Thetermduringwhichsuchaleasecanbegranted，aswillbevalidagainsteveryfuturepurchaserorproprietoroftheland，hasbeenprolongedfromninetotwenty—sevenyears。Theancientprovincialrestraintsuponthetransportationofcornfromoneprovinceofthekingdomtoanotherhavebeenentirelytakenaway，andthelibertyofexportingittoallforeigncountrieshasbeenestablishedasthecommonlawofthekingdominallordinarycases。Thissect，intheirworks，whichareverynumerous，andwhichtreatnotonlyofwhatisproperlycalledPoliticalEconomy，orofthenatureandcausesofthewealthofnations，butofeveryotherbranchofthesystemofcivilgovernment，allfollowimplicitlyandwithoutanysensiblevariation，thedoctrineofMr。Quesnai。Thereisuponthisaccountlittlevarietyinthegreaterpartoftheirworks。ThemostdistinctandbestconnectedaccountofthisdoctrineistobefoundinalittlebookwrittenbyMr。MercierdelaRiviere，sometimeintendantofMartinico，entitled，TheNaturalandEssentialOrderofPoliticalSocieties。Theadmirationofthiswholesectfortheirmaster，whowashimselfamanofthegreatestmodestyandsimplicity，isnotinferiortothatofanyoftheancientphilosophersforthefoundersoftheirrespectivesystems。"Therehavebeen，sincetheworldbegan，"saysaverydiligentandrespectableauthor，theMarquisdeMirabeau，"threegreatinventionswhichhaveprincipallygivenstabilitytopoliticalsocieties，independentofmanyotherinventionswhichhaveenrichedandadornedthem。Thefirstistheinventionofwriting，whichalonegiveshumannaturethepoweroftransmitting，withoutalteration，itslaws，itscontracts，itsannals，anditsdiscoveries。Thesecondistheinventionofmoney，whichbindstogetheralltherelationsbetweencivilisedsocieties。ThethirdistheEconomicalTable，theresultoftheothertwo，whichcompletesthembothbyperfectingtheirobject;thegreatdiscoveryofourage，butofwhichourposteritywillreapthebenefit。"
　　AsthepoliticaleconomyofthenationsofmodernEuropehasbeenmorefavourabletomanufacturesandforeigntrade，theindustryofthetowns，thantoagriculture，theindustryofthecountry;sothatofothernationshasfollowedadifferentplan，andhasbeenmorefavourabletoagriculturethantomanufacturesandforeigntrade。
　　ThepolicyofChinafavoursagriculturemorethanallotheremployments。InChinatheconditionofalabourerissaidtobeasmuchsuperiortothatofanartificerasinmostpartsofEuropethatofanartificeristothatofalabourer。InChina，thegreatambitionofeverymanistogetpossessionofsomelittlebitofland，eitherinpropertyorinlease;andleasesaretheresaidtobegranteduponverymoderateterms，andtobesufficientlysecuredtothelessees。TheChinesehavelittlerespectforforeigntrade。Yourbeggarlycommerce！wasthelanguageinwhichtheMandarinsofPekinusedtotalktoMr。deLange，theRussianenvoy，concerningit。ExceptwithJapan，theChinesecarryon，themselves，andintheirownbottoms，littleornoforeigntrade;anditisonlyintooneortwoportsoftheirkingdomthattheyevenadmittheshipsofforeignnations。
　　Foreigntradethereforeis，inChina，everywayconfinedwithinamuchnarrowercirclethanthattowhichitwouldnaturallyextenditself，ifmorefreedomwasallowedtoit，eitherintheirownships，orinthoseofforeignnations。
　　Manufactures，asinasmallbulktheyfrequentlycontainagreatvalue，andcanuponthataccountbetransportedatlessexpensefromonecountrytoanotherthanmostpartsofrudeproduce，are，inalmostallcountries，theprincipalsupportofforeigntrade。Incountries，besides，lessextensiveandlessfavourablycircumstancedforinferiorcommercethanChina，theygenerallyrequirethesupportofforeigntrade。Withoutanextensiveforeignmarkettheycouldnotwellflourish，eitherincountriessomoderatelyextensiveastoaffordbutanarrowhomemarketorincountrieswherethecommunicationbetweenoneprovinceandanotherwassodifficultastorenderitimpossibleforthegoodsofanyparticularplacetoenjoythewholeofthathomemarketwhichthecountrycouldafford。Theperfectionofmanufacturingindustry，itmustberemembered，dependsaltogetheruponthedivisionoflabour;andthedegreetowhichthedivisionoflabourcanbeintroducedintoanymanufactureisnecessarilyregulated，ithasalreadybeenshown，bytheextentofthemarket。ButthegreatextentoftheempireofChina，thevastmultitudeofitsinhabitants，thevarietyofclimate，andconsequentlyofproductionsinitsdifferentprovinces，andtheeasycommunicationbymeansofwatercarriagebetweenthegreaterpartofthem，renderthehomemarketofthatcountryofsogreatextentastobealonesufficienttosupportverygreatmanufactures，andtoadmitofveryconsiderablesubdivisionsoflabour。ThehomemarketofChinais，perhaps，inextent，notmuchinferiortothemarketofallthedifferentcountriesofEuropeputtogether。Amoreextensiveforeigntrade，however，whichtothisgreathomemarketaddedtheforeignmarketofalltherestoftheworld—especiallyifanyconsiderablepartofthistradewascarriedoninChineseships—couldscarcefailtoincreaseverymuchthemanufacturesofChina，andtoimproveverymuchtheproductivepowersofitsmanufacturingindustry。Byamoreextensivenavigation，theChinesewouldnaturallylearntheartofusingandconstructingthemselvesallthedifferentmachinesmadeuseofinothercountries，aswellastheotherimprovementsofartandindustrywhicharepractisedinallthedifferentpartsoftheworld。UpontheirpresentplantheyhavelittleopportunityexceptthatoftheJapanese。
　　ThepolicyofancientEgypttoo，andthatoftheGentoogovernmentofIndostan，seemtohavefavouredagriculturemorethanallotheremployments。
　　BothinancientEgyptandIndostanthewholebodyofthepeoplewasdividedintodifferentcastesortribes，eachofwhichwasconfined，fromfathertoson，toaparticularemploymentorclassofemployments。Thesonofapriestwasnecessarilyapriest;thesonofasoldier，asoldier;thesonofalabourer，alabourer;thesonofaweaver，aweaver;thesonofatailor，atailor，etc。Inbothcountries，thecasteofthepriestsheldthehighestrank，andthatofthesoldiersthenext;andinbothcountries，thecasteofthefarmersandlabourerswassuperiortothecastesofmerchantsandmanufacturers。
　　Thegovernmentofbothcountrieswasparticularlyattentivetotheinterestofagriculture。TheworksconstructedbytheancientsovereignsofEgyptfortheproperdistributionofthewatersoftheNilewerefamousinantiquity;andtheruinedremainsofsomeofthemarestilltheadmirationoftravellers。
　　ThoseofthesamekindwhichwereconstructedbytheancientsovereignsofIndostanfortheproperdistributionofthewatersoftheGangesaswellasofmanyotherrivers，thoughtheyhavebeenlesscelebrated，seemtohavebeenequallygreat。Bothcountries，accordingly，thoughsubjectoccasionallytodearths，havebeenfamousfortheirgreatfertility。Thoughbothwereextremelypopulous，yet，inyearsofmoderateplenty，theywerebothabletoexportgreatquantitiesofgraintotheirneighbours。
　　TheancientEgyptianshadasuperstitiousaversiontothesea;andastheGentooreligiondoesnotpermititsfollowerstolightafire，norconsequentlytodressanyvictualsuponthewater，itineffectprohibitsthemfromalldistantseavoyages。
　　BoththeEgyptiansandIndiansmusthavedependedalmostaltogetheruponthenavigationofothernationsfortheexportationoftheirsurplusproduce;andthisdependency，asitmusthaveconfinedthemarket，soitmusthavediscouragedtheincreaseofthissurplusproduce。Itmusthavediscouraged，too，theincreaseofthemanufacturedproducemorethanthatoftherudeproduce。Manufacturesrequireamuchmoreextensivemarketthanthemostimportantpartsoftherudeproduceoftheland。A
　　singleshoemakerwillmakemorethanthreehundredpairsofshoesintheyear;andhisownfamilywillnot，perhaps，wearoutsixpairs。Unlessthereforehehasthecustomofatleastfiftysuchfamiliesashisown，hecannotdisposeofthewholeproduceofhisownlabour。Themostnumerousclassofartificerswillseldom，inalargecountry，makemorethanoneinfiftyoroneinahundredofthewholenumberoffamiliescontainedinit。ButinsuchlargecountriesasFranceandEngland，thenumberofpeopleemployedinagriculturehasbysomeauthorsbeencomputedatahalf，byothersatathird，andbynoauthorthatIknowof，atlessthanafifthofthewholeinhabitantsofthecountry。ButastheproduceoftheagricultureofbothFranceandEnglandis，thefargreaterpartofit，consumedathome，eachpersonemployedinitmust，accordingtothesecomputations，requirelittlemorethanthecustomofone，two，oratmost，offoursuchfamiliesashisowninordertodisposeofthewholeproduceofhisownlabour。Agriculture，therefore，cansupportitselfunderthediscouragementofaconfinedmarketmuchbetterthanmanufactures。InbothancientEgyptandIndostan，indeed，theconfinementoftheforeignmarketwasinsomemeasurecompensatedbytheconveniencyofmanyinlandnavigations，whichopened，inthemostadvantageousmanner，thewholeextentofthehomemarkettoeverypartoftheproduceofeverydifferentdistrictofthosecountries。ThegreatextentofIndostan，too，renderedthehomemarketofthatcountryverygreat，andsufficienttosupportagreatvarietyofmanufactures。ButthesmallextentofancientEgypt，whichwasneverequaltoEngland，mustatalltimeshaverenderedthehomemarketofthatcountrytoonarrowforsupportinganygreatvarietyofmanufactures。Bengal，accordingly，theprovinceofIndostan，whichcommonlyexportsthegreatestquantityofrice，hasalwaysbeenmoreremarkablefortheexportationofagreatvarietyofmanufacturesthanforthatofitsgrain。AncientEgypt，onthecontrary，thoughitexportedsomemanufactures，finelineninparticular，aswellassomeothergoods，wasalwaysmostdistinguishedforitsgreatexportationofgrain。ItwaslongthegranaryoftheRomanempire。
　　ThesovereignsofChina，ofancientEgypt，andofthedifferentkingdomsintowhichIndostanhasatdifferenttimesbeendivided，havealwaysderivedthewhole，orbyfarthemostconsiderablepart，oftheirrevenuefromsomesortoflandtaxorlandrent。Thislandtaxorlandrent，likethetitheinEurope，consistedinacertainproportion，afifth，itissaid，oftheproduceoftheland，whichwaseitherdeliveredinkind，orpaidinmoney，accordingtoacertainvaluation，andwhichthereforevariedfromyeartoyearaccordingtoallthevariationsoftheproduce。Itwasnaturalthereforethatthesovereignsofthosecountriesshouldbeparticularlyattentivetotheinterestsofagriculture，upontheprosperityordeclensionofwhichimmediatelydependedtheyearlyincreaseordiminutionoftheirownrevenue。
　　ThepolicyoftheancientrepublicsofGreece，andthatofRome，thoughithonouredagriculturemorethanmanufacturesorforeigntrade，yetseemsrathertohavediscouragedthelatteremploymentsthantohavegivenanydirectorintentionalencouragementtotheformer。InseveraloftheancientstatesofGreece，foreigntradewasprohibitedaltogether;andinseveralotherstheemploymentsofartificersandmanufacturerswereconsideredashurtfultothestrengthandagilityofthehumanbody，asrenderingitincapableofthosehabitswhichtheirmilitaryandgymnasticexercisesendeavouredtoforminit，andastherebydisqualifyingitmoreorlessforundergoingthefatiguesandencounteringthedangersofwar。Suchoccupationswereconsideredasfitonlyforslaves，andthefreecitizensofthestatewereprohibitedfromexercisingthem。Eveninthosestateswherenosuchprohibitiontookplace，asinRomeandAthens，thegreatbodyofthepeoplewereineffectexcludedfromallthetradeswhichare，nowcommonlyexercisedbythelowersortoftheinhabitantsoftowns。Suchtradeswere，atAthensandRome，alloccupiedbytheslavesoftherich，whoexercisedthemforthebenefitoftheirmasters，whosewealth，power，andprotectionmadeitalmostimpossibleforapoorfreemantofindamarketforhiswork，whenitcameintocompetitionwiththatoftheslavesoftherich。Slaves，however，areveryseldominventive;andallthemostimportantimprovements，eitherinmachinery，orinthearrangementanddistributionofworkwhichfacilitateandabridgelabour，havebeenthediscoveriesoffreemen。Shouldaslaveproposeanyimprovementofthiskind，hismasterwouldbeveryapttoconsidertheproposalasthesuggestionoflaziness，andadesiretosavehisownlabouratthemaster’sexpense。Thepoorslave，insteadofreward，wouldprobablymeetwithmuchabuse，perhapswithsomepunishment。Inthemanufacturescarriedonbyslaves，therefore，morelabourmustgenerallyhavebeenemployedtoexecutethesamequantityofworkthaninthosecarriedonbyfreemen。Theworkoftheformermust，uponthataccount，generallyhavebeendearerthanthatofthelatter。TheHungarianmines，itisremarkedbyMr。
　　Montesquieu，thoughnotricher，havealwaysbeenwroughtwithlessexpense，andthereforewithmoreprofit，thantheTurkishminesintheirneighbourhood。TheTurkishminesarewroughtbyslaves;andthearmsofthoseslavesaretheonlymachineswhichtheTurkshaveeverthoughtofemploying。TheHungarianminesarewroughtbyfreemen，whoemployagreatdealofmachinery，bywhichtheyfacilitateandabridgetheirownlabour。FromtheverylittlethatisknownaboutthepriceofmanufacturesinthetimesoftheGreeksandRomans，itwouldappearthatthoseofthefinersortwereexcessivelydear。Silksoldforitsweightingold。Itwasnot，indeed，inthosetimesaEuropeanmanufacture;andasitwasallbroughtfromtheEastIndies，thedistanceofthecarriagemayinsomemeasureaccountforthegreatnessofprice。
　　Theprice，however，whichalady，itissaid，wouldsometimespayforapieceofveryfinelinen，seemstohavebeenequallyextravagant;andaslinenwasalwayseitheraEuropean，oratfarthest，anEgyptianmanufacture，thishighpricecanbeaccountedforonlybythegreatexpenseofthelabourwhichmusthavebeenemployedaboutit，andtheexpenseofthislabouragaincouldarisefromnothingbuttheawkwardnessofthemachinerywhichitmadeuseof。Thepriceoffinewoollenstoo，thoughnotquitesoextravagant，seemshowevertohavebeenmuchabovethatofthepresenttimes。Somecloths，wearetoldbyPliny，dyedinaparticularmanner，costahundreddenarii，orthreepoundssixshillingsandeightpencethepoundweight。Othersdyedinanothermannercostathousanddenariithepoundweight，orthirty—threepoundssixshillingsandeightpence。TheRomanpound，itmustberemembered，containedonlytwelveofouravoirdupoisounces。Thishighprice，indeed，seemstohavebeenprincipallyowingtothedye。Buthadnottheclothsthemselvesbeenmuchdearerthananywhicharemadeinthepresenttimes，soveryexpensiveadyewouldnotprobablyhavebeenbestoweduponthem。Thedisproportionwouldhavebeentoogreatbetweenthevalueoftheaccessoryandthatoftheprincipal。ThepricementionedbythesameauthorofsomeTriclinaria，asortofwoollenpillowsorcushionsmadeuseoftoleanuponastheyreclinedupontheircouchesattable，passesallcredibility;someofthembeingsaidtohavecostmorethanthirtythousand，othersmorethanthreehundredthousandpounds。Thishighprice，too，isnotsaidtohavearisenfromthedye。Inthedressofthepeopleoffashionofbothsexesthereseemstohavebeenmuchlessvariety，itisobservedbyDoctorArbuthnot，inancientthaninmoderntimes;
　　andtheverylittlevarietywhichwefindinthatoftheancientstatuesconfirmshisobservation。Heinfersfromthisthattheirdressmustuponthewholehavebeencheaperthanours;buttheconclusiondoesnotseemtofollow。Whentheexpenseoffashionabledressisverygreat，thevarietymustbeverysmall。
　　Butwhen，bytheimprovementsintheproductivepowersofmanufacturingartandindustry，theexpenseofanyonedresscomestobeverymoderate，thevarietywillnaturallybeverygreat。Therich，notbeingabletodistinguishthemselvesbytheexpenseofanyonedress，willnaturallyendeavourtodosobythemultitudeandvarietyoftheirdresses。
　　Thegreatestandmostimportantbranchofthecommerceofeverynation，ithasalreadybeenobserved，isthatwhichiscarriedonbetweentheinhabitantsofthetownandthoseofthecountry。Theinhabitantsofthetowndrawfromthecountrytherudeproducewhichconstitutesboththematerialsoftheirworkandthefundoftheirsubsistence;andtheypayforthisrudeproducebysendingbacktothecountryacertainportionofitmanufacturedandpreparedforimmediateuse。Thetradewhichiscarriedonbetweenthesetwodifferentsetsofpeopleconsistsultimatelyinacertainquantityofrudeproduceexchangedforacertainquantityofmanufacturedproduce。Thedearerthelatter，therefore，thecheapertheformer;andwhatevertendsinanycountrytoraisethepriceofmanufacturedproducetendstolowerthatoftherudeproduceoftheland，andtherebytodiscourageagriculture。Thesmallerthequantityofmanufacturedproducewhichinanygivenquantityofrudeproduce，or，whatcomestothesamething，whichthepriceofanygivenquantityofrudeproduceiscapableofpurchasing，thesmallertheexchangeablevalueofthatgivenquantityofrudeproduce，thesmallertheencouragementwhicheitherthelandlordhastoincreaseitsquantitybyimprovingorthefarmerbycultivatingtheland。
　　Whatever，besides，tendstodiminishinanycountrythenumberofartificersandmanufacturers，tendstodiminishthehomemarket，themostimportantofallmarketsfortherudeproduceoftheland，andtherebystillfurthertodiscourageagriculture。
　　Thosesystems，therefore，which，preferringagriculturetoallotheremployments，inordertopromoteit，imposerestraintsuponmanufacturesandforeigntrade，actcontrarytotheveryendwhichtheypropose，andindirectlydiscouragethatveryspeciesofindustrywhichtheymeantopromote。Theyaresofar，perhaps，moreinconsistentthaneventhemercantilesystem。Thatsystem，byencouragingmanufacturesandforeigntrademorethanagriculture，turnsacertainportionofthecapitalofthesocietyfromsupportingamoreadvantageous，tosupportalessadvantageousspeciesofindustry。Butstillitreallyandintheendencouragesthatspeciesofindustrywhichitmeanstopromote。Thoseagriculturalsystems，onthecontrary，reallyandintheenddiscouragetheirownfavouritespeciesofindustry。
　　Itisthusthateverysystemwhichendeavours，eitherbyextraordinaryencouragementstodrawtowardsaparticularspeciesofindustryagreatershareofthecapitalofthesocietythanwhatwouldnaturallygotoit，or，byextraordinaryrestraints，forcefromaparticularspeciesofindustrysomeshareofthecapitalwhichwouldotherwisebeemployedinit，isinrealitysubversiveofthegreatpurposewhichitmeanstopromote。Itretards，insteadofaccelerating，theprogressofthesocietytowardsrealwealthandgreatness;anddiminishes，insteadofincreasing，therealvalueoftheannualproduceofitslandandlabour。
　　Allsystemseitherofpreferenceorofrestraint，therefore，beingthuscompletelytakenaway，theobviousandsimplesystemofnaturallibertyestablishesitselfofitsownaccord。Everyman，aslongashedoesnotviolatethelawsofjustice，isleftperfectlyfreetopursuehisowninteresthisownway，andtobringbothhisindustryandcapitalintocompetitionwiththoseofanyotherman，ororderofmen。Thesovereigniscompletelydischargedfromaduty，intheattemptingtoperformwhichhemustalwaysbeexposedtoinnumerabledelusions，andfortheproperperformanceofwhichnohumanwisdomorknowledgecouldeverbesufficient;thedutyofsuperintendingtheindustryofprivatepeople，andofdirectingittowardstheemploymentsmostsuitabletotheinterestofthesociety。Accordingtothesystemofnaturalliberty，thesovereignhasonlythreedutiestoattendto;threedutiesofgreatimportance，indeed，butplainandintelligibletocommonunderstandings:first，thedutyofprotectingthesocietyfromviolenceandinvasionofotherindependentsocieties;secondly，thedutyofprotecting，asfaraspossible，everymemberofthesocietyfromtheinjusticeoroppressionofeveryothermemberofit，orthedutyofestablishinganexactadministrationofjustice;and，thirdly，thedutyoferectingandmaintainingcertainpublicworksandcertainpublicinstitutionswhichitcanneverbefortheinterestofanyindividual，orsmallnumberofindividuals，toerectandmaintain;becausetheprofitcouldneverrepaytheexpensetoanyindividualorsmallnumberofindividuals，thoughitmayfrequentlydomuchmorethanrepayittoagreatsociety。
　　Theproperperformanceofthoseseveraldutiesofthesovereignnecessarilysupposesacertainexpense;andthisexpenseagainnecessarilyrequiresacertainrevenuetosupportit。Inthefollowingbook，therefore，Ishallendeavourtoexplain，first，whatarethenecessaryexpensesofthesovereignorcommonwealth;andwhichofthoseexpensesoughttobedefrayedbythegeneralcontributionofthewholesociety;andwhichofthembythatofsomeparticularpartonly，orofsomeparticularmembersofthesociety;secondly，whatarethedifferentmethodsinwhichthewholesocietymaybemadetocontributetowardsdefrayingtheexpensesincumbentonthewholesociety，andwhataretheprincipaladvantagesandinconveniencesofeachofthosemethods;andthirdly，whatarethereasonsandcauseswhichhaveinducedalmostallmoderngovernmentstomortgagesomepartofthisrevenue，ortocontractdebts，andwhathavebeentheeffectsofthosedebtsupontherealwealth，theannualproduceofthelandandlabourofthesociety。Thefollowingbook，therefore，willnaturallybedividedintothreechapters。
　　ANINQUIRYINTOTHENATUREANDCAUSESOFTHEWEALTHOFNATIONS
　　byAdamSmith1776
　　BOOKFIVE
　　OFTHEREVENUEOFTHESOVEREIGNORCOMMONWEALTH
　　CHAPTERI
　　OftheExpensesoftheSovereignorCommonwealthPART1
　　OftheExpenseofDefenceTHEfirstdutyofthesovereign，thatofprotectingthesocietyfromtheviolenceandinvasionofotherindependentsocieties，canbeperformedonlybymeansofamilitaryforce。
　　Buttheexpensebothofpreparingthismilitaryforceintimeofpeace，andofemployingitintimeofwar，isverydifferentinthedifferentstatesofsociety，inthedifferentperiodsofimprovement。
　　Amongnationsofhunters，thelowestandrudeststateofsociety，suchaswefinditamongthenativetribesofNorthAmerica，everymanisawarrioraswellasahunter。Whenhegoestowar，eithertodefendhissocietyortorevengetheinjurieswhichhavebeendonetoitbyothersocieties，hemaintainshimselfbyhisownlabourinthesamemanneraswhenhelivesathome。Hissociety，forinthisstateofthingsthereisproperlyneithersovereignnorcommonwealth，isatnosortofexpense，eithertopreparehimforthefield，ortomaintainhimwhileheisinit。
　　Amongnationsofshepherds，amoreadvancedstateofsociety，suchaswefinditamongtheTartarsandArabs，everymanis，inthesamemanner，awarrior。Suchnationshavecommonlynofixedhabitation，butliveeitherintentsorinasortofcoveredwaggonswhichareeasilytransportedfromplacetoplace。
　　Thewholetribeornationchangesitssituationaccordingtothedifferentseasonsoftheyear，aswellasaccordingtootheraccidents。Whenitsherdsandflockshaveconsumedtheforageofonepartofthecountry，itremovestoanother，andfromthattoathird。Inthedryseasonitcomesdowntothebanksoftherivers;inthewetseasonitretirestotheuppercountry。Whensuchanationgoestowar，thewarriorswillnottrusttheirherdsandflockstothefeebledefenceoftheiroldmen，theirwomenandchildren;andtheiroldmen，theirwomenandchildren，willnotbeleftbehindwithoutdefenceandwithoutsubsistence。
　　Thewholenation，besides，beingaccustomedtoawanderinglife，evenintimeofpeace，easilytakesthefieldintimeofwar。
　　Whetheritmarchesasanarmy，ormovesaboutasacompanyofherdsmen，thewayoflifeisnearlythesame，thoughtheobjectproposedbyitbeverydifferent。Theyallgotowartogether，therefore，andeveryonedoesaswellashecan。AmongtheTartars，eventhewomenhavebeenfrequentlyknowntoengageinbattle。Iftheyconquer，whateverbelongstothehostiletribeistherecompenseofthevictory。Butiftheyarevanquished，allislost，andnotonlytheirherdsandflocks，buttheirwomenandchildren，becomethebootyoftheconqueror。Eventhegreaterpartofthosewhosurvivetheactionareobligedtosubmittohimforthesakeofimmediatesubsistence。Therestarecommonlydissipatedanddispersedinthedesert。
　　Theordinarylife，theordinaryexercisesofaTartarorArab，preparehimsufficientlyforwar。Running，wrestling，cudgel—playing，throwingthejavelin，drawingthebow，etc。，arethecommonpastimesofthosewholiveintheopenair，andareallofthemtheimagesofwar。WhenaTartarorArabactuallygoestowar，heismaintainedbyhisownherdsandflockswhichhecarrieswithhiminthesamemannerasinpeace。Hischieforsovereign，forthosenationshaveallchiefsorsovereigns，isatnosortofexpenseinpreparinghimforthefield;andwhenheisinitthechanceofplunderistheonlypaywhichheeitherexpectsorrequires。
　　Anarmyofhunterscanseldomexceedtwoorthreehundredmen。Theprecarioussubsistencewhichthechaseaffordscouldseldomallowagreaternumbertokeeptogetherforanyconsiderabletime。Anarmyofshepherds，onthecontrary，maysometimesamounttotwoorthreehundredthousand。Aslongasnothingstopstheirprogress，aslongastheycangoonfromonedistrict，ofwhichtheyhaveconsumedtheforage，toanotherwhichisyetentire，thereseemstobescarceanylimittothenumberwhocanmarchontogether。Anationofhunterscanneverbeformidabletothecivilisednationsintheirneighbourhood。A
　　nationofshepherdsmay。NothingcanbemorecontemptiblethananIndianwarinNorthAmerica。Nothing，onthecontrary，canbemoredreadfulthanTartarinvasionhasfrequentlybeeninAsia。
　　ThejudgmentofThucydides，thatbothEuropeandAsiacouldnotresisttheScythiansunited，hasbeenverifiedbytheexperienceofallages。TheinhabitantsoftheextensivebutdefencelessplainsofScythiaorTartaryhavebeenfrequentlyunitedunderthedominionofthechiefofsomeconqueringhordeorclan，andthehavocanddevastationofAsiahavealwayssignalizedtheirunion。TheinhabitantsoftheinhospitabledesertsofArabia，theothergreatnationofshepherds，haveneverbeenunitedbutonce;
　　underMahometandhisimmediatesuccessors。Theirunion，whichwasmoretheeffectofreligiousenthusiasmthanofconquest，wassignalizedinthesamemanner。IfthehuntingnationsofAmericashouldeverbecomeshepherds，theirneighbourhoodwouldbemuchmoredangeroustotheEuropeancoloniesthanitisatpresent。
　　Inayetmoreadvancedstateofsociety，amongthosenationsofhusbandmenwhohavelittleforeigncommerce，andnoothermanufacturesbutthosecoarseandhouseholdoneswhichalmosteveryprivatefamilypreparesforitsownuse，everyman，inthesamemanner，eitherisawarriororeasilybecomessuch。Theywholivebyagriculturegenerallypassthewholedayintheopenair，exposedtoalltheinclemenciesoftheseasons。Thehardinessoftheirordinarylifepreparesthemforthefatiguesofwar，tosomeofwhichtheirnecessaryoccupationsbearagreatanalogy。
　　Thenecessaryoccupationofaditcherprepareshimtoworkinthetrenches，andtofortifyacampaswellastoencloseafield。
　　Theordinarypastimesofsuchhusbandmenarethesameasthoseofshepherds，andareinthesamemannertheimagesofwar。Butashusbandmenhavelessleisurethanshepherds，theyarenotsofrequentlyemployedinthosepastimes。Theyaresoldiers，butsoldiersnotquitesomuchmastersoftheirexercise。Suchastheyare，however，itseldomcoststhesovereignorcommonwealthanyexpensetopreparethemforthefield。
　　Agriculture，eveninitsrudestandloweststate，supposesasettlement:somesortoffixedhabitationwhichcannotbeabandonedwithoutgreatloss。Whenanationofmerehusbandmen，therefore，goestowar，thewholepeoplecannottakethefieldtogether。Theoldmen，thewomenandchildren，atleast，mustremainathometotakecareofthehabitation。Allthemenofthemilitaryage，however，maytakethefield，and，insmallnationsofthiskind，havefrequentlydoneso。Ineverynationthemenofthemilitaryagearesupposedtoamounttoaboutafourthorafifthpartofthewholebodyofthepeople。Ifthecampaign，shouldbeginafterseed—time，andendbeforeharvest，boththehusbandmanandhisprincipallabourerscanbesparedfromthefarmwithoutmuchloss。Hetruststhattheworkwhichmustbedoneinthemeantimecanbewellenoughexecutedbytheoldmen，thewomen，andthechildren。Heisnotunwilling，therefore，toservewithoutpayduringashortcampaign，anditfrequentlycoststhesovereignorcommonwealthaslittletomaintainhiminthefieldastopreparehimforit。ThecitizensofallthedifferentstatesofancientGreeceseemtohaveservedinthismannertillafterthesecondPersianwar;andthepeopleofPeloponnesustillafterthePeloponnesianwar。ThePeloponnesians，Thucydidesobserves，generallyleftthefieldinthesummer，andreturnedhometoreaptheharvest。TheRomanpeopleundertheirkings，andduringthefirstagesoftherepublic，servedinthesamemanner。ItwasnottillthesiegeofVeiithattheywhostayedathomebegantocontributesomethingtowardsmaintainingthosewhowenttowar。IntheEuropeanmonarchies，whichwerefoundedupontheruinsoftheRomanempire，bothbeforeandforsometimeaftertheestablishmentofwhatisproperlycalledthefeudallaw，thegreatlords，withalltheirimmediatedependents，usedtoservethecrownattheirownexpense。Inthefield，inthesamemannerasathome，theymaintainedthemselvesbytheirownrevenue，andnotbyanystipendorpaywhichtheyreceivedfromthekinguponthatparticularoccasion。
　　Inamoreadvancedstateofsociety，twodifferentcausescontributetorenderitaltogetherimpossiblethattheywhotakethefieldshouldmaintainthemselvesattheirownexpense。Thosetwocausesare，theprogressofmanufactures，andtheimprovementintheartofwar。
　　Thoughahusbandmanshouldbeemployedinanexpedition，provideditbeginsafterseed—timeandendsbeforeharvest，theinterruptionofhisbusinesswillnotalwaysoccasionanyconsiderablediminutionofhisrevenue。Withouttheinterventionofhislabour，naturedoesherselfthegreaterpartoftheworkwhichremainstobedone。Butthemomentthatanartificer，asmith，acarpenter，oraweaver，forexample，quitshisworkhouse，thesolesourceofhisrevenueiscompletelydriedup。
　　Naturedoesnothingforhim，hedoesallforhimself。Whenhetakesthefield，therefore，indefenceofthepublic，ashehasnorevenuetomaintainhimself，hemustnecessarilybemaintainedbythepublic。Butinacountryofwhichagreatpartoftheinhabitantsareartificersandmanufacturers，agreatpartofthepeoplewhogotowarmustbedrawnfromthoseclasses，andmustthereforebemaintainedbythepublicaslongastheyareemployedinitsservice。
　　Whentheartofwar，too，hasgraduallygrownuptobeaveryintricateandcomplicatedscience，whentheeventofwarceasestobedetermined，asinthefirstagesofsociety，byasingleirregularskirmishorbattle，butwhenthecontestisgenerallyspunoutthroughseveraldifferentcampaigns，eachofwhichlastsduringthegreaterpartoftheyear，itbecomesuniversallynecessarythatthepublicshouldmaintainthosewhoservethepublicinwar，atleastwhiletheyareemployedinthatservice。Whateverintimeofpeacemightbetheordinaryoccupationofthosewhogotowar，soverytediousandexpensiveaservicewouldotherwisebefartooheavyaburdenuponthem。
　　AfterthesecondPersianwar，accordingly，thearmiesofAthensseemtohavebeengenerallycomposedofmercenarytroops，consisting，indeed，partlyofcitizens，butpartlytooofforeigners，andallofthemequallyhiredandpaidattheexpenseofthestate。FromthetimeofthesiegeofVeii，thearmiesofRomereceivedpayfortheirserviceduringthetimewhichtheyremainedinthefield。Underthefeudalgovernmentsthemilitaryservicebothofthegreatlordsandoftheirimmediatedependantswas，afteracertainperiod，universallyexchangedforapaymentinmoney，whichwasemployedtomaintainthosewhoservedintheirstead。
　　Thenumberofthosewhocangotowar，inproportiontothewholenumberofthepeople，isnecessarilymuchsmallerinacivilisedthaninarudestateofsociety。Inacivilisedsociety，asthesoldiersaremaintainedaltogetherbythelabourofthosewhoarenotsoldiers，thenumberoftheformercanneverexceedwhatthelattercanmaintain，overandabovemaintaining，inamannersuitabletotheirrespectivestations，boththemselvesandtheotherofficersofgovernmentandlawwhomtheyareobligedtomaintain。InthelittleagrarianstatesofancientGreece，afourthorafifthpartofthewholebodyofthepeopleconsideredthemselvesassoldiers，andwouldsometimes，itissaid，takeafield。AmongthecivilisednationsofmodernEurope，itiscommonlycomputedthatnotmorethanone—hundredthpartoftheinhabitantsinanycountrycanbeemployedassoldierswithoutruintothecountrywhichpaystheexpensesoftheirservice。
　　Theexpenseofpreparingthearmyforthefieldseemsnottohavebecomeconsiderableinanynationtilllongafterthatofmaintainingitinthefieldhaddevolvedentirelyuponthesovereignorcommonwealth。InallthedifferentrepublicsofancientGreece，tolearnhismilitaryexerciseswasanecessarypartofeducationimposedbythestateuponeveryfreecitizen。
　　Ineverycitythereseemstohavebeenapublicfield，inwhich，undertheprotectionofthepublicmagistrate，theyoungpeopleweretaughttheirdifferentexercisesbydifferentmasters。InthisverysimpleinstitutionconsistedthewholeexpensewhichanyGrecianstateseemsevertohavebeenatinpreparingitscitizensforwar。InancientRometheexercisesoftheCampusMartiusansweredthesamepurposewiththoseoftheGymnasiuminancientGreece。Underthefeudalgovernments，themanypublicordinancesthatthecitizensofeverydistrictshouldpractisearcheryaswellasseveralothermilitaryexerciseswereintendedforpromotingthesamepurpose，butdonotseemtohavepromoteditsowell。Eitherfromwantofinterestintheofficersentrustedwiththeexecutionofthoseordinances，orfromsomeothercause，theyappeartohavebeenuniversallyneglected;andintheprogressofallthosegovernments，militaryexercisesseemtohavegonegraduallyintodisuseamongthegreatbodyofthepeople。
　　IntherepublicsofancientGreeceandRome，duringthewholeperiodoftheirexistence，andunderthefeudalgovernmentsforaconsiderabletimeaftertheirfirstestablishment，thetradeofasoldierwasnotaseparate，distincttrade，whichconstitutedthesoleorprincipaloccupationofaparticularclassofcitizens。Everysubjectofthestate，whatevermightbetheordinarytradeoroccupationbywhichhegainedhislivelihood，consideredhimself，uponallordinaryoccasions，asfitlikewisetoexercisethetradeofasoldier，anduponmanyextraordinaryoccasionsasboundtoexerciseit。