSpain，openedhisearstotheevilcounselsoftheJesuits，andtheinfluenceoftheSpanishcourt，bywhichatlasthewaswhollygoverned。
　　Ruledbytastessolittleinaccordancewiththedignityofhisstation，andalarmedbyridiculousprophecies，hewithdrew，aftertheSpanishcustom，fromtheeyesofhissubjects，toburyhimselfamidsthisgemsandantiques，ortomakeexperimentsinhislaboratory，whilethemostfataldiscordsloosenedallthebandsoftheempire，andtheflamesofrebellionbegantoburstoutattheveryfootstepsofhisthrone。
　　Allaccesstohispersonwasdenied，themosturgentmatterswereneglected。
　　TheprospectoftherichinheritanceofSpainwasclosedagainsthim，whilehewastryingtomakeuphismindtoofferhishandtotheInfantaIsabella。AfearfulanarchythreatenedtheEmpire，forthoughwithoutanheirofhisownbody，hecouldnotbepersuadedtoallowtheelectionofaKingoftheRomans。TheAustrianStatesrenouncedtheirallegiance，HungaryandTransylvaniathrewoffhissupremacy，andBohemiawasnotslowinfollowingtheirexample。ThedescendantoftheoncesoformidableCharlestheFifthwasinperpetualdanger，eitheroflosingonepartofhispossessionstotheTurks，oranothertotheProtestants，andofsinking，beyondredemption，undertheformidablecoalitionwhichagreatmonarchofEuropehadformedagainsthim。TheeventswhichnowtookplaceintheinteriorofGermanyweresuchasusuallyhappenedwheneitherthethronewaswithoutanemperor，ortheEmperorwithoutasenseofhisimperialdignity。Outragedorabandonedbytheirhead，theStatesoftheEmpirewerelefttohelpthemselves；
　　andalliancesamongthemselvesmustsupplythedefectiveauthorityoftheEmperor。Germanywasdividedintotwoleagues，whichstoodinarmsarrayedagainsteachother:betweenboth，Rodolph，thedespisedopponentoftheone，andtheimpotentprotectoroftheother，remainedirresoluteanduseless，equallyunabletodestroytheformerortocommandthelatter。WhathadtheEmpiretolookforfromaprinceincapableevenofdefendinghishereditarydominionsagainstitsdomesticenemies？TopreventtheutterruinoftheHouseofAustria，hisownfamilycombinedagainsthim；andapowerfulpartythrewitselfintothearmsofhisbrother。Drivenfromhishereditarydominions，nothingwasnowlefthimtolosebuttheimperialdignity；
　　andhewasonlysparedthislastdisgracebyatimelydeath。
　　Atthiscriticalmoment，whenonlyasupplepolicy，unitedwithavigorousarm，couldhavemaintainedthetranquillityoftheEmpire，itsevilgeniusgaveitaRodolphforEmperor。AtamorepeacefulperiodtheGermanicUnionwouldhavemanageditsowninterests，andRodolph，likesomanyothersofhisrank，mighthavehiddenhisdeficienciesinamysteriousobscurity。Buttheurgentdemandforthequalitiesinwhichhewasmostdeficientrevealedhisincapacity。
　　ThepositionofGermanycalledforanemperorwho，byhisknownenergies，couldgiveweighttohisresolves；andthehereditarydominionsofRodolph，considerableastheywere，wereatpresentinasituationtooccasionthegreatestembarrassmenttothegovernors。
　　TheAustrianprinces，itistruewereRomanCatholics，andinadditiontothat，thesupportersofPopery，buttheircountrieswerefarfrombeingso。
　　Thereformedopinionshadpenetratedeventhese，andfavouredbyFerdinand’snecessitiesandMaximilian’smildness，hadmetwitharapidsuccess。TheAustrianprovincesexhibitedinminiaturewhatGermanydidonalargerscale。Thegreatnoblesandtheritterclassorknightswerechieflyevangelical，andinthecitiestheProtestantshadadecidedpreponderance。Iftheysucceededinbringingafewoftheirpartyintothecountry，theycontrivedimperceptiblytofillallplacesoftrustandthemagistracywiththeirownadherents，andtoexcludetheCatholics。
　　Againstthenumerousorderofthenoblesandknights，andthedeputiesfromthetowns，thevoiceofafewprelateswaspowerless；
　　andtheunseemlyridiculeandoffensivecontemptoftheformersoondrovethementirelyfromtheprovincialdiets。ThusthewholeoftheAustrianDiethadimperceptiblybecomeProtestant，andtheReformationwasmakingrapidstridestowardsitspublicrecognition。TheprincewasdependentontheEstates，whohaditintheirpowertograntorrefusesupplies。Accordingly，theyavailedthemselvesofthefinancialnecessitiesofFerdinandandhissontoextortonereligiousconcessionafteranother。Tothenoblesandknights，Maximilianatlastconcededthefreeexerciseoftheirreligion，butonlywithintheirownterritoriesandcastles。TheintemperateenthusiasmoftheProtestantpreachersoversteppedtheboundarieswhichprudencehadprescribed。Indefianceoftheexpressprohibition，severalofthemventuredtopreachpublicly，notonlyinthetowns，butinViennaitself，andthepeopleflockedincrowdstothisnewdoctrine，thebestseasoningofwhichwaspersonalityandabuse。Thuscontinuedfoodwassuppliedtofanaticism，andthehatredoftwochurches，thatweresuchnearneighbours，wasfartherenvenomedbythestingofanimpurezeal。
　　AmongthehereditarydominionsoftheHouseofAustria，HungaryandTransylvaniawerethemostunstable，andthemostdifficulttoretain。TheimpossibilityofholdingthesetwocountriesagainsttheneighbouringandoverwhelmingpoweroftheTurks，hadalreadydrivenFerdinandtotheingloriousexpedientofrecognizing，byanannualtribute，thePorte’ssupremacyoverTransylvania；
　　ashamefulconfessionofweakness，andastillmoredangeroustemptationtotheturbulentnobility，whentheyfanciedtheyhadanyreasontocomplainoftheirmaster。NotwithoutconditionshadtheHungarianssubmittedtotheHouseofAustria。Theyassertedtheelectivefreedomoftheircrown，andboldlycontendedforallthoseprerogativesoftheirorderwhichareinseparablefromthisfreedomofelection。ThenearneighbourhoodofTurkey，thefacilityofchangingmasterswithimpunity，encouragedthemagnatesstillmoreintheirpresumption；discontentedwiththeAustriangovernmenttheythrewthemselvesintothearmsoftheTurks；
　　dissatisfiedwiththese，theyreturnedagaintotheirGermansovereigns。
　　Thefrequencyandrapidityofthesetransitionsfromonegovernmenttoanother，hadcommunicateditsinfluencesalsototheirmodeofthinking；
　　andastheircountrywaveredbetweentheTurkishandAustrianrule，sotheirmindsvacillatedbetweenrevoltandsubmission。
　　Themoreunfortunateeachnationfeltitselfinbeingdegradedintoaprovinceofaforeignkingdom，thestrongerdesiredidtheyfeeltoobeyamonarchchosenfromamongstthemselves，andthusitwasalwayseasyforanenterprisingnobletoobtaintheirsupport。ThenearestTurkishpashawasalwaysreadytobestowtheHungariansceptreandcrownonarebelagainstAustria；justasreadywasAustriatoconfirmtoanyadventurerthepossessionofprovinceswhichhehadwrestedfromthePorte，satisfiedwithpreservingtherebytheshadowofauthority，andwitherectingatthesametimeabarrieragainsttheTurks。
　　Inthiswayseveralofthesemagnates，Batbori，Boschkai，Ragoczi，andBethlensucceededinestablishingthemselves，oneafteranother，astributarysovereignsinTransylvaniaandHungary；
　　andtheymaintainedtheirgroundbynodeeperpolicythanthatofoccasionallyjoiningtheenemy，inordertorenderthemselvesmoreformidabletotheirownprince。
　　Ferdinand，Maximilian，andRodolph，whowereallsovereignsofHungaryandTransylvania，exhaustedtheirotherterritoriesinendeavouringtodefendthesefromthehostileinroadsoftheTurks，andtoputdownintestinerebellion。Inthisquarterdestructivewarsweresucceededbutbybrieftruces，whichwerescarcelylesshurtful:farandwidethelandlaywaste，whiletheinjuredserfhadtocomplainequallyofhisenemyandhisprotector。
　　IntothesecountriesalsotheReformationhadpenetrated；
　　andprotectedbythefreedomoftheStates，andunderthecoveroftheinternaldisorders，hadmadeanoticeableprogress。
　　Heretooitwasincautiouslyattacked，andpartyspiritthusbecameyetmoredangerousfromreligiousenthusiasm。Headedbyaboldrebel，Boschkai，thenoblesofHungaryandTransylvaniaraisedthestandardofrebellion。TheHungarianinsurgentswereuponthepointofmakingcommoncausewiththediscontentedProtestantsinAustria，Moravia，andBohemia，andunitingallthosecountriesinonefearfulrevolt。
　　Thedownfallofpoperyintheselandswouldthenhavebeeninevitable。
　　LonghadtheAustrianarchdukes，thebrothersoftheEmperor，beheldwithsilentindignationtheimpendingruinoftheirhouse；
　　thislasteventhastenedtheirdecision。TheArchdukeMatthias，Maximilian’ssecondson，ViceroyinHungary，andRodolph’spresumptiveheir，nowcameforwardasthestayofthefallinghouseofHapsburg。Inhisyouth，misledbyafalseambition，thisprince，disregardingtheinterestsofhisfamily，hadlistenedtotheoverturesoftheFlemishinsurgents，whoinvitedhimintotheNetherlandstoconductthedefenceoftheirlibertiesagainsttheoppressionofhisownrelative，PhiliptheSecond。
　　Mistakingthevoiceofaninsulatedfactionforthatoftheentirenation，Matthiasobeyedthecall。ButtheeventansweredtheexpectationsofthemenofBrabantaslittleashisown，andfromthisimprudententerpriseheretiredwithlittlecredit。
　　Farmorehonourablewashissecondappearanceinthepoliticalworld。
　　PerceivingthathisrepeatedremonstranceswiththeEmperorwereunavailing，heassembledthearchdukes，hisbrothersandcousins，atPresburg，andconsultedwiththemonthegrowingperilsoftheirhouse，whentheyunanimouslyassignedtohim，astheoldest，thedutyofdefendingthatpatrimonywhichafeeblebrotherwasendangering。
　　Inhishandstheyplacedalltheirpowersandrights，andvestedhimwithsovereignauthority，toactathisdiscretionforthecommongood。MatthiasimmediatelyopenedacommunicationwiththePorteandtheHungarianrebels，andthroughhisskilfulmanagementsucceededinsaving，byapeacewiththeTurks，theremainderofHungary，andbyatreatywiththerebels，preservedtheclaimsofAustriatothelostprovinces。ButRodolph，asjealousashehadhithertobeencarelessofhissovereignauthority，refusedtoratifythistreaty，whichheregardedasacriminalencroachmentonhissovereignrights。
　　HeaccusedtheArchdukeofkeepingupasecretunderstandingwiththeenemy，andofcherishingtreasonabledesignsonthecrownofHungary。
　　TheactivityofMatthiaswas，intruth，anythingbutdisinterested；
　　theconductoftheEmperoronlyacceleratedtheexecutionofhisambitiousviews。Secure，frommotivesofgratitude，ofthedevotionoftheHungarians，forwhomhehadsolatelyobtainedtheblessingsofpeace；assuredbyhisagentsofthefavourabledispositionofthenobles，andcertainofthesupportofalargeparty，eveninAustria，henowventuredtoassumeabolderattitude，and，swordinhand，todiscusshisgrievanceswiththeEmperor。TheProtestantsinAustriaandMoravia，longripeforrevolt，andnowwonovertotheArchdukebyhispromisesoftoleration，loudlyandopenlyespousedhiscause，andtheirlong-menacedalliancewiththeHungarianrebelswasactuallyeffected。AlmostatonceaformidableconspiracywasplannedandmaturedagainsttheEmperor。Toolatedidheresolvetoamendhispasterrors；invaindidheattempttobreakupthisfatalalliance。Alreadythewholeempirewasinarms；
　　Hungary，Austria，andMoraviahaddonehomagetoMatthias，whowasalreadyonhismarchtoBohemiatoseizetheEmperorinhispalace，andtocutatoncethesinewsofhispower。
　　BohemiawasnotamorepeaceablepossessionforAustriathanHungary；
　　withthisdifferenceonly，that，inthelatter，politicalconsiderations，intheformer，religiousdissensions，fomenteddisorders。
　　InBohemia，acenturybeforethedaysofLuther，thefirstsparkofthereligiouswarhadbeenkindled；acenturyafterLuther，thefirstflamesofthethirtyyears’warburstoutinBohemia。
　　ThesectwhichoweditsrisetoJohnHuss，stillexistedinthatcountry；——
　　itagreedwiththeRomishChurchinceremoniesanddoctrines，withthesingleexceptionoftheadministrationoftheCommunion，inwhichtheHussitescommunicatedinbothkinds。ThisprivilegehadbeenconcededtothefollowersofHussbytheCouncilofBasle，inanexpresstreaty，theBohemianCompact；andthoughitwasafterwardsdisavowedbythepopes，theyneverthelesscontinuedtoprofitbyitunderthesanctionofthegovernment。Astheuseofthecupformedtheonlyimportantdistinctionoftheirbody，theywereusuallydesignatedbythenameofUtraquists；
　　andtheyreadilyadoptedanappellationwhichremindedthemoftheirdearlyvaluedprivilege。ButunderthistitlelurkedalsothefarstrictersectsoftheBohemianandMoravianBrethren，whodifferedfromthepredominantchurchinmoreimportantparticulars，andbore，infact，agreatresemblancetotheGermanProtestants。
　　Amongthemboth，theGermanandSwissopinionsonreligionmaderapidprogress；whilethenameofUtraquists，underwhichtheymanagedtodisguisethechangeoftheirprinciples，shieldedthemfrompersecution。
　　Intruth，theyhadnothingincommonwiththeUtraquistsbutthename；
　　essentially，theywerealtogetherProtestant。Confidentinthestrengthoftheirparty，andtheEmperor’stolerationunderMaximilian，theyhadopenlyavowedtheirtenets。AftertheexampleoftheGermans，theydrewupaConfessionoftheirown，inwhichLutheransaswellasCalvinistsrecognizedtheirowndoctrines，andtheysoughttotransfertothenewConfessiontheprivilegesoftheoriginalUtraquists。
　　InthistheywereopposedbytheirRomanCatholiccountrymen，andforcedtorestcontentwiththeEmperor’sverbalassuranceofprotection。
　　AslongasMaximilianlived，theyenjoyedcompletetoleration，evenunderthenewformtheyhadtaken。Underhissuccessorthescenechanged。
　　Animperialedictappeared，whichdeprivedtheBohemianBrethrenoftheirreligiousfreedom。NowthesedifferedinnothingfromtheotherUtraquists。Thesentence，therefore，oftheircondemnation，obviouslyincludedallthepartisansoftheBohemianConfession。
　　Accordingly，theyallcombinedtoopposetheimperialmandateintheDiet，butwithoutbeingabletoprocureitsrevocation。
　　TheEmperorandtheRomanCatholicEstatestooktheirgroundontheCompactandtheBohemianConstitution；inwhichnothingappearedinfavourofareligionwhichhadnotthenobtainedthevoiceofthecountry。
　　Sincethattime，howcompletelyhadaffairschanged！
　　Whatthenformedbutaninconsiderableopinion，hadnowbecomethepredominantreligionofthecountry。Andwhatwasitthen，butasubterfugetolimitanewlyspreadingreligionbythetermsofobsoletetreaties？TheBohemianProtestantsappealedtotheverbalguaranteeofMaximilian，andthereligiousfreedomoftheGermans，withwhomtheyarguedtheyoughttobeonafootingofequality。
　　Itwasinvain——theirappealwasdismissed。
　　SuchwasthepostureofaffairsinBohemia，whenMatthias，alreadymasterofHungary，Austria，andMoravia，appearedinKolin，toraisetheBohemianEstatesalsoagainsttheEmperor。
　　Theembarrassmentofthelatterwasnowatitsheight。Abandonedbyallhisothersubjects，heplacedhislasthopesontheBohemians，who，itmightbeforeseen，wouldtakeadvantageofhisnecessitiestoenforcetheirowndemands。Afteranintervalofmanyyears，heoncemoreappearedpubliclyintheDietatPrague；
　　andtoconvincethepeoplethathewasreallystillinexistence，ordersweregiventhatallthewindowsshouldbeopenedinthestreetsthroughwhichhewastopass——proofenoughhowfarthingshadgonewithhim。
　　Theeventjustifiedhisfears。TheEstates，consciousoftheirownpower，refusedtotakeasinglestepuntiltheirprivilegeswereconfirmed，andreligioustolerationfullyassuredtothem。Itwasinvaintohaverecoursenowtotheoldsystemofevasion。TheEmperor’sfatewasintheirhands，andhemustyieldtonecessity。Atpresent，however，heonlygrantedtheirotherdemands——religiousmattershereservedforconsiderationatthenextDiet。
　　TheBohemiansnowtookuparmsindefenceoftheEmperor，andabloodywarbetweenthetwobrotherswasonthepointofbreakingout。ButRodolph，whofearednothingsomuchasremaininginthisslavishdependenceontheEstates，waitednotforawarlikeissue，buthastenedtoeffectareconciliationwithhisbrotherbymorepeaceablemeans。
　　ByaformalactofabdicationheresignedtoMatthias，whatindeedhehadnochanceofwrestingfromhim，AustriaandthekingdomofHungary，andacknowledgedhimashissuccessortothecrownofBohemia。
　　DearlyenoughhadtheEmperorextricatedhimselffromonedifficulty，onlytogetimmediatelyinvolvedinanother。ThesettlementofthereligiousaffairsofBohemiahadbeenreferredtothenextDiet，whichwasheldin1609。ThereformedBohemiansdemandedthefreeexerciseoftheirfaith，asundertheformeremperors；aConsistoryoftheirown；
　　thecessionoftheUniversityofPrague；andtherightofelecting`Defenders’，or`Protectors’of`Liberty’，fromtheirownbody。
　　Theanswerwasthesameasbefore；forthetimidEmperorwasnowentirelyfetteredbytheunreformedparty。Howeveroften，andinhoweverthreateninglanguagetheEstatesrenewedtheirremonstrances，theEmperorpersistedinhisfirstdeclarationofgrantingnothingbeyondtheoldcompact。TheDietbrokeupwithoutcomingtoadecision；
　　andtheEstates，exasperatedagainsttheEmperor，arrangedageneralmeetingatPrague，upontheirownauthority，torightthemselves。
　　TheyappearedatPragueingreatforce。Indefianceoftheimperialprohibition，theycarriedontheirdeliberationsalmostundertheveryeyesoftheEmperor。Theyieldingcompliancewhichhebegantoshow，onlyprovedhowmuchtheywerefeared，andincreasedtheiraudacity。Yetonthemainpointheremainedinflexible。
　　Theyfulfilledtheirthreats，andatlastresolvedtoestablish，bytheirownpower，thefreeanduniversalexerciseoftheirreligion，andtoabandontheEmperortohisnecessitiesuntilheshouldconfirmthisresolution。Theyevenwentfarther，andelectedforthemselvestheDEFENDERSwhichtheEmperorhadrefusedthem。TenwerenominatedbyeachofthethreeEstates；theyalsodeterminedtoraise，assoonaspossible，anarmedforce，attheheadofwhichCountThurn，thechieforganizeroftherevolt，shouldbeplacedasgeneraldefenderofthelibertiesofBohemia。TheirdeterminationbroughttheEmperortosubmission，towhichhewasnowcounselledevenbytheSpaniards。
　　ApprehensivelesttheexasperatedEstatesshouldthrowthemselvesintothearmsoftheKingofHungary，hesignedthememorableLetterofMajestyforBohemia，bywhich，underthesuccessorsoftheEmperor，thatpeoplejustifiedtheirrebellion。
　　TheBohemianConfession，whichtheStateshadlaidbeforetheEmperorMaximilian，was，bytheLetterofMajesty，placedonafootingofequalitywiththeoldenprofession。TheUtraquists，forbythistitletheBohemianProtestantscontinuedtodesignatethemselves，wereputinpossessionoftheUniversityofPrague，andallowedaConsistoryoftheirown，entirelyindependentofthearchiepiscopalseeofthatcity。
　　Allthechurchesinthecities，villages，andmarkettowns，whichtheyheldatthedateoftheletter，weresecuredtothem；
　　andifinadditiontheywishedtoerectothers，itwaspermittedtothenobles，andknights，andthefreecitiestodoso。ThislastclauseintheLetterofMajestygaverisetotheunfortunatedisputeswhichsubsequentlyrekindledtheflamesofwarinEurope。
　　TheLetterofMajestyerectedtheProtestantpartofBohemiaintoakindofrepublic。TheEstateshadlearnedtofeelthepowerwhichtheygainedbyperseverance，unity，andharmonyintheirmeasures。
　　TheEmperornowretainedlittlemorethantheshadowofhissovereignauthority；whilebythenewdignityoftheso-calleddefendersofliberty，adangerousstimuluswasgiventothespiritofrevolt。
　　TheexampleandsuccessofBohemiaaffordedatemptingseductiontotheotherhereditarydominionsofAustria，andallattemptedbysimilarmeanstoextortsimilarprivileges。Thespiritoflibertyspreadfromoneprovincetoanother；andasitwaschieflythedisunionamongtheAustrianprincesthathadenabledtheProtestantssomateriallytoimprovetheiradvantages，theynowhastenedtoeffectareconciliationbetweentheEmperorandtheKingofHungary。
　　Butthereconciliationcouldnotbesincere。Thewrongwastoogreattobeforgiven，andRodolphcontinuedtonourishatheartanunextinguishablehatredofMatthias。Withgriefandindignationhebroodedoverthethought，thattheBohemiansceptrewasfinallytodescendintothehandsofhisenemy；andtheprospectwasnotmoreconsoling，evenifMatthiasshoulddiewithoutissue。Inthatcase，Ferdinand，ArchdukeofGraetz，whomheequallydisliked，wastheheadofthefamily。
　　ToexcludethelatteraswellasMatthiasfromthesuccessiontothethroneofBohemia，hefellupontheprojectofdivertingthatinheritancetoFerdinand’sbrother，theArchdukeLeopold，BishopofPassau，whoamongallhisrelativeshadeverbeenthedearestandmostdeserving。
　　TheprejudicesoftheBohemiansinfavouroftheelectivefreedomoftheircrown，andtheirattachmenttoLeopold’sperson，seemedtofavourthisscheme，inwhichRodolphconsultedratherhisownpartialityandvindictivenessthanthegoodofhishouse。
　　Buttocarryoutthisproject，amilitaryforcewasrequisite，andRodolphactuallyassembledanarmyinthebishopricofPassau。
　　Theobjectofthisforcewashiddenfromall。Aninroad，however，which，forwantofpayitmadesuddenlyandwithouttheEmperor’sknowledgeintoBohemia，andtheoutrageswhichittherecommitted，stirredupthewholekingdomagainsthim。InvainheassertedhisinnocencetotheBohemianEstates；theywouldnotbelievehisprotestations；
　　vainlydidheattempttorestraintheviolenceofhissoldiery；
　　theydisregardedhisorders。PersuadedthattheEmperor’sobjectwastoannultheLetterofMajesty，theProtectorsofLibertyarmedthewholeofProtestantBohemia，andinvitedMatthiasintothecountry。
　　AfterthedispersionoftheforcehehadcollectedatPassau，theEmperorremainedhelplessatPrague，wherehewaskeptshutuplikeaprisonerinhispalace，andseparatedfromallhiscouncillors。Inthemeantime，MatthiasenteredPragueamidstuniversalrejoicings，whereRodolphwassoonafterwardsweakenoughtoacknowledgehimKingofBohemia。
　　SohardafatebefellthisEmperor；hewascompelled，duringhislife，toabdicateinfavourofhisenemythatverythrone，ofwhichhehadbeenendeavouringtodeprivehimafterhisowndeath。Tocompletehisdegradation，hewasobliged，byapersonalactofrenunciation，toreleasehissubjectsinBohemia，Silesia，andLusatiafromtheirallegiance，andhediditwithabrokenheart。All，eventhosehethoughthehadmostattachedtohisperson，hadabandonedhim。Whenhehadsignedtheinstrument，hethrewhishatupontheground，andgnawedthepenwhichhadrenderedsoshamefulaservice。
　　WhileRodolphthuslostonehereditarydominionafteranother，theimperialdignitywasnotmuchbettermaintainedbyhim。
　　EachofthereligiouspartiesintowhichGermanywasdivided，continueditseffortstoadvanceitselfattheexpenseoftheother，ortoguardagainstitsattacks。Theweakerthehandthatheldthesceptre，andthemoretheProtestantsandRomanCatholicsfelttheywerelefttothemselves，themorevigilantnecessarilybecametheirwatchfulness，andthegreatertheirdistrustofeachother。ItwasenoughthattheEmperorwasruledbyJesuits，andwasguidedbySpanishcounsels，toexcitetheapprehensionoftheProtestants，andtoaffordapretextforhostility。
　　TherashzealoftheJesuits，whichinthepulpitandbythepressdisputedthevalidityofthereligiouspeace，increasedthisdistrust，andcausedtheiradversariestoseeadangerousdesigninthemostindifferentmeasuresoftheRomanCatholics。
　　EverysteptakeninthehereditarydominionsoftheEmperor，fortherepressionofthereformedreligion，wassuretodrawtheattentionofalltheProtestantsofGermany；andthispowerfulsupportwhichthereformedsubjectsofAustriamet，orexpectedtomeetwithfromtheirreligiousconfederatesintherestofGermany，wasnosmallcauseoftheirconfidence，andoftherapidsuccessofMatthias。