ButthecountrieswhichColumbusdiscovered，eitherinthisorinanyofhissubsequentvoyages，hadnoresemblancetothosewhichhehadgoneinquestof。Insteadofthewealth，cultivation，andpopulousnessofChinaandIndostan，hefound，inSt。Domingo，andinalltheotherpartsofthenewworldwhichheevervisited，nothingbutacountryquitecoveredwithwood，uncultivated，andinhabitedonlybysometribesofnakedandmiserablesavages。Hewasnotverywilling，however，tobelievethattheywerenotthesamewithsomeofthecountriesdescribedbyMarcoPolo，thefirstEuropeanwhohadvisited，oratleasthadleftbehindhim，anydescriptionofChinaortheEastIndies;
　　andaveryslightresemblance，suchasthatwhichhefoundbetweenthenameofCibao，amountaininSt。Domingo，andthatofCipangomentionedbyMarcoPolo，wasfrequentlysufficienttomakehimreturntothisfavouriteprepossession，thoughcontrarytotheclearestevidence。InhisletterstoFerdinandandIsabellahecalledthecountrieswhichhehaddiscoveredtheIndies。HeentertainednodoubtbutthattheyweretheextremityofthosewhichhadbeendescribedbyMarcoPolo，andthattheywerenotverydistantfromtheGanges，orfromthecountrieswhichhadbeenconqueredbyAlexander。Evenwhenatlastconvincedthattheyweredifferent，hestillflatteredhimselfthatthoserichcountrieswereatnogreatdistance，and，inasubsequentvoyage，accordingly，wentinquestofthemalongthecoastofTerraFirma，andtowardstheIsthmusofDarien。
　　InconsequenceofthismistakeofColumbus，thenameoftheIndieshasstucktothoseunfortunatecountrieseversince;andwhenitwasatlastclearlydiscoveredthatthenewwerealtogetherdifferentfromtheoldIndies，theformerwerecalledtheWest，incontradistinctiontothelatter，whichwerecalledtheEastIndies。
　　ItwasofimportancetoColumbus，however，thatthecountrieswhichhehaddiscovered，whatevertheywere，shouldberepresentedtothecourtofSpainasofverygreatconsequence;
　　and，inwhatconstitutestherealrichesofeverycountry，theanimalandvegetableproductionsofthesoil，therewasatthattimenothingwhichcouldwelljustifysucharepresentationofthem。
　　TheCori，somethingbetweenaratandarabbit，andsupposedbyMr。BuffontobethesamewiththeApereaofBrazil，wasthelargestviviparousquadrupedinSt。Domingo。Thisspeciesseemsnevertohavebeenverynumerous，andthedogsandcatsoftheSpaniardsaresaidtohavelongagoalmostentirelyextirpatedit，aswellassomeothertribesofastillsmallersize。These，however，togetherwithaprettylargelizard，calledtheivana，origuana，constitutedtheprincipalpartoftheanimalfoodwhichthelandafforded。
　　Thevegetablefoodoftheinhabitants，thoughfromtheirwantofindustrynotveryabundant，wasnotaltogethersoscanty。
　　ItconsistedinIndiancorn，yams，potatoes，bananas，etc。，plantswhichwerethenaltogetherunknowninEurope，andwhichhaveneversincebeenverymuchesteemedinit，orsupposedtoyieldasustenanceequaltowhatisdrawnfromthecommonsortsofgrainandpulse，whichhavebeencultivatedinthispartoftheworldtimeoutofmind。
　　Thecottonplant，indeed，affordedthematerialofaveryimportantmanufacture，andwasatthattimetoEuropeansundoubtedlythemostvaluableofallthevegetableproductionsofthoseislands。ButthoughintheendofthefifteenthcenturythemuslinsandothercottongoodsoftheEastIndiesweremuchesteemedineverypartofEurope，thecottonmanufactureitselfwasnotcultivatedinanypartofit。Eventhisproduction，therefore，couldnotatthattimeappearintheeyesofEuropeanstobeofverygreatconsequence。
　　Findingnothingeitherintheanimalsorvegetablesofthenewlydiscoveredcountrieswhichcouldjustifyaveryadvantageousrepresentationofthem，Columbusturnedhisviewtowardstheirminerals;andintherichnessoftheproductionsofthisthirdkingdom，heflatteredhimselfhehadfoundafullcompensationfortheinsignificancyofthoseoftheothertwo。
　　Thelittlebitsofgoldwithwhichtheinhabitantsornamentedtheirdress，andwhich，hewasinformed，theyfrequentlyfoundintherivuletsandtorrentsthatfellfromthemountains，weresufficienttosatisfyhimthatthosemountainsaboundedwiththerichestgoldmines。St。Domingo，therefore，wasrepresentedasacountryaboundingwithgold，and，uponthataccount，（accordingtotheprejudicesnotonlyofthepresenttime，butofthosetimes）aninexhaustiblesourceofrealwealthtothecrownandkingdomofSpain。WhenColumbus，uponhisreturnfromhisfirstvoyage，wasintroducedwithasortoftriumphalhonourstothesovereignsofCastileandArragon，theprincipalproductionsofthecountrieswhichhehaddiscoveredwerecarriedinsolemnprocessionbeforehim。Theonlyvaluablepartofthemconsistedinsomelittlefillets，bracelets，andotherornamentsofgold，andinsomebalesofcotton。Therestweremereobjectsofvulgarwonderandcuriosity;somereedsofanextraordinarysize，somebirdsofaverybeautifulplumage，andsomestuffedskinsofthehugealligatorandmanati;allofwhichwereprecededbysixorsevenofthewretchednatives，whosesingularcolourandappearanceaddedgreatlytothenoveltyoftheshow。
　　InconsequenceoftherepresentationsofColumbus，thecouncilofCastiledeterminedtotakepossessionofcountriesofwhichtheinhabitantswereplainlyincapableofdefendingthemselves。ThepiouspurposeofconvertingthemtoChristianitysanctifiedtheinjusticeoftheproject。Butthehopeoffindingtreasuresofgoldtherewasthesolemotivewhichpromptedhimtoundertakeit;andtogivethismotivethegreaterweight，itwasproposedbyColumbusthatthehalfofallthegoldandsilverthatshouldbefoundthereshouldbelongtothecrown。Thisproposalwasapprovedofbythecouncil。
　　Aslongasthewholeorthefargreaterpartofthegold，whichthefirstadventurersimportedintoEurope，wasgotbysoveryeasyamethodastheplunderingofthedefencelessnatives，itwasnotperhapsverydifficulttopayeventhisheavytax。Butwhenthenativeswereoncefairlystrippedofallthattheyhad，which，inSt。Domingo，andinalltheothercountriesdiscoveredbyColumbus，wasdonecompletelyinsixoreightyears，andwheninordertofindmoreithadbecomenecessarytodigforitinthemines，therewasnolongeranypossibilityofpayingthistax。Therigorousexactionofit，accordingly，firstoccasioned，itissaid，thetotalabandoningoftheminesofSt。Domingo，whichhaveneverbeenwroughtsince。Itwassoonreducedthereforetoathird;thentoafifth;afterwardstoatenth;andatlasttoatwentiethpartofthegrossproduceofthegoldmines。Thetaxuponsilvercontinuedforalongtimetobeafifthofthegrossproduce。Itwasreducedtoatenthonlyinthecourseofthepresentcentury。Butthefirstadventurersdonotappeartohavebeenmuchinterestedaboutsilver。Nothinglesspreciousthangoldseemedworthyoftheirattention。
　　AlltheotherenterprisesoftheSpaniardsinthenewworld，subsequenttothoseofColumbus，seemtohavebeenpromptedbythesamemotive。ItwasthesacredthirstofgoldthatcarriedOieda，Nicuessa，andVascoNugnesdeBalboa，totheIsthmusofDarien，thatcarriedCorteztoMexico，andAlmagroandPizzarrotoChiliandPeru。Whenthoseadventurersarriveduponanyunknowncoast，theirfirstinquirywasalwaysiftherewasanygoldtobefoundthere;andaccordingtotheinformationwhichtheyreceivedconcerningthisparticular，theydeterminedeithertoquitthecountryortosettleinit。
　　Ofallthoseexpensiveanduncertainprojects，however，whichbringbankruptcyuponthegreaterpartofthepeoplewhoengageinthem，thereisnoneperhapsmoreruinousthanthesearchafternewsilverandgoldmines。Itisperhapsthemostdisadvantageouslotteryintheworld，ortheoneinwhichthegainofthosewhodrawtheprizesbearstheleastproportiontothelossofthosewhodrawtheblanks:forthoughtheprizesarefewandtheblanksmany，thecommonpriceofaticketisthewholefortuneofaveryrichman。Projectsofmining，insteadofreplacingthecapitalemployedinthem，togetherwiththeordinaryprofitsofstock，commonlyabsorbbothcapitalandprofit。Theyaretheprojects，therefore，towhichofallothersaprudentlawgiver，whodesiredtoincreasethecapitalofhisnation，wouldleastchoosetogiveanyextraordinaryencouragement，ortoturntowardsthemagreatershareofthatcapitalthanthatwouldgotothemofitsownaccord。Suchinrealityistheabsurdconfidencewhichalmostallmenhaveintheirowngoodfortunethat，whereverthereistheleastprobabilityofsuccess，toogreatashareofitisapttogotothemofitsownaccord。
　　Butthoughthejudgmentofsoberreasonandexperienceconcerningsuchprojectshasalwaysbeenextremelyunfavourable，thatofhumanavidityhascommonlybeenquiteotherwise。Thesamepassionwhichhassuggestedtosomanypeopletheabsurdideaofthephilosopher’sstone，hassuggestedtootherstheequallyabsurdoneofimmenserichminesofgoldandsilver。Theydidnotconsiderthatthevalueofthosemetalshas，inallagesandnations，arisenchieflyfromtheirscarcity，andthattheirscarcityhasarisenfromtheverysmallquantitiesofthemwhichnaturehasanywheredepositedinoneplace，fromthehardandintractablesubstanceswithwhichshehasalmosteverywheresurroundedthosesmallquantities，andconsequentlyfromthelabourandexpensewhichareeverywherenecessaryinordertopenetratetoandgetatthem。Theyflatteredthemselvesthatveinsofthosemetalsmightinmanyplacesbefoundaslargeandasabundantasthosewhicharecommonlyfoundoflead，orcopper，ortin，oriron。ThedreamofSirWalterRaleighconcerningthegoldencityandcountryofEldorado，maysatisfyusthatevenwisemenarenotalwaysexemptfromsuchstrangedelusions。Morethanahundredyearsafterthedeathofthatgreatman，theJesuitGumilawasstillconvincedoftherealityofthatwonderfulcountry，andexpressedwithgreatwarmth，andIdaretosaywithgreatsincerity，howhappyheshouldbetocarrythelightofthegospeltoapeoplewhocouldsowellrewardthepiouslaboursoftheirmissionary。
　　InthecountriesfirstdiscoveredbytheSpaniards，nogoldorsilverminesareatpresentknownwhicharesupposedtobeworththeworking。Thequantitiesofthosemetalswhichthefirstadventurersaresaidtohavefoundtherehadprobablybeenverymuchmagnified，aswellasthefertilityofthemineswhichwerewroughtimmediatelyafterthefirstdiscovery。Whatthoseadventurerswerereportedtohavefound，however，wassufficienttoinflametheavidityofalltheircountrymen。EverySpaniardwhosailedtoAmericaexpectedtofindanEldorado。Fortune，too，diduponthiswhatshehasdoneuponveryfewotheroccasions。
　　Sherealizedinsomemeasuretheextravaganthopesofhervotaries，andinthediscoveryandconquestofMexicoandPeru（ofwhichtheonehappenedaboutthirty，theotheraboutfortyyearsafterthefirstexpeditionofColumbus），shepresentedthemwithsomethingnotveryunlikethatprofusionofthepreciousmetalswhichtheysoughtfor。
　　AprojectofcommercetotheEastIndies，therefore，gaveoccasiontothefirstdiscoveryoftheWest。AprojectofconquestgaveoccasiontoalltheestablishmentsoftheSpaniardsinthosenewlydiscoveredcountries。Themotivewhichexcitedthemtothisconquestwasaprojectofgoldandsilvermines;andacourseofaccidents，whichnohumanwisdomcouldforesee，renderedthisprojectmuchmoresuccessfulthantheundertakershadanyreasonablegroundsforexpecting。
　　ThefirstadventurersofalltheothernationsofEuropewhoattemptedtomakesettlementsinAmericawereanimatedbythelikechimericalviews;buttheywerenotequallysuccessful。ItwasmorethanahundredyearsafterthefirstsettlementoftheBrazilsbeforeanysilver，gold，ordiamondmineswerediscoveredthere。IntheEnglish，French，Dutch，andDanishcolonies，nonehaveeveryetbeendiscovered;atleastnonethatareatpresentsupposedtobeworththeworking。ThefirstEnglishsettlersinNorthAmerica，however，offeredafifthofallthegoldandsilverwhichshouldbefoundtheretotheking，asamotiveforgrantingthemtheirpatents。InthepatentstoSirWalterRaleigh，totheLondonandPlymouthCompanies，totheCouncilofPlymouth，etc。，thisfifthwasaccordinglyreservedtothecrown。
　　Totheexpectationoffindinggoldandsilvermines，thosefirstsettlers，too，joinedthatofdiscoveringanorthwestpassagetotheEastIndies。Theyhavehithertobeendisappointedinboth。
　　PART2
　　CausesofProsperityofNewColoniesTHEcolonyofacivilisednationwhichtakespossessioneitherofawastecountry，orofonesothinlyinhabitedthatthenativeseasilygiveplacetothenewsettlers，advancesmorerapidlytowealthandgreatnessthananyotherhumansociety。
　　Thecolonistscarryoutwiththemaknowledgeofagricultureandofotherusefulartssuperiortowhatcangrowupofitsownaccordinthecourseofmanycenturiesamongsavageandbarbarousnations。Theycarryoutwiththem，too，thehabitofsubordination，somenotionoftheregulargovernmentwhichtakesplaceintheirowncountry，ofthesystemoflawswhichsupportit，andofaregularadministrationofjustice;andtheynaturallyestablishsomethingofthesamekindinthenewsettlement。Butamongsavageandbarbarousnations，thenaturalprogressoflawandgovernmentisstillslowerthanthenaturalprogressofarts，afterlawandgovernmenthavebeengofarestablishedasisnecessaryfortheirprotection。Everycolonistgetsmorelandthanhecanpossiblycultivate。Hehasnorent，andscarceanytaxestopay。Nolandlordshareswithhiminitsproduce，andtheshareofthesovereigniscommonlybutatrifle。
　　Hehaseverymotivetorenderasgreataspossibleaproduce，whichisthustobealmostentirelyhisown。Buthislandiscommonlysoextensivethat，withallhisownindustry，andwithalltheindustryofotherpeoplewhomhecangettoemploy，hecanseldommakeitproducethetenthpartofwhatitiscapableofproducing。Heiseager，therefore，tocollectlabourersfromallquarters，andtorewardthemwiththemostliberalwages。Butthoseliberalwages，joinedtotheplentyandcheapnessofland，soonmakethoselabourersleavehim，inordertobecomelandlordsthemselves，andtoreward，withequalliberality，otherlabourers，whosoonleavethemforthesamereasonthattheylefttheirfirstmaster。Theliberalrewardoflabourencouragesmarriage。Thechildren，duringthetenderyearsofinfancy，arewellfedandproperlytakencareof，andwhentheyaregrownup，thevalueoftheirlabourgreatlyoverpaystheirmaintenance。
　　Whenarrivedatmaturity，thehighpriceoflabour，andthelowpriceofland，enablethemtoestablishthemselvesinthesamemannerastheirfathersdidbeforethem。
　　Inothercountries，rentandprofiteatupwages，andthetwosuperiorordersofpeopleoppresstheinferiorone。Butinnewcoloniestheinterestofthetwosuperiorordersobligesthemtotreattheinferioronewithmoregenerosityandhumanity;atleastwherethatinferioroneisnotinastateofslavery。Wastelandsofthegreatestnaturalfertilityaretobehadforatrifle。Theincreaseofrevenuewhichtheproprietor，whoisalwaystheundertaker，expectsfromtheirimprovement，constituteshisprofitwhichinthesecircumstancesiscommonlyverygreat。Butthisgreatprofitcannotbemadewithoutemployingthelabourofotherpeopleinclearingandcultivatingtheland;andthedisproportionbetweenthegreatextentofthelandandthesmallnumberofthepeople，whichcommonlytakesplaceinnewcolonies，makesitdifficultforhimtogetthislabour。Hedoesnot，therefore，disputeaboutwages，butiswillingtoemploylabouratanyprice。Thehighwagesoflabourencouragepopulation。Thecheapnessandplentyofgoodlandencourageimprovement，andenabletheproprietortopaythosehighwages。Inthosewagesconsistsalmostthewholepriceoftheland;andthoughtheyarehighconsideredasthewagesoflabour，theyarelowconsideredasthepriceofwhatissoveryvaluable。
　　Whatencouragestheprogressofpopulationandimprovementencouragesthatofrealwealthandgreatness。
　　TheprogressofmanyoftheancientGreekcoloniestowardswealthandgreatnessseemsaccordinglytohavebeenveryrapid。
　　Inthecourseofacenturyortwo，severalofthemappeartohaverivalled，andeventohavesurpassedtheirmothercities。
　　SyracuseandAgrigentuminSicily，TarentumandLocriinItaly，EphesusandMiletusinLesserAsia，appearbyallaccountstohavebeenatleastequaltoanyofthecitiesofancientGreece。
　　Thoughposteriorintheirestablishment，yetalltheartsofrefinement，philosophy，poetry，andeloquenceseemtohavebeencultivatedasearly，andtohavebeenimprovedashighlyinthemasinanypartofthemothercountry。TheschoolsofthetwooldestGreekphilosophers，thoseofThalesandPythagoras，wereestablished，itisremarkable，notinancientGreece，buttheoneinanAsiatic，theotherinanItaliancolony。Allthosecolonieshadestablishedthemselvesincountriesinhabitedbysavageandbarbarousnations，whoeasilygaveplacetothenewsettlers。
　　Theyhadplentyofgoodland，andastheywerealtogetherindependentofthemothercity，theywereatlibertytomanagetheirownaffairsinthewaythattheyjudgedwasmostsuitabletotheirowninterest。
　　ThehistoryoftheRomancoloniesisbynomeanssobrilliant。Someofthem，indeed，suchasFlorence，haveinthecourseofmanyages，andafterthefallofthemothercity，grownuptobeconsiderablestates。Buttheprogressofnooneofthemseemsevertohavebeenveryrapid。Theywereallestablishedinconqueredprovinces，whichinmostcaseshadbeenfullyinhabitedbefore。Thequantityoflandassignedtoeachcolonistwasseldomveryconsiderable，andasthecolonywasnotindependent，theywerenotalwaysatlibertytomanagetheirownaffairsinthewaytheyjudgedwasmostsuitabletotheirowninterest。
　　Intheplentyofgoodland，theEuropeancoloniesestablishedinAmericaandtheWestIndiesresemble，andevengreatlysurpass，thoseofancientGreece。Intheirdependencyuponthemotherstate，theyresemblethoseofancientRome;buttheirgreatdistancefromEuropehasinallofthemalleviatedmoreorlesstheeffectsofthisdependency。Theirsituationhasplacedthemlessintheviewandlessinthepoweroftheirmothercountry。Inpursuingtheirinteresttheirownway，theirconducthas，uponmanyoccasions，beenoverlooked，eitherbecausenotknownornotunderstoodinEurope;anduponsomeoccasionsithasbeenfairlysufferedandsubmittedto，becausetheirdistancerendereditdifficulttorestrainit。EventheviolentandarbitrarygovernmentofSpainhas，uponmanyoccasions，beenobligedtorecallorsoftentheorderswhichhadbeengivenforthegovernmentofhercoloniesforfearofageneralinsurrection。TheprogressofalltheEuropeancoloniesinwealth，population，andimprovement，hasaccordinglybeenverygreat。
　　ThecrownofSpain，byitsshareofthegoldandsilver，derivedsomerevenuefromitscoloniesfromthemomentoftheirfirstestablishment。Itwasarevenue，too，ofanaturetoexciteinhumanaviditythemostextravagantexpectationsofstillgreaterriches。TheSpanishcolonies，therefore，fromthemomentoftheirfirstestablishment，attractedverymuchtheattentionoftheirmothercountry，whilethoseoftheotherEuropeannationswereforalongtimeinagreatmeasureneglected。Theformerdidnot，perhaps，thrivethebetterinconsequenceofthisattention;northelattertheworseinconsequenceofthisneglect。Inproportiontotheextentofthecountrywhichtheyinsomemeasurepossess，theSpanishcoloniesareconsideredaslesspopulousandthrivingthanthoseofalmostanyotherEuropeannation。TheprogressevenoftheSpanishcolonies，however，inpopulationandimprovement，hascertainlybeenveryrapidandverygreat。ThecityofLima，foundedsincetheconquest，isrepresentedbyUlloaascontainingfiftythousandinhabitantsnearthirtyyearsago。Quito，whichhadbeenbutamiserablehamletofIndians，isrepresentedbythesameauthorasinhistimeequallypopulous。GemelliCarreri，apretendedtraveller，itissaid，indeed，butwhoseemseverywheretohavewrittenuponextremelygoodinformation，representsthecityofMexicoascontainingahundredthousandinhabitants;anumberwhich，inspiteofalltheexaggerationsoftheSpanishwriters，is，probably，morethanfivetimesgreaterthanwhatitcontainedinthetimeofMontezuma。ThesenumbersexceedgreatlythoseofBoston，NewYork，andPhiladelphia，thethreegreatestcitiesoftheEnglishcolonies。BeforetheconquestoftheSpaniardstherewerenocattlefitfordraughteitherinMexicoorPeru。Thellamawastheironlybeastofburden，anditsstrengthseemstohavebeenagooddealinferiortothatofacommonass。Theploughwasunknownamongthem。Theywereignorantoftheuseofiron。Theyhadnocoinedmoney，noranyestablishedinstrumentofcommerceofanykind。Theircommercewascarriedonbybarter。A
　　sortofwoodenspadewastheirprincipalinstrumentofagriculture。Sharpstonesservedthemforknivesandhatchetstocutwith;fishbonesandthehardsinewsofcertainanimalsservedthemforneedlestosewwith;andtheseseemtohavebeentheirprincipalinstrumentsoftrade。Inthisstateofthings，itseemsimpossiblethateitherofthoseempirescouldhavebeensomuchimprovedorsowellcultivatedasatpresent，whentheyareplentifullyfurnishedwithallsortsofEuropeancattle，andwhentheuseofiron，oftheplough，andofmanyoftheartsofEurope，hasbeenintroducedamongthem。Butthepopulousnessofeverycountrymustbeinproportiontothedegreeofitsimprovementandcultivation。Inspiteofthecrueldestructionofthenativeswhichfollowedtheconquest，thesetwogreatempiresare，probably，morepopulousnowthantheyeverwerebefore:andthepeoplearesurelyverydifferent;forwemustacknowledge，I
　　apprehend，thattheSpanishcreolesareinmanyrespectssuperiortotheancientIndians。
　　AfterthesettlementsoftheSpaniards，thatofthePortugueseinBrazilistheoldestofanyEuropeannationinAmerica。Butasforalongtimeafterthefirstdiscoveryneithergoldnorsilvermineswerefoundinit，andasitafforded，uponthataccount，littleornorevenuetothecrown，itwasforalongtimeinagreatmeasureneglected;andduringthisstateofneglectitgrewuptobeagreatandpowerfulcolony。WhilePortugalwasunderthedominionofSpain，BrazilwasattackedbytheDutch，whogotpossessionofsevenofthefourteenprovincesintowhichitisdivided。Theyexpectedsoontoconquertheotherseven，whenPortugalrecovereditsindependencybytheelevationofthefamilyofBraganzatothethrone。TheDutchthen，asenemiestotheSpaniards，becamefriendstothePortuguese，whowerelikewisetheenemiesoftheSpaniards。Theyagreed，therefore，toleavethatpartofBrazil，whichtheyhadnotconquered，totheKingofPortugal，whoagreedtoleavethatpartwhichtheyhadconqueredtothem，asamatternotworthdisputingaboutwithsuchgoodallies。ButtheDutchgovernmentsoonbegantooppressthePortuguesecolonists，who，insteadofamusingthemselveswithcomplaints，tookarmsagainsttheirnewmasters，andbytheirownvalourandresolution，withtheconnivance，indeed，butwithoutanyavowedassistancefromthemothercountry，drovethemoutofBrazil。TheDutch，therefore，findingitimpossibletokeepanypartofthecountrytothemselves，werecontentedthatitshouldbeentirelyrestoredtothecrownofPortugal。Inthiscolonytherearesaidtobemorethansixhundredthousandpeople，eitherPortugueseordescendedfromPortuguese，creoles，mulattoes，andamixedracebetweenPortugueseandBrazilians。NoonecolonyinAmericaissupposedtocontainsogreatanumberofpeopleofEuropeanextraction。
　　Towardstheendofthefifteenth，andduringthegreaterpartofthesixteenthcentury，SpainandPortugalwerethetwogreatnavalpowersupontheocean;forthoughthecommerceofVeniceextendedtoeverypartofEurope，itsfleetshadscarceeversailedbeyondtheMediterranean。TheSpaniards，invirtueofthefirstdiscovery，claimedallAmericaastheirown;andthoughtheycouldnothindersogreatanavalpowerasthatofPortugalfromsettlinginBrazil，suchwas，atthattime，theterroroftheirname，thatthegreaterpartoftheothernationsofEuropewereafraidtoestablishthemselvesinanyotherpartofthatgreatcontinent。TheFrench，whoattemptedtosettleinFlorida，wereallmurderedbytheSpaniards。Butthedeclensionofthenavalpowerofthislatternation，inconsequenceofthedefeatormiscarriageofwhattheycalledtheirInvincibleArmada，whichhappenedtowardstheendofthesixteenthcentury，putitoutoftheirpowertoobstructanylongerthesettlementsoftheotherEuropeannations。Inthecourseoftheseventeenthcentury，therefore，theEnglish，French，Dutch，Danes，andSwedes，allthegreatnationswhohadanyportsupontheocean，attemptedtomakesomesettlementsinthenewworld。
　　TheSwedesestablishedthemselvesinNewJersey;andthenumberofSwedishfamiliesstilltobefoundtheresufficientlydemonstratesthatthiscolonywasverylikelytoprosperhaditbeenprotectedbythemothercountry。ButbeingneglectedbySweden，itwassoonswallowedupbytheDutchcolonyofNewYork，whichagain，in1674，fellunderthedominionoftheEnglish。
　　ThesmallislandsofSt。ThomasandSantaCruzaretheonlycountriesinthenewworldthathaveeverbeenpossessedBytheDanes。Theselittlesettlements，too，wereunderthegovernmentofanexclusivecompany，whichhadthesoleright，bothofpurchasingthesurplusproduceofthecolonists，andofsupplyingthemwithsuchgoodsofothercountriesastheywanted，andwhich，therefore，bothinitspurchasesandsales，hadnotonlythepowerofoppressingthem，butthegreatesttemptationtodoso。Thegovernmentofanexclusivecompanyofmerchantsis，perhaps，theworstofallgovernmentsforanycountrywhatever。
　　Itwasnot，however，abletostopaltogethertheprogressofthesecolonies，thoughitrendereditmoreslowandlanguid。ThelateKingofDenmarkdissolvedthiscompany，andsincethattimetheprosperityofthesecolonieshasbeenverygreat。
　　TheDutchsettlementsintheWest，aswellasthoseintheEastIndies，wereoriginallyputunderthegovernmentofanexclusivecompany。Theprogressofsomeofthem，therefore，thoughithasbeenconsiderable，incomparisonwiththatofalmostanycountrythathasbeenlongpeopledandestablished，hasbeenlanguidandslowincomparisonwiththatofthegreaterpartofnewcolonies。ThecolonyofSurinam，thoughveryconsiderable，isstillinferiortothegreaterpartofthesugarcoloniesoftheotherEuropeannations。ThecolonyofNovaBelgia，nowdividedintothetwoprovincesofNewYorkandNewJersey，wouldprobablyhavesoonbecomeconsiderabletoo，eventhoughithadremainedunderthegovernmentoftheDutch。Theplentyandcheapnessofgoodlandaresuchpowerfulcausesofprosperitythattheveryworstgovernmentisscarcecapableofcheckingaltogethertheefficacyoftheiroperation。Thegreatdistance，too，fromthemothercountrywouldenablethecoloniststoevademoreorless，bysmuggling，themonopolywhichthecompanyenjoyedagainstthem。AtpresentthecompanyallowsallDutchshipstotradetoSurinamuponpayingtwoandahalfpercentuponthevalueoftheircargoforalicence;andonlyreservestoitselfexclusivelythedirecttradefromAfricatoAmerica，whichconsistsalmostentirelyintheslavetrade。Thisrelaxationintheexclusiveprivilegesofthecompanyisprobablytheprincipalcauseofthatdegreeofprosperitywhichthatcolonyatpresentenjoys。CuracoaandEustatia，thetwoprincipalislandsbelongingtotheDutch，arefreeportsopentotheshipsofallnations;andthisfreedom，inthemidstofbettercolonieswhoseportsareopentothoseofonenationonly，hasbeenthegreatcauseoftheprosperityofthosetwobarrenislands。
　　TheFrenchcolonyofCanadawas，duringthegreaterpartofthelastcentury，andsomepartofthepresent，underthegovernmentofanexclusivecompany。Undersounfavourableanadministrationitsprogresswasnecessarilyveryslowincomparisonwiththatofothernewcolonies;butitbecamemuchmorerapidwhenthiscompanywasdissolvedafterthefallofwhatiscalledtheMississippischeme。WhentheEnglishgotpossessionofthiscountry，theyfoundinitneardoublethenumberofinhabitantswhichFatherCharlevoixhadassignedtoitbetweentwentyandthirtyyearsbefore。ThatJesuithadtravelledoverthewholecountry，andhadnoinclinationtorepresentitaslessconsiderablethanitreallywas。
　　TheFrenchcolonyofSt。Domingowasestablishedbypiratesandfreebooters，who，foralongtime，neitherrequiredtheprotection，noracknowledgedtheauthorityofFrance;andwhenthatraceofbandittibecamesofarcitizensastoacknowledgethisauthority，itwasforalongtimenecessarytoexerciseitwithverygreatgentleness。Duringthisperiodthepopulationandimprovementofthiscolonyincreasedveryfast。Eventheoppressionoftheexclusivecompany，towhichitwasforsometimesubjected，withalltheothercoloniesofFrance，thoughitnodoubtretarded，hadnotbeenabletostopitsprogressaltogether。Thecourseofitsprosperityreturnedassoonasitwasrelievedfromthatoppression。ItisnowthemostimportantofthesugarcoloniesoftheWestIndies，anditsproduceissaidtobegreaterthanthatofalltheEnglishsugarcoloniesputtogether。TheothersugarcoloniesofFranceareingeneralallverythriving。
　　ButtherearenocoloniesofwhichtheprogresshasbeenmorerapidthanthatoftheEnglishinNorthAmerica。
　　Plentyofgoodland，andlibertytomanagetheirownaffairstheirownway，seemtobethetwogreatcausesoftheprosperityofallnewcolonies。
　　IntheplentyofgoodlandtheEnglishcoloniesofNorthAmerica，thoughnodoubtveryabundantlyprovided，arehoweverinferiortothoseoftheSpaniardsandPortuguese，andnotsuperiortosomeofthosepossessedbytheFrenchbeforethelatewar。ButthepoliticalinstitutionsoftheEnglishcolonieshavebeenmorefavourabletotheimprovementandcultivationofthislandthanthoseofanyoftheotherthreenations。
　　First，theengrossingofuncultivatedland，thoughithasbynomeansbeenpreventedaltogether，hasbeenmorerestrainedintheEnglishcoloniesthaninanyother。Thecolonylawwhichimposesuponeveryproprietortheobligationofimprovingandcultivating，withinalimitedtime，acertainproportionofhislands，andwhichincaseoffailure，declaresthoseneglectedlandsgrantabletoanyotherperson，thoughithasnot，perhaps，beenverystrictlyexecuted，has，however，hadsomeeffect。
　　Secondly，inPennsylvaniathereisnorightofprimogeniture，andlands，likemovables，aredividedequallyamongallthechildrenofthefamily。InthreeoftheprovincesofNewEnglandtheoldesthasonlyadoubleshare，asintheMosaicallaw。Thoughinthoseprovinces，therefore，toogreataquantityoflandshouldsometimesbeengrossedbyaparticularindividual，itislikely，inthecourseofagenerationortwo，tobesufficientlydividedagain。IntheotherEnglishcolonies，indeed，therightofprimogenituretakesplace，asinthelawofEngland。ButinalltheEnglishcoloniesthetenureofthelands，whichareallheldbyfreesocage，facilitatesalienation，andthegranteeofanyextensivetractoflandgenerallyfindsitforhisinteresttoalienate，asfastashecan，thegreaterpartofit，reservingonlyasmallquit—rent。IntheSpanishandPortuguesecolonies，whatiscalledtherightofMajorazzotakesplaceinthesuccessionofallthosegreatestatestowhichanytitleofhonourisannexed。Suchestatesgoalltooneperson，andareineffectentailedandunalienable。TheFrenchcolonies，indeed，aresubjecttothecustomofParis，which，intheinheritanceofland，ismuchmorefavourabletotheyoungerchildrenthanthelawofEngland。ButintheFrenchcolonies，ifanypartofanestate，heldbythenobletenureofchivalryandhomage，isalienated，itis，foralimitedtime，subjecttotherightofredemption，eitherbytheheirofthesuperiororbytheheirofthefamily;andallthelargestestatesofthecountryareheldbysuchnobletenures，whichnecessarilyembarrassalienation。Butinanewcolonyagreatuncultivatedestateislikelytobemuchmorespeedilydividedbyalienationthanbysuccession。Theplentyandcheapnessofgoodland，ithasalreadybeenobserved，aretheprincipalcausesoftherapidprosperityofnewcolonies。Theengrossingofland，ineffect，destroysthisplentyandcheapness。Theengrossingofuncultivatedland，besides，isthegreatestobstructiontoitsimprovement。Butthelabourthatisemployedintheimprovementandcultivationoflandaffordsthegreatestandmostvaluableproducetothesociety。Theproduceoflabour，inthiscase，paysnotonlyitsownwages，andtheprofitofthestockwhichemploysit，buttherentofthelandtoouponwhichitisemployed。ThelabouroftheEnglishcolonists，therefore，beingmoreemployedintheimprovementandcultivationofland，islikelytoaffordagreaterandmorevaluableproducethanthatofanyoftheotherthreenations，which，bytheengrossingofland，ismoreorlessdivertedtowardsotheremployments。
　　Thirdly，thelabouroftheEnglishcolonistsisnotonlylikelytoaffordagreaterandmorevaluableproduce，but，inconsequenceofthemoderationoftheirtaxes，agreaterproportionofthisproducebelongstothemselves，whichtheymaystoreupandemployinputtingintomotionastillgreaterquantityoflabour。TheEnglishcolonistshaveneveryetcontributedanythingtowardsthedefenceofthemothercountry，ortowardsthesupportofitscivilgovernment。Theythemselves，onthecontrary，havehithertobeendefendedalmostentirelyattheexpenseofthemothercountry。Buttheexpenseoffleetsandarmiesisoutofallproportiongreaterthanthenecessaryexpenseofcivilgovernment。Theexpenseoftheirowncivilgovernmenthasalwaysbeenverymoderate。Ithasgenerallybeenconfinedtowhatwasnecessaryforpayingcompetentsalariestothegovernor，tothejudges，andtosomeotherofficersofpolice，andformaintainingafewofthemostusefulpublicworks。TheexpenseofthecivilestablishmentofMassachusettsBay，beforethecommencementofthepresentdisturbances，usedtobebutaboutL18，000ayear。ThatofNewHampshireandRhodeIsland，L3500each。ThatofConnecticut，L4000。ThatofNewYorkandPennsylvania，L4500each。
　　ThatofNewJersey，L1200。ThatofVirginiaandSouthCarolina，L8000each。ThecivilestablishmentsofNovaScotiaandGeorgiaarepartlysupportedbyanannualgrantofParliament。ButNovaScotiapays，besides，aboutL7000ayeartowardsthepublicexpensesofthecolony;andGeorgiaaboutL2500ayear。AllthedifferentcivilestablishmentsinNorthAmerica，inshort，exclusiveofthoseofMarylandandNorthCarolina，ofwhichnoexactaccounthasbeengot，didnot，beforethecommencementofthepresentdisturbances，costtheinhabitantsaboveL64，700ayear;anever—memorableexampleathowsmallanexpensethreemillionsofpeoplemaynotonlybegoverned，butwellgoverned。Themostimportantpartoftheexpenseofgovernment，indeed，thatofdefenceandprotection，hasconstantlyfallenuponthemothercountry。Theceremonial，too，ofthecivilgovernmentinthecolonies，uponthereceptionofanewgovernor，upontheopeningofanewassembly，etc。，thoughsufficientlydecent，isnotaccompaniedwithanyexpensivepomporparade。Theirecclesiasticalgovernmentisconducteduponaplanequallyfrugal。Tithesareunknownamongthem;