Thoughitmaycostnomorelabourtocultivatetheonethantheother，itmustalwayscostmoretobringtheproduceofthedistantlandtomarket。Agreaterquantityoflabour，therefore，mustbemaintainedoutofit;andthesurplus，fromwhicharedrawnboththeprofitofthefarmerandtherentofthelandlord，mustbediminished。Butinremotepartsofthecountrytherateofprofits，ashasalreadybeenshown，isgenerallyhigherthanintheneighbourhoodofalargetown。Asmallerproportionofthisdiminishedsurplus，therefore，mustbelongtothelandlord。
　　Goodroads，canals，andnavigablerivers，bydiminishingtheexpenseofcarriage，puttheremotepartsofthecountrymorenearlyuponalevelwiththoseintheneighbourhoodofthetown。
　　Theyareuponthataccountthegreatestofallimprovements。Theyencouragethecultivationoftheremote，whichmustalwaysbethemostextensivecircleofthecountry。Theyareadvantageoustothetown，bybreakingdownthemonopolyofthecountryinitsneighbourhood。Theyareadvantageouseventothatpartofthecountry。Thoughtheyintroducesomerivalcommoditiesintotheoldmarket，theyopenmanynewmarketstoitsproduce。Monopoly，besides，isagreatenemytogoodmanagement，whichcanneverbeuniversallyestablishedbutinconsequenceofthatfreeanduniversalcompetitionwhichforceseverybodytohaverecoursetoitforthesakeofself—defence。ItisnotmorethanfiftyyearsagothatsomeofthecountiesintheneighbourhoodofLondonpetitionedtheParliamentagainsttheextensionoftheturnpikeroadsintotheremotercounties。Thoseremotercounties，theypretended，fromthecheapnessoflabour，wouldbeabletoselltheirgrassandcorncheaperintheLondonmarketthanthemselves，andwouldtherebyreducetheirrents，andruintheircultivation。Theirrents，however，haverisen，andtheircultivationhasbeenimprovedsincethattime。
　　Acornfieldofmoderatefertilityproducesamuchgreaterquantityoffoodformanthanthebestpastureofequalextent。
　　Thoughitscultivationrequiresmuchmorelabour，yetthesurpluswhichremainsafterreplacingtheseedandmaintainingallthatlabour，islikewisemuchgreater。Ifapoundofbutcher’smeat，therefore，wasneversupposedtobeworthmorethanapoundofbread，thisgreatersurpluswouldeverywherebeofgreatervalue，andconstituteagreaterfundbothfortheprofitofthefarmerandtherentofthelandlord。Itseemstohavedonesouniversallyintherudebeginningsofagriculture。
　　Buttherelativevaluesofthosetwodifferentspeciesoffood，breadandbutcher’smeat，areverydifferentinthedifferentperiodsofagriculture。Initsrudebeginnings，theunimprovedwilds，whichthenoccupythefargreaterpartofthecountry，areallabandonedtocattle。Thereismorebutcher’smeatthanbread，andbread，therefore，isthefoodforwhichthereisthegreatestcompetition，andwhichconsequentlybringsthegreatestprice。AtBuenosAyres，wearetoldbyUlloa，fourreals，one—and—twentypencehalfpennysterling，was，fortyorfiftyyearsago，theordinarypriceofanox，chosenfromaherdoftwoorthreehundred。Hesaysnothingofthepriceofbread，probablybecausehefoundnothingremarkableaboutit。Anoxthere，hesays，costlittlemorethanthelabourofcatchinghim。
　　Butcorncannowhereberaisedwithoutagreatdealoflabour，andinacountrywhichliesupontheriverPlate，atthattimethedirectroadfromEuropetothesilverminesofPotosi，themoneypriceoflabourcouldnotbeverycheap。Itisotherwisewhencultivationisextendedoverthegreaterpartofthecountry。Thereisthenmorebreadthanbutcher’smeat。Thecompetitionchangesitsdirection，andthepriceofbutcher’smeatbecomesgreaterthanthepriceofbread。
　　Bytheextensionbesidesofcultivation，theunimprovedwildsbecomeinsufficienttosupplythedemandforbutcher’smeat。Agreatpartofthecultivatedlandsmustbeemployedinrearingandfatteningcattle，ofwhichtheprice，therefore，mustbesufficienttopay，notonlythelabournecessaryfortendingthem，buttherentwhichthelandlordandtheprofitwhichthefarmercouldhavedrawnfromsuchlandemployedintillage。Thecattlebreduponthemostuncultivatedmoors，whenbroughttothesamemarket，are，inproportiontotheirweightorgoodness，soldatthesamepriceasthosewhicharereareduponthemostimprovedland。Theproprietorsofthosemoorsprofitbyit，andraisetherentoftheirlandinproportiontothepriceoftheircattle。ItisnotmorethanacenturyagothatinmanypartsofthehighlandsofScotland，butcher’smeatwasascheaporcheaperthanevenbreadmadeofoatmeal。TheunionopenedthemarketofEnglandtothehighlandcattle。Theirordinarypriceisatpresentaboutthreetimesgreaterthanatthebeginningofthecentury，andtherentsofmanyhighlandestateshavebeentripledandquadrupledinthesametime。InalmosteverypartofGreatBritainapoundofthebestbutcher’smeatis，inthepresenttimes，generallyworthmorethantwopoundsofthebestwhitebread;andinplentifulyearsitissometimesworththreeorfourpounds。
　　Itisthusthatintheprogressofimprovementtherentandprofitofunimprovedpasturecometoberegulatedinsomemeasurebytherentandprofitofwhatisimproved，andtheseagainbytherentandprofitofcorn。Cornisanannualcrop。Butcher’smeat，acropwhichrequiresfourorfiveyearstogrow。Asanacreofland，therefore，willproduceamuchsmallerquantityoftheonespeciesoffoodthanoftheother，theinferiorityofthequantitymustbecompensatedbythesuperiorityoftheprice。Ifitwasmorethancompensated，morecornlandwouldbeturnedintopasture;andifitwasnotcompensated，partofwhatwasinpasturewouldbebroughtbackintocorn。
　　Thisequality，however，betweentherentandprofitofgrassandthoseofcorn;ofthelandofwhichtheimmediateproduceisfoodforcattle，andofthatofwhichtheimmediateproduceisfoodformen;mustbeunderstoodtotakeplaceonlythroughthegreaterpartoftheimprovedlandsofagreatcountry。Insomeparticularlocalsituationsitisquiteotherwise，andtherentandprofitofgrassaremuchsuperiortowhatcanbemadebycorn。
　　Thusintheneighbourhoodofagreattownthedemandformilkandforforagetohorsesfrequentlycontribute，togetherwiththehighpriceofbutcher’smeat，toraisethevalueofgrassabovewhatmaybecalleditsnaturalproportiontothatofcorn。Thislocaladvantage，itisevident，cannotbecommunicatedtothelandsatadistance。
　　Particularcircumstanceshavesometimesrenderedsomecountriessopopulousthatthewholeterritory，likethelandsintheneighbourhoodofagreattown，hasnotbeensufficienttoproduceboththegrassandthecornnecessaryforthesubsistenceoftheirinhabitants。Theirlands，therefore，havebeenprincipallyemployedintheproductionofgrass，themorebulkycommodity，andwhichcannotbesoeasilybroughtfromagreatdistance;andcorn，thefoodofthegreatbodyofthepeople，hasbeenchieflyimportedfromforeigncountries。Hollandisatpresentinthissituation，andaconsiderablepartofancientItalyseemstohavebeensoduringtheprosperityoftheRomans。
　　Tofeedwell，oldCatosaid，aswearetoldbyCicero，wasthefirstandmostprofitablethinginthemanagementofaprivateestate;tofeedtolerablywell，thesecond;andtofeedill，thethird。Toplough，herankedonlyinthefourthplaceofprofitandadvantage。Tillage，indeed，inthatpartofancientItalywhichlayintheneighbourhoodofRome，musthavebeenverymuchdiscouragedbythedistributionsofcornwhichwerefrequentlymadetothepeople，eithergratuitously，orataverylowprice。
　　Thiscornwasbroughtfromtheconqueredprovinces，ofwhichseveral，insteadoftaxes，wereobligedtofurnishatenthpartoftheirproduceatastatedprice，aboutsixpenceapeck，totherepublic。ThelowpriceatwhichthiscornwasdistributedtothepeoplemustnecessarilyhavesunkthepriceofwhatcouldbebroughttotheRomanmarketfromLatium，ortheancientterritoryofRome，andmusthavediscourageditscultivationinthatcountry。
　　Inanopencountrytoo，ofwhichtheprincipalproduceiscorn，awell—enclosedpieceofgrasswillfrequentlyrenthigherthananycornfieldinitsneighbourhood。Itisconvenientforthemaintenanceofthecattleemployedinthecultivationofthecorn，anditshighrentis，inthiscase，notsoproperlypaidfromthevalueofitsownproduceasfromthatofthecornlandswhicharecultivatedbymeansofit。Itislikelytofall，ifevertheneighbouringlandsarecompletelyenclosed。ThepresenthighrentofenclosedlandinScotlandseemsowingtothescarcityofenclosure，andwillprobablylastnolongerthanthatscarcity。Theadvantageofenclosureisgreaterforpasturethanforcorn。Itsavesthelabourofguardingthecattle，whichfeedbetter，too，whentheyarenotliabletobedisturbedbytheirkeeperorhisdog。
　　Butwherethereisnolocaladvantageofthiskind，therentandprofitofcorn，orwhateverelseisthecommonvegetablefoodorthepeople，mustnaturallyregulate，uponthelandwhichisfitforproducingit，therentandprofitofpasture。
　　Theuseoftheartificialgrasses，ofturnips，carrots，cabbages，andtheotherexpedientswhichhavebeenfallenupontomakeanequalquantityoflandfeedagreaternumberofcattlethanwheninnaturalgrass，shouldsomewhatreduce，itmightbeexpected，thesuperioritywhich，inanimprovedcountry，thepriceofbutcher’smeatnaturallyhasoverthatofbread。Itseemsaccordinglytohavedoneso;andthereissomereasonforbelievingthat，atleastintheLondonmarket，thepriceofbutcher’smeatinproportiontothepriceofbreadisagooddeallowerinthepresenttimesthanitwasinthebeginningofthelastcentury。
　　IntheappendixtotheLifeofPrinceHenry，DoctorBirchhasgivenusanaccountofthepricesofbutcher’smeatascommonlypaidbythatprince。Itistheresaidthatthefourquartersofanoxweighingsixhundredpoundsusuallycosthimninepoundstenshillings，orthereabouts;thatis，thirty—oneshillingsandeightpenceperhundredpoundsweight。PrinceHenrydiedonthe6thofNovember1612，inthenineteenthyearofhisage。
　　InMarch1764，therewasaParliamentaryinquiryintothecausesofthehighpriceofprovisionsatthattime。Itwasthen，amongotherprooftothesamepurpose，giveninevidencebyaVirginiamerchant，thatinMarch1763，hehadvictualledhisshipsfortwenty—fourortwenty—fiveshillingsthehundredweightofbeef，whichheconsideredastheordinaryprice;whereas，inthatdearyear，hehadpaidtwenty—sevenshillingsforthesameweightandsort。Thishighpricein1764is，however，fourshillingsandeightpencecheaperthantheordinarypricepaidbyPrinceHenry;anditisthebestbeefonly，itmustbeobserved，whichisfittobesaltedforthosedistantvoyages。
　　ThepricepaidbyPrinceHenryamountsto33/4d。perpoundweightofthewholecarcase，coarseandchoicepiecestakentogether;andatthatratethechoicepiecescouldnothavebeensoldbyretailforlessthan41/2d。or5d。thepound。
　　IntheParliamentaryinquiryin1764，thewitnessesstatedthepriceofthechoicepiecesofthebestbeeftobetotheconsumer4d。and41/4d。thepound;andthecoarsepiecesingeneraltobefromsevenfarthingsto21/2d。andthistheysaidwasingeneralonehalfpennydearerthanthesamesortofpieceshadusuallybeensoldinthemonthofMarch。ButeventhishighpriceisstillagooddealcheaperthanwhatwecanwellsupposetheordinaryretailpricetohavebeenthetimeofPrinceHenry。
　　Duringthetwelvefirstyearsofthelastcentury，theaveragepriceofthebestwheatattheWindsormarketwasL118s。
　　31/6d。thequarterofnineWinchesterbushels。
　　Butinthetwelveyearspreceding1764，includingthatyear，theaveragepriceofthesamemeasureofthebestwheatatthesamemarketwasL21s。91/2d。
　　Inthetwelvefirstyearsofthelastcentury，therefore，wheatappearstohavebeenagooddealcheaper，andbutcher’smeatagooddealdearer，thaninthetwelveyearspreceding1764，includingthatyear。
　　Inallgreatcountriesthegreaterpartofthecultivatedlandsareemployedinproducingeitherfoodformenorfoodforcattle。Therentandprofitoftheseregulatetherentandprofitofallothercultivatedland。Ifanyparticularproduceaffordedless，thelandwouldsoonbeturnedintocornorpasture;andifanyaffordedmore，somepartofthelandsincornorpasturewouldsoonbeturnedtothatproduce。
　　Thoseproductions，indeed，whichrequireeitheragreateroriginalexpenseofimprovement，oragreaterannualexpenseofcultivation，inordertofitthelandforthem，appearcommonlytoafford，theoneagreaterrent，theotheragreaterprofitthancornorpasture。Thissuperiority，however，willseldombefoundtoamounttomorethanareasonableinterestorcompensationforthissuperiorexpense。
　　Inahopgarden，afruitgarden，akitchengarden，boththerentofthelandlord，andtheprofitofthefarmer，aregenerallygreaterthaninacornorgrassfield。Buttobringthegroundintothisconditionrequiresmoreexpense。Henceagreaterrentbecomesduetothelandlord。Itrequires，too，amoreattentiveandskilfulmanagement。Henceagreaterprofitbecomesduetothefarmer。Thecroptoo，atleastinthehopandfruitgarden，ismoreprecarious。Itsprice，therefore，besidescompensatingalloccasionallosses，mustaffordsomethingliketheprofitofinsurance。Thecircumstancesofgardeners，generallymean，andalwaysmoderate，maysatisfyusthattheirgreatingenuityisnotcommonlyover—recompensed。Theirdelightfulartispractisedbysomanyrichpeopleforamusement，thatlittleadvantageistobemadebythosewhopractiseitforprofit;becausethepersonswhoshouldnaturallybetheirbestcustomerssupplythemselveswithalltheirmostpreciousproductions。
　　Theadvantagewhichthelandlordderivesfromsuchimprovementsseemsatnotimetohavebeengreaterthanwhatwassufficienttocompensatetheoriginalexpenseofmakingthem。Intheancienthusbandry，afterthevineyard，awell—wateredkitchengardenseemstohavebeenthepartofthefarmwhichwassupposedtoyieldthemostvaluableproduce。ButDemocritus，whowroteuponhusbandryabouttwothousandyearsago，andwhowasregardedbytheancientsasoneofthefathersoftheart，thoughttheydidnotactwiselywhoenclosedakitchengarden。Theprofit，hesaid，wouldnotcompensatetheexpenseofastonewall;andbricks（hemeant，Isuppose，bricksbakedinthesun）moulderedwiththerain，andthewinterstorm，andrequiredcontinualrepairs。Columella，whoreportsthisjudgmentofDemocritus，doesnotcontrovertit，butproposesaveryfrugalmethodofenclosingwithahedgeofbramblesandbriars，which，hesays，hehadfoundbyexperiencetobebothalastingandanimpenetrablefence;butwhich，itseems，wasnotcommonlyknowninthetimeofDemocritus。PalladiusadoptstheopinionofColumella，whichhadbeforebeenrecommendedbyVarro。Inthejudgmentofthoseancientimprovers，theproduceofakitchengardenhad，itseems，beenlittlemorethansufficienttopaytheextraordinarycultureandtheexpenseofwatering;forincountriessonearthesun，itwasthoughtproper，inthosetimesasinthepresent，tohavethecommandofastreamofwaterwhichcouldbeconductedtoeverybedinthegarden。ThroughthegreaterpartofEuropeakitchengardenisnotatpresentsupposedtodeserveabetterenclosurethanthatrecommendedbyColumella。InGreatBritain，andsomeothernortherncountries，thefinerfruitscannotbebroughttoperfectionbutbytheassistanceofawall。Theirprice，therefore，insuchcountriesmustbesufficienttopaytheexpenseofbuildingandmaintainingwhattheycannotbehadwithout。Thefruit—wallfrequentlysurroundsthekitchengarden，whichthusenjoysthebenefitofanenclosurewhichitsownproducecouldseldompayfor。
　　Thatthevineyard，whenproperlyplantedandbroughttoperfection，wasthemostvaluablepartofthefarm，seemstohavebeenanundoubtedmaximintheancientagriculture，asitisinthemodernthroughallthewinecountries。ButwhetheritwasadvantageoustoplantanewvineyardwasamatterofdisputeamongtheancientItalianhusbandmen，aswelearnfromColumella。
　　Hedecides，likeatrueloverofallcuriouscultivation，infavourofthevineyard，andendeavourstoshow，byacomparisonoftheprofitandexpense，thatitwasamostadvantageousimprovement。Suchcomparisons，however，betweentheprofitandexpenseofnewprojectsarecommonlyveryfallacious，andinnothingmoresothaninagriculture。Hadthegainactuallymadebysuchplantationsbeencommonlyasgreatasheimagineditmighthavebeen，therecouldhavebeennodisputeaboutit。Thesamepointisfrequentlyatthisdayamatterofcontroversyinthewinecountries。Theirwritersonagriculture，indeed，theloversandpromotersofhighcultivation，seemgenerallydisposedtodecidewithColumellainfavourofthevineyard。InFrancetheanxietyoftheproprietorsoftheoldvineyardstopreventtheplantingofanynewones，seemstofavourtheiropinion，andtoindicateaconsciousnessinthosewhomusthavetheexperiencethatthisspeciesofcultivationisatpresentinthatcountrymoreprofitablethananyother。Itseemsatthesametime，however，toindicateanotheropinion，thatthissuperiorprofitcanlastnolongerthanthelawswhichatpresentrestrainthefreecultivationofthevine。In1731，theyobtainedanorderofcouncilprohibitingboththeplantingofnewvineyardsandtherenewalofthoseoldones，ofwhichthecultivationhadbeeninterruptedfortwoyears，withoutaparticularpermissionfromtheking，tobegrantedonlyinconsequenceofaninformationfromtheintendantoftheprovince，certifyingthathehadexaminedtheland，andthatitwasincapableofanyotherculture。Thepretenceofthisorderwasthescarcityofcornandpasture，andthesuperabundanceofwine。Buthadthissuperabundancebeenreal，itwould，withoutanyorderofcouncil，haveeffectuallypreventedtheplantationofnewvineyards，byreducingtheprofitsofthisspeciesofcultivationbelowtheirnaturalproportiontothoseofcornandpasture。Withregardtothesupposedscarcityofcorn，occasionedbythemultiplicationofvineyards，cornisnowhereinFrancemorecarefullycultivatedthaninthewineprovinces，wherethelandisfitforproducingit;asinBurgundy，Guienne，andtheUpperLanguedoc。Thenumeroushandsemployedintheonespeciesofcultivationnecessarilyencouragetheother，byaffordingareadymarketforitsproduce。Todiminishthenumberofthosewhoarecapableofpayingforitissurelyamostunpromisingexpedientforencouragingthecultivationofcorn。Itislikethepolicywhichwouldpromoteagriculturebydiscouragingmanufactures。
　　Therentandprofitofthoseproductions，therefore，whichrequireeitheragreateroriginalexpenseofimprovementinordertofitthelandforthem，oragreaterannualexpenseofcultivation，thoughoftenmuchsuperiortothoseofcornandpasture，yetwhentheydonomorethancompensatesuchextraordinaryexpense，areinrealityregulatedbytherentandprofitofthosecommoncrops。
　　Itsometimeshappens，indeed，thatthequantityofland，whichcanbefittedforsomeparticularproduce，istoosmalltosupplytheeffectualdemand。Thewholeproducecanbedisposedoftothosewhoarewillingtogivesomewhatmorethanwhatissufficienttopaythewholerent，wages，andprofitnecessaryforraisingandbringingittomarket，accordingtotheirnaturalrates，oraccordingtotheratesatwhichtheyarepaidinthegreaterpartofothercultivatedland。Thesurpluspartofthepricewhichremainsafterdefrayingthewholeexpenseofimprovementandcultivationmaycommonly，inthiscase，andinthiscaseonly，bearnoregularproportiontothelikesurplusincornorpasture，butmayexceeditinalmostanydegree;andthegreaterpartofthisexcessnaturallygoestotherentofthelandlord。
　　Theusualandnaturalproportion，forexample，betweentherentandprofitofwineandthoseofcornandpasturemustbeunderstoodtotakeplaceonlywithregardtothosevineyardswhichproducenothingbutgoodcommonwine，suchascanberaisedalmostanywhere，uponanylight，gravelly，orsandysoil，andwhichhasnothingtorecommenditbutitsstrengthandwholesomeness。Itiswithsuchvineyardsonlythatthecommonlandofthecountrycanbebroughtintocompetition;forwiththoseofapeculiarqualityitisevidentthatitcannot。
　　Thevineismoreaffectedbythedifferenceofsoilsthananyotherfruittree。Fromsomeitderivesaflavourwhichnocultureormanagementcanequal，itissupposed，uponanyother。
　　Thisflavour，realorimaginary，issometimespeculiartotheproduceofafewvineyards;sometimesitextendsthroughthegreaterpartofasmalldistrict，andsometimesthroughaconsiderablepartofalargeprovince。Thewholequantityofsuchwinesthatisbroughttomarketfallsshortoftheeffectualdemand，orthedemandofthosewhowouldbewillingtopaythewholerent，profit，andwages，necessaryforpreparingandbringingthemthither，accordingtotheordinaryrate，oraccordingtotherateatwhichtheyarepaidincommonvineyards。
　　Thewholequantity，therefore，canbedisposedoftothosewhoarewillingtopaymore，whichnecessarilyraisesthepriceabovethatofcommonwine。Thedifferenceisgreaterorlessaccordingasthefashionablenessandscarcityofthewinerenderthecompetitionofthebuyersmoreorlesseager。Whateveritbe，thegreaterpartofitgoestotherentofthelandlord。Forthoughsuchvineyardsareingeneralmorecarefullycultivatedthanmostothers，thehighpriceofthewineseemstobenotsomuchtheeffectasthecauseofthiscarefulcultivation。Insovaluableaproducethelossoccasionedbynegligenceissogreatastoforceeventhemostcarelesstoattention。Asmallpartofthishighprice，therefore，issufficienttopaythewagesoftheextraordinarylabourbestowedupontheircultivation，andtheprofitsoftheextraordinarystockwhichputsthatlabourintomotion。
　　ThesugarcoloniespossessedbytheEuropeannationsintheWestIndiesmaybecomparedtothosepreciousvineyards。TheirwholeproducefallsshortoftheeffectualdemandofEurope，andcanbedisposedoftothosewhoarewillingtogivemorethanwhatissufficienttopaythewholerent，profit，andwagesnecessaryforpreparingandbringingittomarket，accordingtotherateatwhichtheyarecommonlypaidbyanyotherproduce。InCochinChinathefinestwhitesugarcommonlysellsforthreepiastersthequintal，aboutthirteenshillingsandsixpenceofourmoney，aswearetoldbyMr。Poivre，averycarefulobserveroftheagricultureofthatcountry。WhatistherecalledthequintalweighsfromahundredandfiftytotwohundredParispounds，orahundredandseventy—fiveParispoundsatamedium，whichreducesthepriceofthehundred—weightEnglishtoabouteightshillingssterling，notafourthpartofwhatiscommonlypaidforthebrownormuskavadasugarsimportedfromourcolonies，andnotasixthpartofwhatispaidforthefinestwhitesugar。ThegreaterpartofthecultivatedlandsinCochinChinaareemployedinproducingcornandrice，thefoodofthegreatbodyofthepeople。Therespectivepricesofcorn，rice，andsugar，arethereprobablyinthenaturalproportion，orinthatwhichnaturallytakesplaceinthedifferentcropsofthegreaterpartofcultivatedland，andwhichrecompensesthelandlordandfarmer，asnearlyascanbecomputedaccordingtowhatisusuallytheoriginalexpenseofimprovementandtheannualexpenseofcultivation。ButinoursugarcoloniesthepriceofsugarbearsnosuchproportiontothatoftheproduceofariceorcornfieldeitherinEuropeorinAmerica。Itiscommonlysaidthatasugarplanterexpectsthattherumandmolassesshoulddefraythewholeexpenseofhiscultivation，andthathissugarshouldbeallclearprofit。Ifthisbetrue，forI
　　pretendnottoaffirmit，itisasifacornfarmerexpectedtodefraytheexpenseofhiscultivationwiththechaffandthestraw，andthatthegrainshouldbeallclearprofit。WeseefrequentlysocietiesofmerchantsinLondonandothertradingtown’spurchasewastelandsinoursugarcolonies，whichtheyexpecttoimproveandcultivatewithprofitbymeansoffactorsandagents，notwithstandingthegreatdistanceandtheuncertainreturnsfromthedefectiveadministrationofjusticeinthosecountries。NobodywillattempttoimproveandcultivateinthesamemannerthemostfertilelandsofScotland，Ireland，orthecornprovincesofNorthAmerica，thoughfromthemoreexactadministrationofjusticeinthesecountriesmoreregularreturnsmightbeexpected。
　　InVirginiaandMarylandthecultivationoftobaccoispreferred，asmoreprofitable，tothatofcorn。TobaccomightbecultivatedwithadvantagethroughthegreaterpartofEurope;butinalmosteverypartofEuropeithasbecomeaprincipalsubjectoftaxation，andtocollectataxfromeverydifferentfarminthecountrywherethisplantmighthappentobecultivatedwouldbemoredifficult，ithasbeensupposed，thantolevyoneuponitsimportationatthecustom—house。ThecultivationoftobaccohasuponthisaccountbeenmostabsurdlyprohibitedthroughthegreaterpartofEurope，whichnecessarilygivesasortofmonopolytothecountrieswhereitisallowed;andasVirginiaandMarylandproducethegreatestquantityofit，theysharelargely，thoughwithsomecompetitors，intheadvantageofthismonopoly。Thecultivationoftobacco，however，seemsnottobesoadvantageousasthatofsugar。IhaveneverevenheardofanytobaccoplantationthatwasimprovedandcultivatedbythecapitalofmerchantswhoresidedinGreatBritain，andourtobaccocoloniessendushomenosuchwealthyplantersasweseefrequentlyarrivefromoursugarislands。Thoughfromthepreferencegiveninthosecoloniestothecultivationoftobaccoabovethatofcorn，itwouldappearthattheeffectualdemandofEuropefortobaccoisnotcompletelysupplied，itprobablyismorenearlysothanthatforsugar;andthoughthepresentpriceoftobaccoisprobablymorethansufficienttopaythewholerent，wages，andprofitnecessaryforpreparingandbringittomarket，accordingtotherateatwhichtheyarecommonlypaidincornland，itmustnotbesomuchmoreasthepresentpriceofsugar。Ourtobaccoplanters，accordingly，haveshownthesamefearofthesuperabundanceoftobaccowhichtheproprietorsoftheoldvineyardsinFrancehaveofthesuperabundanceofwine。
　　Byactofassemblytheyhaverestraineditscultivationtosixthousandplants，supposedtoyieldathousandweightoftobacco，foreverynegrobetweensixteenandsixtyyearsofage。Suchanegro，overandabovethisquantityoftobacco，canmanage，theyreckon，fouracresofIndiancorn。Topreventthemarketfrombeingoverstocked，too，theyhavesometimes，inplentifulyears，wearetoldbyDr。Douglas（Isuspecthehasbeenillinformed），burntacertainquantityoftobaccoforeverynegro，inthesamemannerastheDutcharesaidtodoofspices。Ifsuchviolentmethodsarenecessarytokeepupthepresentpriceoftobacco，thesuperioradvantageofitscultureoverthatofcorn，ifitstillhasany，willnotprobablybeoflongcontinuance。
　　Itisinthismannerthattherentofthecultivatedland，ofwhichtheproduceishumanfood，regulatestherentofthegreaterpartofothercultivatedland。Noparticularproducecanlongaffordless;becausethelandwouldimmediatelybeturnedtoanotheruse。Andifanyparticularproducecommonlyaffordsmore，itisbecausethequantityoflandwhichcanbefittedforitistoosmalltosupplytheeffectualdemand。
　　InEurope，cornistheprincipalproduceoflandwhichservesimmediatelyforhumanfood。Exceptinparticularsituations，therefore，therentofcornlandregulatesinEuropethatofallothercultivatedland。BritainneedenvyneitherthevineyardsofFrancenortheoliveplantationsofItaly。Exceptinparticularsituations，thevalueoftheseisregulatedbythatofcorn，inwhichthefertilityofBritainisnotmuchinferiortothatofeitherofthosetwocountries。
　　Ifinanycountrythecommonandfavouritevegetablefoodofthepeopleshouldbedrawnfromaplantofwhichthemostcommonland，withthesameornearlythesameculture，producedamuchgreaterquantitythanthemostfertiledoesofcorn，therentofthelandlord，orthesurplusquantityoffoodwhichwouldremaintohim，afterpayingthelabourandreplacingthestockofthefarmer，togetherwithitsordinaryprofits，wouldnecessarilybemuchgreater。Whateverwastherateatwhichlabourwascommonlymaintainedinthatcountry，thisgreatersurpluscouldalwaysmaintainagreaterquantityofit，andconsequentlyenablethelandlordtopurchaseorcommandagreaterquantityofit。Therealvalueofhisrent，hisrealpowerandauthority，hiscommandofthenecessariesandconvenienciesoflifewithwhichthelabourofotherpeoplecouldsupplyhim，wouldnecessarilybemuchgreater。
　　Aricefieldproducesamuchgreaterquantityoffoodthanthemostfertilecornfield。Twocropsintheyearfromthirtytosixtybushelseach，aresaidtobetheordinaryproduceofanacre。Thoughitscultivation，therefore，requiresmorelabour，amuchgreatersurplusremainsaftermaintainingallthatlabour。
　　Inthosericecountries，therefore，wherericeisthecommonandfavouritevegetablefoodofthepeople，andwherethecultivatorsarechieflymaintainedwithit，agreatershareofthisgreatersurplusshouldbelongtothelandlordthanincorncountries。InCarolina，wheretheplanters，asinotherBritishcolonies，aregenerallybothfarmersandlandlords，andwhererentconsequentlyisconfoundedwithprofit，thecultivationofriceisfoundtobemoreprofitablethanthatofcorn，thoughtheirfieldsproduceonlyonecropintheyear，andthough，fromtheprevalenceofthecustomsofEurope，riceisnottherethecommonandfavouritevegetablefoodofthepeople。
　　Agoodricefieldisabogatallseasons，andatoneseasonabogcoveredwithwater。Itisunfiteitherforcorn，orpasture，orvineyard，or，indeed，foranyothervegetableproducethatisveryusefultomen;andthelandswhicharefitforthosepurposesarenotfitforrice。Eveninthericecountries，therefore，therentofricelandscannotregulatetherentoftheothercultivatedland，whichcanneverbeturnedtothatproduce。
　　Thefoodproducedbyafieldofpotatoesisnotinferiorinquantitytothatproducedbyafieldofrice，andmuchsuperiortowhatisproducedbyafieldofwheat。Twelvethousandweightofpotatoesfromanacreoflandisnotagreaterproducethantwothousandweightofwheat。Thefoodorsolidnourishment，indeed，whichcanbedrawnfromeachofthosetwoplants，isnotaltogetherinproportiontotheirweight，onaccountofthewaterynatureofpotatoes。Allowing，however，halftheweightofthisroottogotowater，averylargeallowance，suchanacreofpotatoeswillstillproducesixthousandweightofsolidnourishment，threetimesthequantityproducedbytheacreofwheat。Anacreofpotatoesiscultivatedwithlessexpensethananacreofwheat;thefallow，whichgenerallyprecedesthesowingofwheat，morethancompensatingthehoeingandotherextraordinaryculturewhichisalwaysgiventopotatoes。ShouldthisrooteverbecomeinanypartofEurope，likericeinsomericecountries，thecommonandfavouritevegetablefoodofthepeople，soastooccupythesameproportionofthelandsintillagewhichwheatandothersortsofgrainforhumanfooddoatpresent，thesamequantityofcultivatedlandwouldmaintainamuchgreaternumberofpeople，andthelabourersbeinggenerallyfedwithpotatoes，agreatersurpluswouldremainafterreplacingallthestockandmaintainingallthelabouremployedincultivation。Agreatershareofthissurplus，too，wouldbelongtothelandlord。Populationwouldincrease，andrentswouldrisemuchbeyondwhattheyareatpresent。
　　Thelandwhichisfitforpotatoesisfitforalmosteveryotherusefulvegetable。Iftheyoccupiedthesameproportionofcultivatedlandwhichcorndoesatpresent，theywouldregulate，inthesamemanner，therentofthegreaterpartofothercultivatedland。
　　InsomepartsofLancashireitispretended，Ihavebeentold，thatbreadofoatmealisaheartierfoodforlabouringpeoplethanwheatenbread，andIhavefrequentlyheardthesamedoctrineheldinScotland。Iam，however，somewhatdoubtfulofthetruthofit。ThecommonpeopleinScotland，whoarefedwithoatmeal，areingeneralneithersostrong，norsohandsomeasthesamerankofpeopleinEnglandwhoarefedwithwheatenbread。
　　Theyneitherworksowell，norlooksowell;andasthereisnotthesamedifferencebetweenthepeopleoffashioninthetwocountries，experiencewouldseemtoshowthatthefoodofthecommonpeopleinScotlandisnotsosuitabletothehumanconstitutionasthatoftheirneighboursofthesamerankinEngland。Butitseemstobeotherwisewithpotatoes。Thechairmen，porters，andcoalheaversinLondon，andthoseunfortunatewomenwholivebyprostitution，thestrongestmenandthemostbeautifulwomenperhapsintheBritishdominions，aresaidtobethegreaterpartofthemfromthelowestrankofpeopleinIreland，whoaregenerallyfedwiththisroot。Nofoodcanaffordamoredecisiveproofofitsnourishingquality，orofitsbeingpeculiarlysuitabletothehealthofthehumanconstitution。
　　Itisdifficulttopreservepotatoesthroughtheyear，andimpossibletostorethemlikecorn，fortwoorthreeyearstogether。Thefearofnotbeingabletosellthembeforetheyrotdiscouragestheircultivation，andis，perhaps，thechiefobstacletotheireverbecominginanygreatcountry，likebread，theprincipalvegetablefoodofallthedifferentranksofthepeople。
　　PART2
　　OftheProduceofLandwhichsometimesdoes，andsometimesdoesnot，affordRentHUMANfoodseemstobetheonlyproduceoflandwhichalwaysandnecessarilyaffordssomerenttothelandlord。Othersortsofproducesometimesmayandsometimesmaynot，accordingtodifferentcircumstances。
　　Afterfood，clothingandlodgingarethetwogreatwantsofmankind。
　　Landinitsoriginalrudestatecanaffordthematerialsofclothingandlodgingtoamuchgreaternumberofpeoplethanitcanfeed。Initsimprovedstateitcansometimesfeedagreaternumberofpeoplethanitcansupplywiththosematerials;atleastinthewayinwhichtheyrequirethem，andarewillingtopayforthem。Intheonestate，therefore，thereisalwaysasuperabundanceofthosematerials，whicharefrequently，uponthataccount，oflittleornovalue。Intheotherthereisoftenascarcity，whichnecessarilyaugmentstheirvalue。Intheonestateagreatpartofthemisthrownawayasuseless，andthepriceofwhatisusedisconsideredasequalonlytothelabourandexpenseoffittingitforuse，andcan，therefore，affordnorenttothelandlord。Intheothertheyareallmadeuseof，andthereisfrequentlyademandformorethancanbehad。Somebodyisalwayswillingtogivemoreforeverypartofthemthanwhatissufficienttopaytheexpenseofbringingthemtomarket。
　　Theirprice，therefore，canalwaysaffordsomerenttothelandlord。
　　Theskinsofthelargeranimalsweretheoriginalmaterialsofclothing。Amongnationsofhuntersandshepherds，therefore，whosefoodconsistschieflyinthefleshofthoseanimals，everyman，byprovidinghimselfwithfood，provideshimselfwiththematerialsofmoreclothingthanhecanwear。Iftherewasnoforeigncommerce，thegreaterpartofthemwouldbethrownawayasthingsofnovalue。ThiswasprobablythecaseamongthehuntingnationsofNorthAmericabeforetheircountrywasdiscoveredbytheEuropeans，withwhomtheynowexchangetheirsurpluspeltryforblankets，fire—arms，andbrandy，whichgivesitsomevalue。Inthepresentcommercialstateoftheknownworld，themostbarbarousnations，Ibelieve，amongwhomlandpropertyisestablished，havesomeforeigncommerceofthiskind，andfindamongtheirwealthierneighbourssuchademandforallthematerialsofclothingwhichtheirlandproduces，andwhichcanneitherbewroughtupnorconsumedathome，asraisestheirpriceabovewhatitcoststosendthemtothosewealthierneighbours。Itaffords，therefore，somerenttothelandlord。