Amanmustalwayslivebyhiswork，andhiswagesmustatleastbesufficienttomaintainhim。Theymustevenuponmostoccasionsbesomewhatmore;otherwiseitwouldbeimpossibleforhimtobringupafamily，andtheraceofsuchworkmencouldnotlastbeyondthefirstgeneration。Mr。Cantillonseems，uponthisaccount，tosupposethatthelowestspeciesofcommonlabourersmusteverywhereearnatleastdoubletheirownmaintenance，inorderthatonewithanothertheymaybeenabledtobringuptwochildren;thelabourofthewife，onaccountofhernecessaryattendanceonthechildren，beingsupposednomorethansufficienttoprovideforherself。Butonehalfthechildrenborn，itiscomputed，diebeforetheageofmanhood。Thepoorestlabourers，therefore，accordingtothisaccount，must，onewithanother，attempttorearatleastfourchildren，inorderthattwomayhaveanequalchanceoflivingtothatage。Butthenecessarymaintenanceoffourchildren，itissupposed，maybenearlyequaltothatofoneman。Thelabourofanable—bodiedslave，thesameauthoradds，iscomputedtobeworthdoublehismaintenance;andthatofthemeanestlabourer，hethinks，cannotbeworthlessthanthatofanablebodiedslave。Thusfaratleastseemscertain，that，inordertobringupafamily，thelabourofthehusbandandwifetogethermust，eveninthelowestspeciesofcommonlabour，beabletoearnsomethingmorethanwhatispreciselynecessaryfortheirownmaintenance;butinwhatproportion，whetherinthatabovementioned，orinanyother，I
　　shallnottakeuponmetodetermine。
　　Therearecertaincircumstances，however，whichsometimesgivethelabourersanadvantage，andenablethemtoraisetheirwagesconsiderablyabovethisrate;evidentlythelowestwhichisconsistentwithcommonhumanity。
　　Wheninanycountrythedemandforthosewholivebywages，labourers，journeymen，servantsofeverykind，iscontinuallyincreasing;wheneveryyearfurnishesemploymentforagreaternumberthanhadbeenemployedtheyearbefore，theworkmenhavenooccasiontocombineinordertoraisetheirwages。Thescarcityofhandsoccasionsacompetitionamongmasters，whobidagainstoneanother，inordertogetworkmen，andthusvoluntarilybreakthroughthenaturalcombinationofmastersnottoraisewages。
　　Thedemandforthosewholivebywages，itisevident，cannotincreasebutinproportiontotheincreaseofthefundswhicharedestinedforthepaymentofwages。Thesefundsareoftwokinds;first，revenuewhichisoverandabovewhatisnecessaryforthemaintenance;and，secondly，thestockwhichisoverandabovewhatisnecessaryfortheemploymentoftheirmasters。
　　Whenthelandlord，annuitant，ormoniedman，hasagreaterrevenuethanwhathejudgessufficienttomaintainhisownfamily，heemployseitherthewholeorapartofthesurplusinmaintainingoneormoremenialservants。Increasethissurplus，andhewillnaturallyincreasethenumberofthoseservants。
　　Whenanindependentworkman，suchasaweaverorshoemaker，hasgotmorestockthanwhatissufficienttopurchasethematerialsofhisownwork，andtomaintainhimselftillhecandisposeofit，henaturallyemploysoneormorejourneymenwiththesurplus，inordertomakeaprofitbytheirwork。Increasethissurplus，andhewillnaturallyincreasethenumberofhisjourneymen。
　　Thedemandforthosewholivebywages，therefore，necessarilyincreaseswiththeincreaseoftherevenueandstockofeverycountry，andcannotpossiblyincreasewithoutit。Theincreaseofrevenueandstockistheincreaseofnationalwealth。
　　Thedemandforthosewholivebywages，therefore，naturallyincreaseswiththeincreaseofnationalwealth，andcannotpossiblyincreasewithoutit。
　　Itisnottheactualgreatnessofnationalwealth，butitscontinualincrease，whichoccasionsariseinthewagesoflabour。Itisnot，accordingly，intherichestcountries，butinthemostthriving，orinthosewhicharegrowingrichthefastest，thatthewagesoflabourarehighest。Englandiscertainly，inthepresenttimes，amuchrichercountrythananypartofNorthAmerica。Thewagesoflabour，however，aremuchhigherinNorthAmericathaninanypartofEngland。IntheprovinceofNewYork，commonlabourersearnthreeshillingsandsixpencecurrency，equaltotwoshillingssterling，aday;shipcarpenters，tenshillingsandsixpencecurrency，withapintofrumworthsixpencesterling，equalinalltosixshillingsandsixpencesterling;housecarpentersandbricklayers，eightshillingscurrency，equaltofourshillingsandsixpencesterling;journeymentailors，fiveshillingscurrency，equaltoabouttwoshillingsandtenpencesterling。ThesepricesareallabovetheLondonprice;andwagesaresaidtobeashighintheothercoloniesasinNewYork。ThepriceofprovisionsiseverywhereinNorthAmericamuchlowerthaninEngland。Adearthhasneverbeenknownthere。Intheworstseasonstheyhavealwayshadasufficiencyforthemselves，thoughlessforexportation。Ifthemoneypriceoflabour，therefore，behigherthanitisanywhereinthemothercountry，itsrealprice，therealcommandofthenecessariesandconvenienciesoflifewhichitconveystothelabourermustbehigherinastillgreaterproportion。
　　ButthoughNorthAmericaisnotyetsorichasEngland，itismuchmorethriving，andadvancingwithmuchgreaterrapiditytothefurtheracquisitionofriches。Themostdecisivemarkoftheprosperityofanycountryistheincreaseofthenumberofitsinhabitants。InGreatBritain，andmostotherEuropeancountries，theyarenotsupposedtodoubleinlessthanfivehundredyears。IntheBritishcoloniesinNorthAmerica，ithasbeenfoundthattheydoubleintwentyorfive—and—twentyyears。
　　Norinthepresenttimesisthisincreaseprincipallyowingtothecontinualimportationofnewinhabitants，buttothegreatmultiplicationofthespecies。Thosewholivetooldage，itissaid，frequentlyseetherefromfiftytoahundred，andsometimesmanymore，descendantsfromtheirownbody。Labouristheresowellrewardedthatanumerousfamilyofchildren，insteadofbeingaburthen，isasourceofopulenceandprosperitytotheparents。Thelabourofeachchild，beforeitcanleavetheirhouse，iscomputedtobeworthahundredpoundscleargaintothem。Ayoungwidowwithfourorfiveyoungchildren，who，amongthemiddlingorinferiorranksofpeopleinEurope，wouldhavesolittlechanceforasecondhusband，istherefrequentlycourtedasasortoffortune。Thevalueofchildrenisthegreatestofallencouragementstomarriage。Wecannot，therefore，wonderthatthepeopleinNorthAmericashouldgenerallymarryveryyoung。
　　Notwithstandingthegreatincreaseoccasionedbysuchearlymarriages，thereisacontinualcomplaintofthescarcityofhandsinNorthAmerica。Thedemandforlabourers，thefundsdestinedformaintainingthem，increase，itseems，stillfasterthantheycanfindlabourerstoemploy。
　　Thoughthewealthofacountryshouldbeverygreat，yetifithasbeenlongstationary，wemustnotexpecttofindthewagesoflabourveryhighinit。Thefundsdestinedforthepaymentofwages，therevenueandstockofitsinhabitants，maybeofthegreatestextent;butiftheyhavecontinuedforseveralcenturiesofthesame，orverynearlyofthesameextent，thenumberoflabourersemployedeveryyearcouldeasilysupply，andevenmorethansupply，thenumberwantedthefollowingyear。Therecouldseldombeanyscarcityofhands，norcouldthemastersbeobligedtobidagainstoneanotherinordertogetthem。Thehands，onthecontrary，would，inthiscase，naturallymultiplybeyondtheiremployment。Therewouldbeaconstantscarcityofemployment，andthelabourerswouldbeobligedtobidagainstoneanotherinordertogetit。Ifinsuchacountrythewagesoflabourhadeverbeenmorethansufficienttomaintainthelabourer，andtoenablehimtobringupafamily，thecompetitionofthelabourersandtheinterestofthemasterswouldsoonreducethemtothislowestratewhichisconsistentwithcommonhumanity。Chinahasbeenlongoneoftherichest，thatis，oneofthemostfertile，bestcultivated，mostindustrious，andmostpopulouscountriesinworld。Itseems，however，tohavebeenlongstationary。MarcoPolo，whovisiteditmorethanfivehundredyearsago，describesitscultivation，industry，andpopulousness，almostinthesametermsinwhichtheyaredescribedbytravellersinthepresenttimes。Ithadperhaps，evenlongbeforehistime，acquiredthatfullcomplementofricheswhichthenatureofitslawsandinstitutionspermitsittoacquire。Theaccountsofalltravellers，inconsistentinmanyotherrespects，agreeinthelowwagesoflabour，andinthedifficultywhichalabourerfindsinbringingupafamilyinChina。Ifbydiggingthegroundawholedayhecangetwhatwillpurchaseasmallquantityofriceintheevening，heiscontented。Theconditionofartificersis，ifpossible，stillworse。Insteadofwaitingindolentlyintheirworkhouses，forthecallsoftheircustomers，asinEurope，theyarecontinuallyrunningaboutthestreetswiththetoolsoftheirrespectivetrades，offeringtheirservice，andasitwerebeggingemployment。ThepovertyofthelowerranksofpeopleinChinafarsurpassesthatofthemostbeggarlynationsinEurope。IntheneighbourhoodofCantonmanyhundred，itiscommonlysaid，manythousandfamilieshavenohabitationontheland，butliveconstantlyinlittlefishingboatsupontheriversandcanals。ThesubsistencewhichtheyfindthereissoscantythattheyareeagertofishupthenastiestgarbagethrownoverboardfromanyEuropeanship。Anycarrion，thecarcaseofadeaddogorcat，forexample，thoughhalfputridandstinking，isaswelcometothemasthemostwholesomefoodtothepeopleofothercountries。MarriageisencouragedinChina，notbytheprofitablenessofchildren，butbythelibertyofdestroyingthem。Inallgreattownsseveralareeverynightexposedinthestreet，ordrownedlikepuppiesinthewater。Theperformanceofthishorridofficeisevensaidtobetheavowedbusinessbywhichsomepeopleearntheirsubsistence。
　　China，however，thoughitmayperhapsstandstill，doesnotseemtogobackwards。Itstownsarenowheredesertedbytheirinhabitants。Thelandswhichhadoncebeencultivatedarenowhereneglected。Thesameorverynearlythesameannuallabourmustthereforecontinuetobeperformed，andthefundsdestinedformaintainingitmustnot，consequently，besensiblydiminished。
　　Thelowestclassoflabourers，therefore，notwithstandingtheirscantysubsistence，mustsomewayoranothermakeshifttocontinuetheirracesofarastokeepuptheirusualnumbers。
　　Butitwouldbeotherwiseinacountrywherethefundsdestinedforthemaintenanceoflabourweresensiblydecaying。
　　Everyyearthedemandforservantsandlabourerswould，inallthedifferentclassesofemployments，belessthanithadbeentheyearbefore。Manywhohadbeenbredinthesuperiorclasses，notbeingabletofindemploymentintheirownbusiness，wouldbegladtoseekitinthelowest。Thelowestclassbeingnotonlyoverstockedwithitsownworkmen，butwiththeoverflowingsofalltheotherclasses，thecompetitionforemploymentwouldbesogreatinit，astoreducethewagesoflabourtothemostmiserableandscantysubsistenceofthelabourer。Manywouldnotbeabletofindemploymentevenuponthesehardterms，butwouldeitherstarve，orbedriventoseekasubsistenceeitherbybegging，orbytheperpetrationperhapsofthegreatestenormities。Want，famine，andmortalitywouldimmediatelyprevailinthatclass，andfromthenceextendthemselvestoallthesuperiorclasses，tillthenumberofinhabitantsinthecountrywasreducedtowhatcouldeasilybemaintainedbytherevenueandstockwhichremainedinit，andwhichhadescapedeitherthetyrannyorcalamitywhichhaddestroyedtherest。ThisperhapsisnearlythepresentstateofBengal，andofsomeotheroftheEnglishsettlementsintheEastIndies。Inafertilecountrywhichhadbeforebeenmuchdepopulated，wheresubsistence，consequently，shouldnotbeverydifficult，andwhere，notwithstanding，threeorfourhundredthousandpeopledieofhungerinoneyear，wemaybeassuredthatthefundsdestinedforthemaintenanceofthelabouringpoorarefastdecaying。ThedifferencebetweenthegeniusoftheBritishconstitutionwhichprotectsandgovernsNorthAmerica，andthatofthemercantilecompanywhichoppressesanddomineersintheEastIndies，cannotperhapsbebetterillustratedthanbythedifferentstateofthosecountries。
　　Theliberalrewardoflabour，therefore，asitisthenecessaryeffect，soitisthenaturalsymptomofincreasingnationalwealth。Thescantymaintenanceofthelabouringpoor，ontheotherhand，isthenaturalsymptomthatthingsareatastand，andtheirstarvingconditionthattheyaregoingfastbackwards。
　　InGreatBritainthewagesoflabourseem，inthepresenttimes，tobeevidentlymorethanwhatispreciselynecessarytoenablethelabourertobringupafamily。Inordertosatisfyourselvesuponthispointitwillnotbenecessarytoenterintoanytediousordoubtfulcalculationofwhatmaybethelowestsumuponwhichitispossibletodothis。Therearemanyplainsymptomsthatthewagesoflabourarenowhereinthiscountryregulatedbythislowestratewhichisconsistentwithcommonhumanity。
　　First，inalmosteverypartofGreatBritainthereisadistinction，eveninthelowestspeciesoflabour，betweensummerandwinterwages。Summerwagesarealwayshighest。Butonaccountoftheextraordinaryexpenseoffuel，themaintenanceofafamilyismostexpensiveinwinter。Wages，therefore，beinghighestwhenthisexpenseislowest，itseemsevidentthattheyarenotregulatedbywhatisnecessaryforthisexpense;butbythequantityandsupposedvalueofthework。Alabourer，itmaybesaidindeed，oughttosavepartofhissummerwagesinordertodefrayhiswinterexpense;andthatthroughthewholeyeartheydonotexceedwhatisnecessarytomaintainhisfamilythroughthewholeyear。Aslave，however，oroneabsolutelydependentonusforimmediatesubsistence，wouldnotbetreatedinthismanner。Hisdailysubsistencewouldbeproportionedtohisdailynecessities。
　　Secondly，thewagesoflabourdonotinGreatBritainfluctuatewiththepriceofprovisions。Thesevaryeverywherefromyeartoyear，frequentlyfrommonthtomonth。Butinmanyplacesthemoneypriceoflabourremainsuniformlythesamesometimesforhalfacenturytogether。Ifintheseplaces，therefore，thelabouringpoorcanmaintaintheirfamiliesindearyears，theymustbeattheireaseintimesofmoderateplenty，andinaffluenceinthoseofextraordinarycheapness。Thehighpriceofprovisionsduringthesetenyearspasthasnotinmanypartsofthekingdombeenaccompaniedwithanysensibleriseinthemoneypriceoflabour。Ithas，indeed，insome，owingprobablymoretotheincreaseofthedemandforlabourthantothatofthepriceofprovisions。
　　Thirdly，asthepriceofprovisionsvariesmorefromyeartoyearthanthewagesoflabour，so，ontheotherhand，thewagesoflabourvarymorefromplacetoplacethanthepriceofprovisions。Thepricesofbreadandbutcher’smeataregenerallythesameorverynearlythesamethroughthegreaterpartoftheUnitedKingdom。Theseandmostotherthingswhicharesoldbyretail，thewayinwhichthelabouringpoorbuyallthings，aregenerallyfullyascheaporcheaperingreattownsthanintheremoterpartsofthecountry，forreasonswhichIshallhaveoccasiontoexplainhereafter。Butthewagesoflabourinagreattownanditsneighbourhoodarefrequentlyafourthorafifthpart，twentyorfive—and—twentypercenthigherthanatafewmilesdistance。EighteenpenceadaymaybereckonedthecommonpriceoflabourinLondonanditsneighbourhood。Atafewmilesdistanceitfallstofourteenandfifteenpence。TenpencemaybereckoneditspriceinEdinburghanditsneighbourhood。Atafewmilesdistanceitfallstoeightpence，theusualpriceofcommonlabourthroughthegreaterpartofthelowcountryofScotland，whereitvariesagooddeallessthaninEngland。Suchadifferenceofprices，whichitseemsisnotalwayssufficienttotransportamanfromoneparishtoanother，wouldnecessarilyoccasionsogreatatransportationofthemostbulkycommodities，notonlyfromoneparishtoanother，butfromoneendofthekingdom，almostfromoneendoftheworldtotheother，aswouldsoonreducethemmorenearlytoalevel。Afterallthathasbeensaidofthelevityandinconstancyofhumannature，itappearsevidentlyfromexperiencethatamanisofallsortsofluggagethemostdifficulttobetransported。Ifthelabouringpoor，therefore，canmaintaintheirfamiliesinthosepartsofthekingdomwherethepriceoflabourislowest，theymustbeinaffluencewhereitishighest。
　　Fourthly，thevariationsinthepriceoflabournotonlydonotcorrespondeitherinplaceortimewiththoseinthepriceofprovisions，buttheyarefrequentlyquiteopposite。
　　Grain，thefoodofthecommonpeople，isdearerinScotlandthaninEngland，whenceScotlandreceivesalmosteveryyearverylargesupplies。ButEnglishcornmustbesolddearerinScotland，thecountrytowhichitisbrought，thaninEngland，thecountryfromwhichitcomes;andinproportiontoitsqualityitcannotbesolddearerinScotlandthantheScotchcornthatcomestothesamemarketincompetitionwithit。Thequalityofgraindependschieflyuponthequantityofflourormealwhichityieldsatthemill，andinthisrespectEnglishgrainissomuchsuperiortotheScotchthat，thoughoftendearerinappearance，orinproportiontothemeasureofitsbulk，itisgenerallycheaperinreality，orinproportiontoitsquality，oreventothemeasureofitsweight。Thepriceoflabour，onthecontrary，isdearerinEnglandthaninScotland。Ifthelabouringpoor，therefore，canmaintaintheirfamiliesintheonepartoftheUnitedKingdom，theymustbeinaffluenceintheother。OatmealindeedsuppliesthecommonpeopleinScotlandwiththegreatestandthebestpartoftheirfood，whichisingeneralmuchinferiortothatoftheirneighboursofthesamerankinEngland。Thisdifference，however，inthemodeoftheirsubsistenceisnotthecause，buttheeffectofthedifferenceintheirwages;though，byastrangemisapprehension，Ihavefrequentlyhearditrepresentedasthecause。Itisnotbecauseonemankeepsacoachwhilehisneighbourwalksafootthattheoneisrichandtheotherpoor;
　　butbecausetheoneisrichhekeepsacoach，andbecausetheotherispoorhewalksafoot。
　　Duringthecourseofthelastcentury，takingoneyearwithanother，grainwasdearerinbothpartsoftheUnitedKingdomthanduringthatofthepresent。Thisisamatteroffactwhichcannotnowadmitofanyreasonabledoubt;andtheproofofitis，ifpossible，stillmoredecisivewithregardtoScotlandthanwithregardtoEngland。ItisinScotlandsupportedbytheevidenceofthepublicfiars，annualvaluationsmadeuponoath，accordingtotheactualstateofthemarkets，ofallthedifferentsortsofgrainineverydifferentcountyofScotland。
　　Ifsuchdirectproofcouldrequireanycollateralevidencetoconfirmit，IwouldobservethatthishaslikewisebeenthecaseinFrance，andprobablyinmostotherpartsofEurope。WithregardtoFrancethereistheclearestproof。ButthoughitiscertainthatinbothpartsoftheUnitedKingdomgrainwassomewhatdearerinthelastcenturythaninthepresent，itisequallycertainthatlabourwasmuchcheaper。Ifthelabouringpoor，therefore，couldbringuptheirfamiliesthen，theymustbemuchmoreattheireasenow。Inthelastcentury，themostusualday—wagesofcommonlabourthroughthegreaterpartofScotlandweresixpenceinsummerandfivepenceinwinter。Threeshillingsaweek，thesamepriceverynearly，stillcontinuestobepaidinsomepartsoftheHighlandsandWesternIslands。Throughthegreaterpartofthelowcountrythemostusualwagesofcommonlabourarenoweightpenceaday;tenpence，sometimesashillingaboutEdinburgh，inthecountieswhichborderuponEngland，probablyonaccountofthatneighbourhood，andinafewotherplaceswheretherehaslatelybeenaconsiderableriseinthedemandforlabour，aboutGlasgow，Carron，Ayrshire，etc。InEnglandtheimprovementsofagriculture，manufactures，andcommercebeganmuchearlierthaninScotland。Thedemandforlabour，andconsequentlyitsprice，mustnecessarilyhaveincreasedwiththoseimprovements。Inthelastcentury，accordingly，aswellasinthepresent，thewagesoflabourwerehigherinEnglandthaninScotland。Theyhaverisen，too，considerablysincethattime，though，onaccountofthegreatervarietyofwagespaidthereindifferentplaces，itismoredifficulttoascertainhowmuch。In1614，thepayofafootsoldierwasthesameasinthepresenttimes，eightpenceaday。
　　Whenitwasfirstestablisheditwouldnaturallyberegulatedbytheusualwagesofcommonlabourers，therankofpeoplefromwhichfootsoldiersarecommonlydrawn。LordChiefJusticeHales，whowroteinthetimeofCharlesII，computesthenecessaryexpenseofalabourer’sfamily，consistingofsixpersons，thefatherandmother，twochildrenabletodosomething，andtwonotable，attenshillingsaweek，ortwenty—sixpoundsayear。Iftheycannotearnthisbytheirlabour，theymustmakeitup，hesupposes，eitherbybeggingorstealing。Heappearstohaveinquiredverycarefullyintothissubject。In1688，Mr。GregoryKing，whoseskillinpoliticalarithmeticissomuchextolledbyDoctorDavenant，computedtheordinaryincomeoflabourersandout—servantstobefifteenpoundsayeartoafamily，whichhesupposedtoconsist，onewithanother，ofthreeandahalfpersons。Hiscalculation，therefore，thoughdifferentinappearance，correspondsverynearlyatbottomwiththatofJudgeHales。Bothsupposetheweeklyexpenseofsuchfamiliestobeabouttwentypenceahead。Boththepecuniaryincomeandexpenseofsuchfamilieshaveincreasedconsiderablysincethattimethroughthegreaterpartofthekingdom;insomeplacesmore，andinsomeless;thoughperhapsscarceanywheresomuchassomeexaggeratedaccountsofthepresentwagesoflabourhavelatelyrepresentedthemtothepublic。Thepriceoflabour，itmustbeobserved，cannotbeascertainedveryaccuratelyanywhere，differentpricesbeingoftenpaidatthesameplaceandforthesamesortoflabour，notonlyaccordingtothedifferentabilitiesoftheworkmen，butaccordingtotheeasinessorhardnessofthemasters。Wherewagesarenotregulatedbylaw，allthatwecanpretendtodetermineiswhatarethemostusual;
　　andexperienceseemstoshowthatlawcanneverregulatethemproperly，thoughithasoftenpretendedtodoso。
　　Therealrecompenseoflabour，therealquantityofthenecessariesandconveniencesoflifewhichitcanprocuretothelabourer，has，duringthecourseofthepresentcentury，increasedperhapsinastillgreaterproportionthanitsmoneyprice。Notonlygrainhasbecomesomewhatcheaper，butmanyotherthingsfromwhichtheindustriouspoorderiveanagreeableandwholesomevarietyoffoodhavebecomeagreatdealcheaper。
　　Potatoes，forexample，donotatpresent，throughthegreaterpartofthekingdom，costhalfthepricewhichtheyusedtodothirtyorfortyyearsago。Thesamethingmaybesaidofturnips，carrots，cabbages;thingswhichwereformerlyneverraisedbutbythespade，butwhicharenowcommonlyraisedbytheplough。Allsortofgardenstuff，too，hasbecomecheaper。ThegreaterpartoftheapplesandevenoftheonionsconsumedinGreatBritainwereinthelastcenturyimportedfromFlanders。Thegreatimprovementsinthecoarsermanufacturesofbothlinenandwoollenclothfurnishthelabourerswithcheaperandbetterclothing;andthoseinthemanufacturesofthecoarsermetals，withcheaperandbetterinstrumentsoftrade，aswellaswithmanyagreeableandconvenientpiecesofhouseholdfurniture。
　　Soap，salt，candles，leather，andfermentedliquorshave，indeed，becomeagooddealdearer;chieflyfromthetaxeswhichhavebeenlaiduponthem。Thequantityofthese，however，whichthelabouringpoorareunderanynecessityofconsuming，issoverysmall，thattheincreaseintheirpricedoesnotcompensatethediminutioninthatofsomanyotherthings。Thecommoncomplaintthatluxuryextendsitselfeventothelowestranksofthepeople，andthatthelabouringpoorwillnotnowbecontentedwiththesamefood，clothing，andlodgingwhichsatisfiedtheminformertimes，mayconvinceusthatitisnotthemoneypriceoflabouronly，butitsrealrecompense，whichhasaugmented。
　　Isthisimprovementinthecircumstancesofthelowerranksofthepeopletoberegardedasanadvantageorasaninconveniencytothesociety？Theanswerseemsatfirstsightabundantlyplain。Servants，labourers，andworkmenofdifferentkinds，makeupthefargreaterpartofeverygreatpoliticalsociety。Butwhatimprovesthecircumstancesofthegreaterpartcanneverberegardedasaninconveniencytothewhole。Nosocietycansurelybeflourishingandhappy，ofwhichthefargreaterpartofthemembersarepoorandmiserable。Itisbutequity，besides，thattheywhofeed，clothe，andlodgethewholebodyofthepeople，shouldhavesuchashareoftheproduceoftheirownlabourastobethemselvestolerablywellfed，clothed，andlodged。
　　Poverty，thoughitnodoubtdiscourages，doesnotalwayspreventmarriage。Itseemseventobefavourabletogeneration。A
　　half—starvedHighlandwomanfrequentlybearsmorethantwentychildren，whileapamperedfineladyisoftenincapableofbearingany，andisgenerallyexhaustedbytwoorthree。
　　Barrenness，sofrequentamongwomenoffashion，isveryrareamongthoseofinferiorstation。Luxuryinthefairsex，whileitinflamesperhapsthepassionforenjoyment，seemsalwaystoweaken，andfrequentlytodestroyaltogether，thepowersofgeneration。
　　Butpoverty，thoughitdoesnotpreventthegeneration，isextremelyunfavourabletotherearingofchildren。Thetenderplantisproduced，butinsocoldasoilandsosevereaclimate，soonwithersanddies。Itisnotuncommon，Ihavebeenfrequentlytold，intheHighlandsofScotlandforamotherwhohasbornetwentychildrennottohavetwoalive。Severalofficersofgreatexperiencehaveassuredme，thatsofarfromrecruitingtheirregiment，theyhaveneverbeenabletosupplyitwithdrumsandfifesfromallthesoldiers’childrenthatwereborninit。A
　　greaternumberoffinechildren，however，isseldomseenanywherethanaboutabarrackofsoldiers。Veryfewofthem，itseems，arriveattheageofthirteenorfourteen。Insomeplacesonehalfthechildrenborndiebeforetheyarefouryearsofage;inmanyplacesbeforetheyareseven;andinalmostallplacesbeforetheyarenineorten。Thisgreatmortality，however，willeverywherebefoundchieflyamongthechildrenofthecommonpeople，whocannotaffordtotendthemwiththesamecareasthoseofbetterstation。Thoughtheirmarriagesaregenerallymorefruitfulthanthoseofpeopleoffashion，asmallerproportionoftheirchildrenarriveatmaturity。Infoundlinghospitals，andamongthechildrenbroughtupbyparishcharities，themortalityisstillgreaterthanamongthoseofthecommonpeople。
　　Everyspeciesofanimalsnaturallymultipliesinproportiontothemeansoftheirsubsistence，andnospeciescanevermultiplybeyondit。Butincivilisedsocietyitisonlyamongtheinferiorranksofpeoplethatthescantinessofsubsistencecansetlimitstothefurthermultiplicationofthehumanspecies;
　　anditcandosoinnootherwaythanbydestroyingagreatpartofthechildrenwhichtheirfruitfulmarriagesproduce。
　　Theliberalrewardoflabour，byenablingthemtoprovidebetterfortheirchildren，andconsequentlytobringupagreaternumber，naturallytendstowidenandextendthoselimits。Itdeservestoberemarked，too，thatitnecessarilydoesthisasnearlyaspossibleintheproportionwhichthedemandforlabourrequires。Ifthisdemandiscontinuallyincreasing，therewardoflabourmustnecessarilyencourageinsuchamannerthemarriageandmultiplicationoflabourers，asmayenablethemtosupplythatcontinuallyincreasingdemandbyacontinuallyincreasingpopulation。Iftherewardshouldatanytimebelessthanwhatwasrequisiteforthispurpose，thedeficiencyofhandswouldsoonraiseit;andifitshouldatanytimebemore，theirexcessivemultiplicationwouldsoonlowerittothisnecessaryrate。Themarketwouldbesomuchunderstockedwithlabourintheonecase，andsomuchoverstockedintheother，aswouldsoonforcebackitspricetothatproperratewhichthecircumstancesofthesocietyrequired。Itisinthismannerthatthedemandformen，likethatforanyothercommodity，necessarilyregulatestheproductionofmen;quickensitwhenitgoesontooslowly，andstopsitwhenitadvancestoofast。Itisthisdemandwhichregulatesanddeterminesthestateofpropagationinallthedifferentcountriesoftheworld，inNorthAmerica，inEurope，andinChina;whichrendersitrapidlyprogressiveinthefirst，slowandgradualinthesecond，andaltogetherstationaryinthelast。
　　Thewearandtearofaslave，ithasbeensaid，isattheexpenseofhismaster;butthatofafreeservantisathisownexpense。Thewearandtearofthelatter，however，is，inreality，asmuchattheexpenseofhismasterasthatoftheformer。Thewagespaidtojourneymenandservantsofeverykindmustbesuchasmayenablethem，onewithanother，tocontinuetheraceofjourneymenandservants，accordingastheincreasing，diminishing，orstationarydemandofthesocietymayhappentorequire。Butthoughthewearandtearofafreeservantbeequallyattheexpenseofhismaster，itgenerallycostshimmuchlessthanthatofaslave。Thefunddestinedforreplacingorrepairing，ifImaysayso，thewearandtearoftheslave，iscommonlymanagedbyanegligentmasterorcarelessoverseer。Thatdestinedforperformingthesameofficewithregardtothefreeman，ismanagedbythefreemanhimself。Thedisorderswhichgenerallyprevailintheeconomyoftherich，naturallyintroducethemselvesintothemanagementoftheformer:thestrictfrugalityandparsimoniousattentionofthepoorasnaturallyestablishthemselvesinthatofthelatter。Undersuchdifferentmanagement，thesamepurposemustrequireverydifferentdegreesofexpensetoexecuteit。Itappears，accordingly，fromtheexperienceofallagesandnations，Ibelieve，thattheworkdonebyfreemencomescheaperintheendthanthatperformedbyslaves。ItisfoundtodosoevenatBoston，NewYork，andPhiladelphia，wherethewagesofcommonlabouraresoveryhigh。
　　Theliberalrewardoflabour，therefore，asitistheeffectofincreasingwealth，soitisthecauseofincreasingpopulation。Tocomplainofitistolamentoverthenecessaryeffectandcauseofthegreatestpublicprosperity。
　　Itdeservestoberemarked，perhaps，thatitisintheprogressivestate，whilethesocietyisadvancingtothefurtheracquisition，ratherthanwhenithasacquireditsfullcomplementofriches，thattheconditionofthelabouringpoor，ofthegreatbodyofthepeople，seemstobethehappiestandthemostcomfortable。Itishardinthestationary，andmiserableinthedecliningstate。Theprogressivestateisinrealitythecheerfulandtheheartystatetoallthedifferentordersofthesociety。
　　Thestationaryisdull;thedeclining，melancholy。
　　Theliberalrewardoflabour，asitencouragesthepropagation，soitincreasestheindustryofthecommonpeople。
　　Thewagesoflabouraretheencouragementofindustry，which，likeeveryotherhumanquality，improvesinproportiontotheencouragementitreceives。Aplentifulsubsistenceincreasesthebodilystrengthofthelabourer，andthecomfortablehopeofbetteringhiscondition，andofendinghisdaysperhapsineaseandplenty，animateshimtoexertthatstrengthtotheutmost。
　　Wherewagesarehigh，accordingly，weshallalwaysfindtheworkmenmoreactive，diligent，andexpeditiousthanwheretheyarelow:inEngland，forexample，thaninScotland;intheneighbourhoodofgreattownsthaninremotecountryplaces。Someworkmen，indeed，whentheycanearninfourdayswhatwillmaintainthemthroughtheweek，willbeidletheotherthree。
　　This，however，isbynomeansthecasewiththegreaterpart。
　　Workmen，onthecontrary，whentheyareliberallypaidbythepiece，areveryapttooverworkthemselves，andtoruintheirhealthandconstitutioninafewyears。AcarpenterinLondon，andinsomeotherplaces，isnotsupposedtolastinhisutmostvigouraboveeightyears。Somethingofthesamekindhappensinmanyothertrades，inwhichtheworkmenarepaidbythepiece，astheygenerallyareinmanufactures，andevenincountrylabour，whereverwagesarehigherthanordinary。Almosteveryclassofartificersissubjecttosomepeculiarinfirmityoccasionedbyexcessiveapplicationtotheirpeculiarspeciesofwork。
　　Ramuzzini，aneminentItalianphysician，haswrittenaparticularbookconcerningsuchdiseases。Wedonotreckonoursoldiersthemostindustrioussetofpeopleamongus。Yetwhensoldiershavebeenemployedinsomeparticularsortsofwork，andliberallypaidbythepiece，theirofficershavefrequentlybeenobligedtostipulatewiththeundertaker，thattheyshouldnotbeallowedtoearnaboveacertainsumeveryday，accordingtotherateatwhichtheywerepaid。Tillthisstipulationwasmade，mutualemulationandthedesireofgreatergainfrequentlypromptedthemtooverworkthemselves，andtohurttheirhealthbyexcessivelabour。Excessiveapplicationduringfourdaysoftheweekisfrequentlytherealcauseoftheidlenessoftheotherthree，somuchandsoloudlycomplainedof。Greatlabour，eitherofmindorbody，continuedforseveraldaystogether，isinmostmennaturallyfollowedbyagreatdesireofrelaxation，which，ifnotrestrainedbyforceorbysomestrongnecessity，isalmostirresistible。Itisthecallofnature，whichrequirestoberelievedbysomeindulgence，sometimesofeaseonly，butsometimes，too，ofdissipationanddiversion。Ifitisnotcompliedwith，theconsequencesareoftendangerous，andsometimesfatal，andsuchasalmostalways，soonerorlater，bringsonthepeculiarinfirmityofthetrade。Ifmasterswouldalwayslistentothedictatesofreasonandhumanity，theyhavefrequentlyoccasionrathertomoderatethantoanimatetheapplicationofmanyoftheirworkmen。Itwillbefound，I
　　believe，ineverysortoftrade，thatthemanwhoworkssomoderatelyastobeabletoworkconstantlynotonlypreserveshishealththelongest，but，inthecourseoftheyear，executesthegreatestquantityofwork。
　　Incheapyears，itispretended，workmenaregenerallymoreidle，andindearonesmoreindustriousthanordinary。A
　　plentifulsubsistence，therefore，ithasbeenconcluded，relaxes，andascantyonequickenstheirindustry。Thatalittlemoreplentythanordinarymayrendersomeworkmenidle，cannotwellbedoubted;butthatitshouldhavethiseffectuponthegreaterpart，orthatmeningeneralshouldworkbetterwhentheyareillfedthanwhentheyarewellfed，whentheyaredisheartenedthanwhentheyareingoodspirits，whentheyarefrequentlysickthanwhentheyaregenerallyingoodhealth，seemsnotveryprobable。
　　Yearsofdearth，itistobeobserved，aregenerallyamongthecommonpeopleyearsofsicknessandmortality，whichcannotfailtodiminishtheproduceoftheirindustry。
　　Inyearsofplenty，servantsfrequentlyleavetheirmasters，andtrusttheirsubsistencetowhattheycanmakebytheirownindustry。Butthesamecheapnessofprovisions，byincreasingthefundwhichisdestinedforthemaintenanceofservants，encouragesmasters，farmersespecially，toemployagreaternumber。Farmersuponsuchoccasionsexpectmoreprofitfromtheircornbymaintainingafewmorelabouringservantsthanbysellingitatalowpriceinthemarket。Thedemandforservantsincreases，whilethenumberofthosewhooffertosupplythatdemanddiminishes。Thepriceoflabour，therefore，frequentlyrisesincheapyears。
　　Inyearsofscarcity，thedifficultyanduncertaintyofsubsistencemakeallsuchpeopleeagertoreturntoservice。Butthehighpriceofprovisions，bydiminishingthefundsdestinedforthemaintenanceofservants，disposesmastersrathertodiminishthantoincreasethenumberofthosetheyhave。Indearyears，too，poorindependentworkmenfrequentlyconsumethelittlestockswithwhichtheyhadusedtosupplythemselveswiththematerialsoftheirwork，andareobligedtobecomejourneymenforsubsistence。Morepeoplewantemploymentthancaneasilygetit;manyarewillingtotakeituponlowertermsthanordinary，andthewagesofbothservantsandjourneymenfrequentlysinkindearyears。