Inordertopreventexportation，thewholeinlandcommerceofwoolislaidunderveryburdensomeandoppressiverestrictions。Itcannotbepackedinanybox，barrel，cask，case，chest，oranyotherpackage，butonlyinpacksofleatherorpack—cloth，onwhichmustbemarkedontheoutsidethewordswooloryam，inlargelettersnotlessthanthreeincheslong，onpainofforfeitingthesameandthepackage，andthreeshillingsforeverypoundweight，tobepaidbytheownerorpacker。Itcannotbeloadenonanyhorseorcart，orcarriedbylandwithinfivemilesofthecoast，butbetweensun—risingandsun—setting，onpainofforfeitingthesame，thehorsesandcarriages。Thehundrednextadjoiningtothesea—coast，outoforthroughwhichthewooliscarriedorexported，forfeitstwentypounds，ifthewoolisunderthevalueoftenpounds;andifofgreatervalue，thentreblethatvalue，togetherwithtreblecosts，tobesuedforwithintheyear。Theexecutiontobeagainstanytwooftheinhabitants，whomthesessionsmustreimburse，byanassessmentontheotherinhabitants，asinthecasesofrobbery。Andifanypersoncompoundswiththehundredforlessthanthispenalty，heistobeimprisonedforfiveyears;andanyotherpersonmayprosecute。Theseregulationstakeplacethroughthewholekingdom。
　　ButintheparticularcountiesofKentandSussex，therestrictionsarestillmoretroublesome。Everyownerofwoolwithintenmilesofthesea—coastmustgivenanaccountinwriting，threedaysaftershearingtothenextofficerofthecustoms，ofthenumberofhisfleeces，andoftheplaceswheretheyarelodged。Andbeforeheremovesanypartofthemhemustgivethelikenoticeofthenumberandweightofthefleeces，andofthenameandabodeofthepersontowhomtheyaresold，andoftheplacetowhichitisintendedtheyshouldbecarried。Nopersonwithinfifteenmilesofthesea，inthesaidcounties，canbuyanywoolbeforeheentersintobondtothekingthatnopartofthewoolwhichheshallsobuyshallbesoldbyhimtoanyotherpersonwithinfifteenmilesofthesea。Ifanywoolisfoundcarryingtowardsthesea—sideinthesaidcounties，unlessithasbeenenteredandsecuritygivenasaforesaid，itisforfeited，andtheoffenderalsoforfeitsthreeshillingsforeverypoundweight。Ifanypersonlaysanywoolnotenteredasaforesaidwithinfifteenmilesofthesea，itmustbeseizedandforfeited;andif，aftersuchseizure，anypersonclaimthesame，hemustgivesecuritytotheExchequerthatifheiscastupontrialheshallpaytreblecosts，besidesallotherpenalties。
　　Whensuchrestrictionsareimposedupontheinlandtrade，thecoastingtrade，wemaybelieve，cannotbeleftveryfree。
　　Everyownerofwoolwhocarriesorcausestobecarriedanywooltoanyportorplaceontheseacoast，inordertobefromthencetransportedbyseatoanyotherplaceorportonthecoast，mustfirstcauseanentrythereoftobemadeattheportfromwhenceitisintendedtobeconveyed，containingtheweight，marks，andnumberofthepackages，beforehebringsthesamewithinfivemilesofthatport，onpainofforfeitingthesame，andalsothehorses，carts，andothercarriages;andalsoofsufferingandforfeitingasbytheotherlawsinforceagainsttheexportationofwool。Thislaw，however（1stWilliamIII，c。32），issoveryindulgentastodeclarethat，"Thisshallnothinderanypersonfromcarryinghiswoolhomefromtheplaceofshearing，thoughitbewithinfivemilesofthesea，providedthatintendaysaftershearing，andbeforeheremovethewool，hedounderhishandcertifytothenextofficerofthecustoms，thetruenumberoffleeces，andwhereitishoused;anddonotremovethesame，withoutcertifyingtosuchofficer，underhishand，hisintentionsotodo，threedaysbefore。"Bondmustbegiventhatthewooltobecarriedcoastwaysistobelandedattheparticularportforwhichitisenteredoutwards;andifanypartofitislandedwithoutthepresenceofanofficer，notonlytheforfeitureofthewoolisincurredasinothergoods，buttheusualadditionalpenaltyofthreeshillingsforeverypoundweightislikewiseincurred。
　　Ourwoollenmanufactures，inordertojustifytheirdemandofsuchextraordinaryrestrictionsandregulations，confidentlyassertedthatEnglishwoolwasofapeculiarquality，superiortothatofanyothercountry;thatthewoolofothercountriescouldnot，withoutsomemixtureofit，bewroughtupintoanytolerablemanufacture;thatfineclothcouldnotbemadewithoutit;thatEngland，therefore，iftheexportationofitcouldbetotallyprevented，couldmonopolizetoherselfalmostthewholewoollentradeoftheworld;andthus，havingnorivals，couldsellatwhatpriceshepleased，andinashorttimeacquirethemostincredibledegreeofwealthbythemostadvantageousbalanceoftrade。Thisdoctrine，likemostotherdoctrineswhichareconfidentlyassertedbyanyconsiderablenumberofpeople，was，andstillcontinuestobe，mostimplicitlybelievedbyamuchgreaternumber—byalmostallthosewhoareeitherunacquaintedwiththewoollentrade，orwhohavenotmadeparticularinquiries。Itis，however，soperfectlyfalsethatEnglishwoolisinanyrespectnecessaryforthemakingoffinecloththatitisaltogetherunfitforit。FineclothismadealtogetherofSpanishwool。EnglishwoolcannotbeevensomixedwithSpanishwoolastoenterintothecompositionwithoutspoilinganddegrading，insomedegree，thefabricofthecloth。
　　IthasbeenshownintheforegoingpartofthisworkthattheeffectoftheseregulationshasbeentodepressthepriceofEnglishwool，notonlybelowwhatitnaturallywouldbeinthepresenttimes，butverymuchbelowwhatitactuallywasinthetimeofEdwardIII。ThepriceofScotswool，wheninconsequenceoftheunionitbecamesubjecttothesameregulations，issaidtohavefallenaboutonehalf。ItisobservedbytheveryaccurateandintelligentauthoroftheMemoirsofWool，theReverendMr。JohnSmith，thatthepriceofthebestEnglishwoolinEnglandisgenerallybelowwhatwoolofaveryinferiorqualitycommonlysellsforinthemarketofAmsterdam。Todepressthepriceofthiscommoditybelowwhatmaybecalleditsnaturalandproperpricewastheavowedpurposeofthoseregulations;andthereseemstobenodoubtoftheirhavingproducedtheeffectthatwasexpectedfromthem。
　　Thisreductionofprice，itmayperhapsbethought，bydiscouragingthegrowingofwool，musthavereducedverymuchtheannualproduceofthatcommodity，thoughnotbelowwhatitformerlywas，yetbelowwhat，inthepresentstateofthings，itprobablywouldhavebeen，hadit，inconsequenceofanopenandfreemarket，beenallowedtorisetothenaturalandproperprice。Iam，however，disposedtobelievethatthequantityoftheannualproducecannothavebeenmuch，thoughitmayperhapshavebeenalittle，affectedbytheseregulations。Thegrowingofwoolisnotthechiefpurposeforwhichthesheepfarmeremployshisindustryandstock。Heexpectshisprofitnotsomuchfromthepriceofthefleeceasfromthatofthecarcass;andtheaverageorordinarypriceofthelattermusteven，inmanycases，makeuptohimwhateverdeficiencytheremaybeintheaverageorordinarypriceoftheformer。Ithasbeenobservedintheforegoingpartofthisworkthat，"Whateverregulationstendtosinktheprice，eitherofwoolorofrawhides，belowwhatitnaturallywouldbe，must，inanimprovedandcultivatedcountry，havesometendencytoraisethepriceofbutcher’smeat。Thepricebothofthegreatandsmallcattlewhicharefedonimprovedandcultivatedlandmustbesufficienttopaytherentwhichthelandlord，andtheprofitwhichthefarmerhasreasontoexpectfromimprovedandcultivatedland。Ifitisnot，theywillsoonceasetofeedthem。Whateverpartofthisprice，therefore，isnotpaidbythewoolandthehidemustbepaidbythecarcass。
　　Thelessthereispaidfortheone，themoremustbepaidfortheother。Inwhatmannerthispriceistobedivideduponthedifferentpartsofthebeastisindifferenttothelandlordsandfarmers，provideditisallpaidtothem。Inanimprovedandcultivatedcountry，therefore，theirinterestaslandlordsandfarmerscannotbemuchaffectedbysuchregulations，thoughtheirinterestasconsumersmaybytheriseinthepriceofprovisions。"Accordingtothisreasoning，therefore，thisdegradationinthepriceofwoolisnotlikely，inanimprovedandcultivatedcountry，tooccasionanydiminutionintheannualproduceofthatcommodity，exceptsofaras，byraisingthepriceofmutton，itmaysomewhatdiminishthedemandfor，andconsequentlytheproductionof，thatparticularspeciesofbutcher’smeat。Itseffect，however，eveninthisway，itisprobable，isnotveryconsiderable。
　　Butthoughitseffectuponthequantityoftheannualproducemaynothavebeenveryconsiderable，itseffectuponthequality，itmayperhapsbethought，mustnecessarilyhavebeenverygreat。ThedegradationinthequalityofEnglishwool，ifnotbelowwhatitwasinformertimes，yetbelowwhatitnaturallywouldhavebeeninthepresentstateofimprovementandcultivation，musthavebeen，itmayperhapsbesupposed，verynearlyinproportiontothedegradationofprice。Asthequalitydependsuponthebreed，uponthepasture，anduponthemanagementandcleanlinessofthesheep，duringthewholeprogressofthegrowthofthefleece，theattentiontothesecircumstances，itmaynaturallyenoughbeimagined，canneverbegreaterthaninproportiontotherecompensewhichthepriceofthefleeceislikelytomakeforthelabourandexpensewhichthatattentionrequires。Ithappens，however，thatthegoodnessofthefleecedepends，inagreatmeasure，uponthehealth，growth，andbulkoftheanimal;thesameattentionwhichisnecessaryfortheimprovementofthecarcaseis，insomerespects，sufficientforthatofthefleece。Notwithstandingthedegradationofprice，Englishwoolissaidtohavebeenimprovedconsiderablyduringthecourseevenofthepresentcentury。Theimprovementmightperhapshavebeengreaterifthepricehadbeenbetter;butthelownessofprice，thoughitmayhaveobstructed，yetcertainlyithasnotaltogetherpreventedthatimprovement。
　　Theviolenceoftheseregulations，therefore，seemstohaveaffectedneitherthequantitynorthequalityoftheannualproduceofwoolsomuchasitmighthavebeenexpectedtodo（thoughIthinkitprobablethatitmayhaveaffectedthelatteragooddealmorethantheformer）;andtheinterestofthegrowersofwool，thoughitmusthavebeenhurtinsomedegree，seems，uponthewhole，tohavebeenmuchlesshurtthancouldwellhavebeenimagined。
　　Theseconsiderations，however，willnotjustifytheabsoluteprohibitionoftheexportationofwool。Buttheywillfullyjustifytheimpositionofaconsiderabletaxuponthatexportation。
　　Tohurtinanydegreetheinterestofanyoneorderofcitizens，fornootherpurposebuttopromotethatofsomeother，isevidentlycontrarytothatjusticeandequalityoftreatmentwhichthesovereignowestoallthedifferentordersofhissubjects。Buttheprohibitioncertainlyhurts，insomedegree，theinterestofthegrowersofwool，fornootherpurposebuttopromotethatofthemanufacturers。
　　Everydifferentorderofcitizensisboundtocontributetothesupportofthesovereignorcommonwealth。Ataxoffive，orevenoftenshillingsupontheexportationofeverytonofwoolwouldproduceaveryconsiderablerevenuetothesovereign。Itwouldhurttheinterestofthegrowerssomewhatlessthantheprohibition，becauseitwouldnotprobablylowerthepriceofwoolquitesomuch。Itwouldaffordasufficientadvantagetothemanufacturer，because，thoughhemightnotbuyhiswoolaltogethersocheapasundertheprohibition，hewouldstillbuyit，atleast，fiveortenshillingscheaperthananyforeignmanufacturercouldbuyit，besidessavingthefreightandinsurance，whichtheotherwouldbeobligedtopay。Itisscarcepossibletodeviseataxwhichcouldproduceanyconsiderablerevenuetothesovereign，andatthesametimeoccasionsolittleinconveniencytoanybody。
　　Theprohibition，notwithstandingallthepenaltieswhichguardit，doesnotpreventtheexportationofwool。Itisexported，itiswellknown，ingreatquantities。Thegreatdifferencebetweenthepriceinthehomeandthatintheforeignmarketpresentssuchatemptationtosmugglingthatalltherigourofthelawcannotpreventit。Thisillegalexportationisadvantageoustonobodybutthesmuggler。Alegalexportationsubjecttoatax，byaffordingarevenuetothesovereign，andtherebysavingtheimpositionofsomeother，perhaps，moreburdensomeandinconvenienttaxesmightproveadvantageoustoallthedifferentsubjectsofthestate。
　　Theexportationoffuller’searthorfuller’sclay，supposedtobenecessaryforpreparingandcleansingthewoolenmanufactures，hasbeensubjectedtonearlythesamepenaltiesastheexportationofwool。Eventobacco—pipeclay，thoughacknowledgedtobedifferentfromfuller’sclay，yet，onaccountoftheirresemblance，andbecausefuller’sclaymightsometimesbeexportedastobacco—pipeclay，hasbeenlaidunderthesameprohibitionsandpenalties。
　　Bythe13thand14thofCharlesII，c。7，theexportation，notonlyofrawhides，butoftannedleather，exceptintheshapeofboots，shoes，orslippers，wasprohibited;andthelawgaveamonopolytoourbootmakersandshoemakers，notonlyagainstourgraziers，butagainstourtanners。Bysubsequentstatutesourtannershavegotthemselvesexemptedfromthismonopolyuponpayingasmalltaxofonlyoneshillingonthehundred—weightoftannedleather，weighingonehundredandtwelvepounds。Theyhaveobtainedlikewisethedrawbackoftwo—thirdsoftheexcisedutiesimposedupontheircommodityevenwhenexportedwithoutfurthermanufacture。Allmanufacturesofleathermaybeexporteddutyfree;andtheexporterisbesidesentitledtothedrawbackofthewholedutiesofexcise。Ourgraziersstillcontinuesubjecttotheoldmonopoly。Graziersseparatedfromoneanother，anddispersedthroughallthedifferentcornersofthecountry，cannot，withoutgreatdifficulty，combinetogetherforthepurposeeitherofimposingmonopoliesupontheirfellowcitizens，orofexemptingthemselvesfromsuchasmayhavebeenimposeduponthembyotherpeople。Manufacturersofallkinds，collectedtogetherinnumerousbodiesinallgreatcities，easilycan。Eventhehornsofcattleareprohibitedtobeexported;andthetwoinsignificanttradesofthehornerandcombmakerenjoy，inthisrespect，amonopolyagainstthegraziers。
　　Restraints，eitherbyprohibitionsorbytaxes，upontheexportationofgoodswhicharepartially，butnotcompletelymanufactured，arenotpeculiartothemanufactureofleather。Aslongasanythingremainstobedone，inordertofitanycommodityforimmediateuseandconsumption，ourmanufacturersthinkthattheythemselvesoughttohavethedoingofit。Woolenyarnandworstedareprohibitedtobeexportedunderthesamepenaltiesaswool。Evenwhiteclothsaresubjecttoadutyuponexportation，andourdyershavesofarobtainedamonopolyagainstourclothiers。Ourclothierswouldprobablyhavebeenabletodefendthemselvesagainstit，butithappensthatthegreaterpartofourprincipalclothiersarethemselveslikewisedyers。Watch—cases，clockcases，anddial—platesforclocksandwatcheshavebeenprohibitedtobeexported。Ourclock—makersandwatch—makersare，itseems，unwillingthatthepriceofthissortofworkmanshipshouldberaiseduponthembythecompetitionofforeigners。
　　BysomeoldstatutesofEdwardM，HenryVIII，andEdwardVI，theexportationofallmetalswasprohibited。Leadandtinwerealoneexceptedprobablyonaccountofthegreatabundanceofthosemetals，intheexportationofwhichaconsiderablepartofthetradeofthekingdominthosedaysconsisted。Fortheencouragementoftheminingtrade，the5thofWilliamandMary，c。17，exemptedfromtheprohibitioniron，copper，andmundicmetalmadefromBritishore。Theexportationofallsortsofcopperbars，foreignaswellasBritish，wasafterwardspermittedbythe9thand10thofWilliamIII，c。26。Theexportationofunmanufacturedbrass，ofwhatiscalledgun—metal，bell—metal，andshroff—metal，stillcontinuestobeprohibited。Brassmanufacturesofallsortsmaybeexporteddutyfree。
　　Theexportationofthematerialsofmanufacture，whereitisnotaltogetherprohibited，isinmanycasessubjectedtoconsiderableduties。
　　Bythe8thGeorgeI，c。15，theexportationofallgoods，theproduceormanufactureofGreatBritain，uponwhichanydutieshadbeenimposedbyformerstatutes，wasrendereddutyfree。Thefollowinggoods，however，wereexcepted:alum，lead，leadore，tin，tannedleather，copperas，coals，woolcards，whitewoolencloths，lapiscalaminaris，skinsofallsorts，glue，coneyhairorwool，hares’wool，hairofallsorts，horses，andlithargeoflead。Ifyouexpecthorses，alltheseareeithermaterialsofmanufacture，orincompletemanufactures（whichmaybeconsideredasmaterialsforstillfurthermanufacture），orinstrumentsoftrade。Thisstatuteleavesthemsubjecttoalltheolddutieswhichhadeverbeenimposeduponthem，theoldsubsidyandonepercentoutwards。
　　Bythesamestatuteagreatnumberofforeigndrugsfordyers’useareexemptedfromalldutiesuponimportation。Eachofthem，however，isafterwardssubjectedtoacertainduty，notindeedaveryheavyone，uponexportation。Ourdyers，itseems，whiletheythoughtitfortheirinteresttoencouragetheimportationofthosedrugs，byanexemptionfromallduties，thoughtitlikewisefortheirinteresttothrowsomesmalldiscouragementupontheirexportation。Theavidity，however，whichsuggestedthisnotablepieceofmercantileingenuity，mostprobablydisappointeditselfofitsobject。Itnecessarilytaughttheimporterstobemorecarefulthantheymightotherwisehavebeenthattheirimportationshouldnotexceedwhatwasnecessaryforthesupplyofthehomemarket。Thehomemarketwasatalltimeslikelytobemorescantilysupplied;thecommoditieswereatalltimeslikelytobesomewhatdearertherethantheywouldhavebeenhadtheexportationbeenrenderedasfreeastheimportation。
　　Bytheabove—mentionedstatute，gumsenega，orgumarabic，beingamongtheenumerateddyeingdrugs，mightbeimporteddutyfree。Theyweresubjected，indeed，toasmallpoundageduty，amountingonlytothreepenceinthehundredweightupontheirre—exportation。Franceenjoyed，atthattime，anexclusivetradetothecountrymostproductiveofthosedrugs，thatwhichliesintheneighbourhoodoftheSenegal;andtheBritishmarketcouldnoteasilybesuppliedbytheimmediateimportationofthemfromtheplaceofgrowth。Bythe25thGeorgeII，therefore，gumsenegawasallowedtobeimported（contrarytothegeneraldispositionsoftheActofNavigation）fromanypartofEurope。Asthelaw，however，didnotmeantoencouragethisspeciesoftrade，socontrarytothegeneralprinciplesofthemercantilepolicyofEngland，itimposedadutyoftenshillingsthehundredweightuponsuchimportation，andnopartofthisdutywastobeafterwardsdrawnbackuponitsexportation。Thesuccessfulwarwhichbeganin1755gaveGreatBritainthesameexclusivetradetothosecountrieswhichFrancehadenjoyedbefore。Ourmanufacturers，assoonasthepeacewasmade，endeavouredtoavailthemselvesofthisadvantage，andtoestablishamonopolyintheirownfavourbothagainstthegrowersandagainsttheimportersofthiscommodity。Bythe5thGeorgeIII，therefore，c。
　　37，theexportationofgumsenegafromhisMajesty’sdominionsinAfricawasconfinedtoGreatBritain，andwassubjectedtoallthesamerestrictions，regulations，forfeitures，andpenaltiesasthatoftheenumeratedcommoditiesoftheBritishcoloniesinAmericaandtheWestIndies。Itsimportation，indeed，wassubjectedtoasmalldutyofsixpencethehundredweight，butitsre—exportationwassubjectedtotheenormousdutyofonepoundtenshillingsthehundredweight。ItwastheintentionofourmanufacturersthatthewholeproduceofthosecountriesshouldbeimportedintoGreatBritain，and，inorderthattheythemselvesmightbeenabledtobuyitattheirownprice，thatnopartofitshouldbeexportedagainbutatsuchanexpenseaswouldsufficientlydiscouragethatexportation。Theiravidity，however，uponthis，aswellasuponmanyotheroccasions，disappointeditselfofitsobject。Thisenormousdutypresentedsuchatemptationtosmugglingthatgreatquantitiesofthiscommoditywereclandestinelyexported，probablytoallthemanufacturingcountriesofEurope，putparticularlytoHolland，notonlyfromGreatBritainbutfromAfrica。Uponthisaccount，bythe14thGeorgeIII，c。10，thisdutyuponexportationwasreducedtofiveshillingsthehundredweight。
　　Inthebookofrates，accordingtowhichtheOldSubsidywaslevied，beaverskinswereestimatedatsixshillingsandeightpenceapiece，andthedifferentsubsidiesandimposts，whichbeforetheyear1722hadbeenlaidupontheirimportation，amountedtoone—fifthpartoftherate，ortosixteenpenceuponeachskin;allofwhich，excepthalftheOldSubsidy，amountingonlytotwopence，wasdrawnbackuponexportation。Thisdutyupontheimportationofsoimportantamaterialofmanufacturehadbeenthoughttoohigh，andintheyear1722theratewasreducedtotwoshillingsandsixpence，whichreducedthedutyuponimportationtosixpence，andofthisonlyonehalfwastobedrawnbackuponexportation。ThesamesuccessfulwarputthecountrymostproductiveofbeaverunderthedominionofGreatBritain，andbeaverskinsbeingamongtheenumeratedcommodities，theirexportationfromAmericawasconsequentlyconfinedtothemarketofGreatBritain。Ourmanufacturerssoonbethoughtthemselvesoftheadvantagewhichtheymightmakeofthiscircumstance，andintheyear1764thedutyupontheimportationofbeaver—skinwasreducedtoonepenny，butthedutyuponexportationwasraisedtosevenpenceeachskin，withoutanydrawbackofthedutyuponimportation。Bythesamelaw，adutyofeighteenpencethepoundwasimposedupontheexportationofbeaverwoolorwombs，withoutmakinganyalterationinthedutyupontheimportationofthatcommodity，which，whenimportedbyBritainandinBritishshipping，amountedatthattimetobetweenfourpenceandfivepencethepiece。
　　Coalsmaybeconsideredbothasamaterialofmanufactureandasaninstrumentoftrade。Heavyduties，accordingly，havebeenimposedupontheirexportation，amountingatpresent（1783）
　　tomorethanfiveshillingstheton，ortomorethanfifteenshillingsthechaldron，Newcastlemeasures，whichisinmostcasesmorethantheoriginalvalueofthecommodityatthecoalpit，orevenattheshippingportforexportation。
　　Theexportation，however，oftheinstrumentsoftrade，properlysocalled，iscommonlyrestrained，notbyhighduties，butbyabsoluteprohibitions。Thusbythe7thand8thofWilliamIII，c。20，sect。8，theexportationofframesorenginesforknittingglovesorstockingsisprohibitedunderthepenalty，notonlyoftheforfeitureofsuchframesorenginessoexported，orattemptedtobeexported，butoffortypounds，onehalftotheking，theothertothepersonwhoshallinformorsueforthesame。Inthesamemanner，bythe14thGeorgeIII，c。71，theexportationtoforeignpartsofanyutensilsmadeuseofinthecotton，linen，woollen，andsilkmanufacturesisprohibitedunderthepenalty，notonlyoftheforfeitureofsuchutensils，butoftwohundredpounds，tobepaidbythepersonwhoshalloffendinthismanner，andlikewiseoftwohundredpoundstobepaidbythemasteroftheshipwhoshallknowinglysuffersuchutensilstobeloadedonboardhisship。
　　Whensuchheavypenaltieswereimposedupontheexportationofthedeadinstrumentsoftrade，itcouldnotwellbeexpectedthatthelivinginstrument，theartificer，shouldbeallowedtogofree。Accordingly，bythe5thGeorgeI，c。27，thepersonwhoshallbeconvictedofenticinganyartificerof，orinanyofthemanufacturesofGreatBritain，togointoanyforeignpartsinordertopractiseorteachhistrade，isliableforthefirstoffencetobefinedinanysumnotexceedingonehundredpounds，andtothreemonths’imprisonment，anduntilthefineshallbepaid;andforthesecondoffence，tobefinedinanysumatthediscretionofthecourt，andtoimprisonmentfortwelvemonths，anduntilthefineshallbepaid。Bythe23rdGeorgeII，c。13，thispenaltyisincreasedforthefirstoffencetofivehundredpoundsforeveryartificersoenticed，andtotwelvemonths’
　　imprisonment，anduntilthefineshallbepaid;andforthesecondoffence，toonethousandpounds，andtotwoyears’
　　imprisonment，anduntilthefineshallbepaid。
　　Bytheformerofthosetwostatutes，uponproofthatanypersonhasbeenenticinganyartificer，orthatanyartificerhaspromisedorcontractedtogointoforeignpartsforthepurposesaforesaid，suchartificermaybeobligedtogivesecurityatthediscretionofthecourtthatheshallnotgobeyondtheseas，andmaybecommittedtoprisonuntilhegivesuchsecurity。
　　Ifanyartificerhasgonebeyondtheseas，andisexercisingorteachinghistradeinanyforeigncountry，uponwarningbeinggiventohimbyanyofhisMajesty’sministersorconsulsabroad，orbyoneofhisMajesty’sSecretariesofStateforthetimebeing，ifhedoesnot，withinsixmonthsaftersuchwarning，returnintothisrealm，andfromthenceforthabideandinhabitcontinuallywithinthesame，heisfromthenceforthdeclaredincapableoftakinganylegacydevisedtohimwithinthiskingdom，orofbeingexecutororadministratortoanyperson，oroftakinganylandswithinthiskingdombydescent，device，orpurchase。Helikewiseforfeitstothekingallhislands，goods，andchattels，isdeclaredanalienineveryrespect，andisputoutoftheking’sprotection。
　　Itisunnecessary，Iimagine，toobservehowcontrarysuchregulationsaretotheboastedlibertyofthesubject，ofwhichweaffecttobesoveryjealous;butwhich，inthiscase，issoplainlysacrificedtothefutileinterestsofourmerchantsandmanufacturers。
　　Thelaudablemotiveofalltheseregulationsistoextendourownmanufactures，notbytheirownimprovement，butbythedepressionofthoseofallourneighbours，andbyputtinganend，asmuchaspossible，tothetroublesomecompetitionofsuchodiousanddisagreeablerivals。Ourmastermanufacturersthinkitreasonablethattheythemselvesshouldhavethemonopolyoftheingenuityofalltheircountrymen。Thoughbyrestraining，insometrades，thenumberofapprenticeswhichcanbeemployedatonetime，andbyimposingthenecessityofalongapprenticeshipinalltrades，theyendeavour，allofthem，toconfinetheknowledgeoftheirrespectiveemploymentstoassmallanumberaspossible;
　　theyareunwilling，however，thatanypartofthissmallnumbershouldgoabroadtoinstructforeigners。
　　Consumptionisthesoleendandpurposeofallproduction;
　　andtheinterestoftheproduceroughttobeattendedtoonlysofarasitmaybenecessaryforpromotingthatoftheconsumer。
　　Themaximissoperfectlyselfevidentthatitwouldbeabsurdtoattempttoproveit。Butinthemercantilesystemtheinterestoftheconsumerisalmostconstantlysacrificedtothatoftheproducer;anditseemstoconsiderproduction，andnotconsumption，astheultimateendandobjectofallindustryandcommerce。
　　Intherestraintsupontheimportationofallforeigncommoditieswhichcancomeintocompetitionwiththoseofourowngrowthormanufacture，theinterestofthehomeconsumerisevidentlysacrificedtothatoftheproducer。Itisaltogetherforthebenefitofthelatterthattheformerisobligedtopaythatenhancementofpricewhichthismonopolyalmostalwaysoccasions。
　　Itisaltogetherforthebenefitoftheproducerthatbountiesaregrantedupontheexportationofsomeofhisproductions。Thehomeconsumerisobligedtopay，first，thetaxwhichisnecessaryforpayingthebounty，andsecondly，thestillgreatertaxwhichnecessarilyarisesfromtheenhancementofthepriceofthecommodityinthehomemarket。
　　BythefamoustreatyofcommercewithPortugal，theconsumerispreventedbyhighdutiesfrompurchasingofaneighbouringcountryacommoditywhichourownclimatedoesnotproduce，butisobligedtopurchaseitofadistantcountry，thoughitisacknowledgedthatthecommodityofthedistantcountryisofaworsequalitythanthatofthenearone。Thehomeconsumerisobligedtosubmittothisinconveniencyinorderthattheproducermayimportintothedistantcountrysomeofhisproductionsuponmoreadvantageoustermsthanhewouldotherwisehavebeenallowedtodo。Theconsumer，too，isobligedtopaywhateverenhancementinthepriceifthoseveryproductionsthisforcedexportationmayoccasioninthehomemarket。
　　ButinthesystemoflawswhichhasbeenestablishedforthemanagementofourAmericanandWestIndiancolonies，theinterestofthehomeconsumerhasbeensacrificedtothatoftheproducerwithamoreextravagantprofusionthaninallourothercommercialregulations。Agreatempirehasbeenestablishedforthesolepurposeofraisingupanationofcustomerswhoshouldbeobligedtobuyfromtheshopsofourdifferentproducersallthegoodswithwhichthesecouldsupplythem。Forthesakeofthatlittleenhancementofpricewhichthismonopolymightaffordourproducers，thehomeconsumershavebeenburdenedwiththewholeexpenseofmaintaininganddefendingthatempire。Forthispurpose，andforthispurposeonly，inthetwolastwars，morethantwohundredmillionshavebeenspent，andanewdebtofmorethanahundredandseventymillionshasbeencontractedoverandaboveallthathadbeenexpendedforthesamepurposeinformerwars。Theinterestofthisdebtaloneisnotonlygreaterthanthewholeextraordinaryprofitwhichitevercouldbepretendedwasmadebythemonopolyofthecolonytrade，butthanthewholevalueofthattrade，orthanthewholevalueofthegoodswhichatanaveragehavebeenannuallyexportedtothecolonies。
　　Itcannotbeverydifficulttodeterminewhohavebeenthecontriversofthiswholemercantilesystem;nottheconsumers，wemaybelieve，whoseinteresthasbeenentirelyneglected;buttheproducers，whoseinteresthasbeensocarefullyattendedto;andamongthislatterclassourmerchantsandmanufacturershavebeenbyfartheprincipalarchitects。Inthemercantileregulations，whichhavebeentakennoticeofinthischapter，theinterestofourmanufacturershasbeenmostpeculiarlyattendedto;andtheinterest，notsomuchoftheconsumers，asthatofsomeothersetsofproducers，hasbeensacrificedtoit。
　　CHAPTERIX
　　OftheAgriculturalSystems，orofthoseSystemsofPoliticalEconomywhichrepresenttheProduceofLandaseitherthesoleortheprincipalSourceoftheRevenueandWealtheveryCountryTHEagriculturalsystemsofpoliticaleconomywillnotrequiresolonganexplanationasthatwhichIhavethoughtitnecessarytobestowuponthemercantileorcommercialsystem。
　　Thatsystemwhichrepresentstheproduceoflandasthesolesourceoftherevenueandwealthofeverycountryhas，sofarasIknow，neverbeenadoptedbyanynation，anditatpresentexistsonlyinthespeculationsofafewmenofgreatlearningandingenuityinFrance。Itwouldnot，surely，beworthwhiletoexamineatgreatlengththeerrorsofasystemwhichneverhasdone，andprobablyneverwilldo，anyharminanypartoftheworld。Ishallendeavourtoexplain，however，asdistinctlyasI
　　can，thegreatoutlinesofthisveryingenioussystem。
　　Mr。Colbert，thefamousministerofLouisXIV，wasamanofprobity，ofgreatindustryandknowledgeofdetail，ofgreatexperienceandacutenessintheexaminationofpublicaccounts，andofabilities，inshort，everywayfittedforintroducingmethodandgoodorderintothecollectionandexpenditureofthepublicrevenue。Thatministerhadunfortunatelyembracedalltheprejudicesofthemercantilesystem，initsnatureandessenceasystemofrestraintandregulation，andsuchascouldscarcefailtobeagreeabletoalaboriousandploddingmanofbusiness，whohadbeenaccustomedtoregulatethedifferentdepartmentsofpublicoffices，andtoestablishthenecessarychecksandcontrolsforconfiningeachtoitspropersphere。Theindustryandcommerceofagreatcountryheendeavouredtoregulateuponthesamemodelasthedepartmentsofapublicoffice;andinsteadofallowingeverymantopursuehisowninterestinhisownway，upontheliberalplanofequality，liberty，andjustice，hebestoweduponcertainbranchesofindustryextraordinaryprivileges，whilehelaidothersunderasextraordinaryrestraints。Hewasnotonlydisposed，likeotherEuropeanministers，toencouragemoretheindustryofthetownsthanthatofthecountry;but，inordertosupporttheindustryofthetowns，hewaswillingeventodepressandkeepdownthatofthecountry。Inordertorenderprovisionscheaptotheinhabitantsofthetowns，andtherebytoencouragemanufacturesandforeigncommerce，heprohibitedaltogethertheexportationofcorn，andthusexcludedtheinhabitantsofthecountryfromeveryforeignmarketforbyfarthemostimportantpartoftheproduceoftheirindustry。Thisprohibition，joinedtotherestraintsimposedbytheancientprovinciallawsofFranceuponthetransportationofcornfromoneprovincetoanother，andtothearbitraryanddegradingtaxeswhicharelevieduponthecultivatorsinalmostalltheprovinces，discouragedandkeptdowntheagricultureofthatcountryverymuchbelowthestatetowhichitwouldnaturallyhaveriseninsoveryfertileasoilandsoveryhappyaclimate。Thisstateofdiscouragementanddepressionwasfeltmoreorlessineverydifferentpartofthecountry，andmanydifferentinquiriesweresetonfootconcerningthecausesofit。
　　Oneofthosecausesappearedtobethepreferencegiven，bytheinstitutionsofMr。Colbert，totheindustryofthetownsabovethatofthecountry。
　　Iftherodbebenttoomuchoneway，saystheproverb，inordertomakeitstraightyoumustbenditasmuchtheother。TheFrenchphilosophers，whohaveproposedthesystemwhichrepresentsagricultureasthesolesourceoftherevenueandwealthofeverycountry，seemtohaveadoptedthisproverbialmaxim;andasintheplanofMr。Colberttheindustryofthetownswascertainlyovervaluedincomparisonwiththatofthecountry;sointheirsystemitseemstobeascertainlyundervalued。
　　Thedifferentordersofpeoplewhohaveeverbeensupposedtocontributeinanyrespecttowardstheannualproduceofthelandandlabourofthecountry，theydivideintothreeclasses。
　　Thefirstistheclassoftheproprietorsofland。Thesecondistheclassofthecultivators，offarmersandcountrylabourers，whomtheyhonourwiththepeculiarappellationoftheproductiveclass。Thethirdistheclassofartificers，manufacturers，andmerchants，whomtheyendeavourtodegradebythehumiliatingappellationofthebarrenorunproductiveclass。
　　Theclassofproprietorscontributestotheannualproducebytheexpensewhichtheymayoccasionallylayoutupontheimprovementoftheland，uponthebuildings，drains，enclosures，andotherameliorations，whichtheymayeithermakeormaintainuponit，andbymeansofwhichthecultivatorsareenabled，withthesamecapital，toraiseagreaterproduce，andconsequentlytopayagreaterrent。Thisadvancedrentmaybeconsideredastheinterestorprofitduetotheproprietorupontheexpenseorcapitalwhichhethusemploysintheimprovementofhisland。
　　Suchexpensesareinthissystemcalledgroundexpenses（depensesfoncieres。）