Insheepthereisastrongtendencyforcharacters,whichhaveapparentlybeenacquiredunderdomestication,tobecomeattachedeitherexclusivelytothemalesex,ortobemorehighlydevelopedinthisthanintheothersex。
Thusinmanybreedsthehornsaredeficientintheewe,thoughthislikewiseoccursoccasionallywiththefemaleofthewildmusmon。IntheramsoftheWallachianbreed,"thehornsspringalmostperpendicularlyfromthefrontalbone,andthentakeabeautifulspiralform;intheewestheyprotrudenearlyatrightanglesfromthehead,andthenbecometwistedinasingularmanner。"(3/82。’YouattonSheep’page138。)Mr。Hodgsonstatesthattheextraordinarilyarchednoseorchaffron,whichissohighlydevelopedinseveralforeignbreeds,ischaracteristicoftheramalone,andapparentlyistheresultofdomestication。(3/83。’JournalAsiat。Soc。
ofBengal’volume161847pages1015,1016。)IhearfromMr。Blyththattheaccumulationoffatinthefat—tailedsheepoftheplainsofIndiaisgreaterinthemalethaninthefemale;andFitzinger(3/84。’RacendesZahmenSchafes’s。77。)remarksthatthemaneintheAfricanmanedraceisfarmoredevelopedintheramthanintheewe。
Differentracesofsheep,likecattle,presentconstitutionaldifferences。
Thustheimprovedbreedsarriveatmaturityatanearlyage,ashasbeenwellshownbyMr。Simondsthroughtheirearlyaverageperiodofdentition。
Theseveralraceshavebecomeadaptedtodifferentkindsofpastureandclimate:forinstance,noonecanrearLeicestersheeponmountainousregions,whereCheviotsflourish。AsYouatthasremarked,"InallthedifferentdistrictsofGreatBritainwefindvariousbreedsofsheepbeautifullyadaptedtothelocalitywhichtheyoccupy。Nooneknowstheirorigin;theyareindigenoustothesoil,climate,pasturage,andthelocalityonwhichtheygraze;theyseemtohavebeenformedforitandbyit。"(3/85。’RuralEconomyofNorfolk’volume2page136。)Marshallrelates(3/86。’YouattonSheep’page312。Onsamesubject,seeexcellentremarksin’Gardener’sChronicle’1858page868。ForexperimentsincrossingCheviotsheepwithLeicestersseeYouattpage325。)thataflockofheavyLincolnshireandlightNorfolksheepwhichhadbeenbredtogetherinalargesheep—walk,partofwhichwaslow,rich,andmoist,andanotherparthighanddry,withbentygrass,whenturnedout,regularlyseparatedfromeachother;theheavysheepdrawingofftotherichsoil,andthelightersheeptotheirownsoil;sothat"whilsttherewasplentyofgrassthetwobreedskeptthemselvesasdistinctasrooksandpigeons。"NumeroussheepfromvariouspartsoftheworldhavebeenbroughtduringalongcourseofyearstotheZoologicalGardensofLondon;butasYouatt,whoattendedtheanimalsasaveterinarysurgeon,remarks,"fewornonedieoftherot,buttheyarephthisical;notoneofthemfromatorridclimatelastsoutthesecondyear,andwhentheydietheirlungsaretuberculated。"(3/87。
’YouattonSheep’notepage491。)ThereisverygoodevidencethatEnglishbreedsofsheepwillnotsucceedinFrance。(3/88。M。Malingie—Nouel’JournalR。Agricult。Soc。’volume141853page214translatedandthereforeapprovedbyagreatauthority,Mr。Pusey。)EvenincertainpartsofEnglandithasbeenfoundimpossibletokeepcertainbreedsofsheep;
thusonafarmonthebanksoftheOuse,theLeicestersheepweresorapidlydestroyedbypleuritis(3/89。’TheVeterinary’volume10page217。)
thattheownercouldnotkeepthem;thecoarser—skinnedsheepneverbeingaffected。
Theperiodofgestationwasformerlythoughttobeofsounalterableacharacter,thatasupposeddifferenceofthiskindbetweenthewolfandthedogwasesteemedasuresignofspecificdistinction;butwehaveseenthattheperiodisshorterintheimprovedbreedsofthepig,andinthelargerbreedsoftheox,thaninotherbreedsofthesetwoanimals。Andnowweknow,ontheexcellentauthorityofHermannvonNathusius(3/90。A
translationofhispaperisgivenin’Bull。Soc。Imp。d’Acclimat。’tome9
1862page723。),thatMerinoandSouthdownsheep,whenbothhavelongbeenkeptunderexactlythesameconditions,differintheiraverageperiodofgestation,asisseeninthefollowingTableMerinos150。3days。
Southdowns144。2"
Half—bredMerinosandSouthdowns146。3"
3/4bloodofSouthdown145。5"
7/8bloodofSouthdown144。2"
Inthisgraduateddifferenceincross—bredanimalshavingdifferentproportionsofSouthdownblood,weseehowstrictlythetwoperiodsofgestationhavebeentransmitted。Nathusiusremarksthat,asSouthdownsgrowwithremarkablerapidityafterbirth,itisnotsurprisingthattheirfoetaldevelopmentshouldhavebeenshortened。Itisofcoursepossiblethatthedifferenceinthesetwobreedsmaybeduetotheirdescentfromdistinctparent—species;butastheearlymaturityoftheSouthdownshaslongbeencarefullyattendedtobybreeders,thedifferenceismoreprobablytheresultofsuchattention。Lastly,thefecundityoftheseveralbreedsdiffersmuch;somegenerallyproducingtwinsoreventripletsatabirth,ofwhichfactthecuriousShangaisheep(withtheirtruncatedandrudimentaryears,andgreatRomannoses),latelyexhibitedintheZoologicalGardens,offeraremarkableinstance。
Sheepareperhapsmorereadilyaffectedbythedirectactionoftheconditionsoflifetowhichtheyhavebeenexposedthanalmostanyotherdomesticanimal。AccordingtoPallas,andmorerecentlyaccordingtoErman,thefat—tailedKirghisiansheep,whenbredforafewgenerationsinRussia,degenerate,andthemassoffatdwindlesaway,"thescantyandbitterherbageofthesteppesseemssoessentialtotheirdevelopment。"PallasmakesananalogousstatementwithrespecttooneoftheCrimeanbreeds。
BurnesstatesthattheKarakoolbreed,whichproducesafine,curled,black,andvaluablefleece,whenremovedfromitsowncantonnearBokharatoPersiaortootherquarters,losesitspeculiarfleece。(3/91。Erman’TravelsinSiberia’Englishtranslationvolume1page228。ForPallasonthefat—tailedsheepIquotefromAnderson’saccountofthe’SheepofRussia’1794page34。WithrespecttotheCrimeansheepseePallas’Travels’Englishtranslationvolume2page454。FortheKarakoolsheepseeBurnes’TravelsinBokhara’volume3page151。)Inallsuchcases,however,itmaybethatachangeofanykindintheconditionsoflifecausesvariabilityandconsequentlossofcharacter,andnotthatcertainconditionsarenecessaryforthedevelopmentofcertaincharacters。
Greatheat,however,seemstoactdirectlyonthefleece:severalaccountshavebeenpublishedofthechangewhichsheepimportedfromEuropeundergointheWestIndies。Dr。NicholsonofAntiguainformsmethat,afterthethirdgeneration,thewooldisappearsfromthewholebody,exceptovertheloins;andtheanimalthenappearslikeagoatwithadirtydoor—matonitsback。AsimilarchangeissaidtotakeplaceonthewestcoastofAfrica。
(3/92。SeeReportoftheDirectorsoftheSierraLeoneCompanyasquotedinWhite’GradationofMan’page95。WithrespecttothechangewhichsheepundergointheWestIndiesseealsoDr。Davyin’Edin。New。Phil。Journal’
January1852。ForthestatementmadebyRoulinsee’Mem。del’Institutpresent。pardiversSavans。’tome61835page347。)Ontheotherhand,manywool—bearingsheepliveonthehotplainsofIndia。RoulinassertsthatinthelowerandheatedvalleysoftheCordillera,ifthelambsareshearedassoonasthewoolhasgrowntoacertainthickness,allgoesonafterwardsasusual;butifnotsheared,thewooldetachesitselfinflakes,andshortshininghairlikethatonagoatisproducedeverafterwards。ThiscuriousresultseemsmerelytobeanexaggeratedtendencynaturaltotheMerinobreed,forasagreatauthority,namely,LordSomerville,remarks,"thewoolofourMerinosheepaftershear—timeishardandcoarsetosuchadegreeastorenderitalmostimpossibletosupposethatthesameanimalcouldbearwoolsooppositeinquality,comparedtothatwhichhasbeenclippedfromit:asthecoldweatheradvances,thefleecesrecovertheirsoftquality。"Asinsheepofallbreedsthefleecenaturallyconsistsoflongerandcoarserhaircoveringshorterandsofterwool,thechangewhichitoftenundergoesinhotclimatesisprobablymerelyacaseofunequaldevelopment;forevenwiththosesheepwhichlikegoatsarecoveredwithhair,asmallquantityofunderlyingwoolmayalwaysbefound。(3/93。
’YouattonSheep’page69whereLordSomervilleisquoted。Seepage117onthepresenceofwoolunderthehair。WithrespecttothefleecesofAustraliansheeppage185。Onselectioncounteractinganytendencytochangeseepages70,117,120,168。)Inthewildmountain—sheep(0vismontana)ofNorthAmericathereisananalogousannualchangeofcoat;"thewoolbeginstodropoutinearlyspring,leavinginitsplaceacoatofhairresemblingthatoftheelk,achangeofpelagequitedifferentincharacterfromtheordinarythickeningofthecoatorhair,commontoallfurredanimalsinwinter,——forinstance,inthehorse,thecow,etc。,whichshedtheirwintercoatinthespring。"(3/94。AudubonandBachman’TheQuadrupedsofNorthAmerica’1846volume5page365。)
Aslightdifferenceinclimateorpasturesometimesslightlyaffectsthefleece,ashasbeenobservedevenindifferentdistrictsinEngland,andiswellshownbythegreatsoftnessofthewoolbroughtfromSouthernAustralia。Butitshouldbeobserved,asYouattrepeatedlyinsists,thatthetendencytochangemaygenerallybecounteractedbycarefulselection。
M。Lasterye,afterdiscussingthissubject,sumsupasfollows:"ThepreservationoftheMerinoraceinitsutmostpurityattheCapeofGoodHope,inthemarshesofHolland,andundertherigorousclimateofSweden,furnishesanadditionalsupportofthismyunalterableprinciple,thatfine—woolledsheepmaybekeptwhereverindustriousmenandintelligentbreedersexist。"
Thatmethodicalselectionhaseffectedgreatchangesinseveralbreedsofsheepnoonewhoknowsanythingonthesubject,entertainsadoubt。ThecaseoftheSouthdowns,asimprovedbyEllman,offersperhapsthemoststrikinginstance。Unconsciousoroccasionalselectionhaslikewiseslowlyproducedagreateffect,asweshallseeinthechaptersonSelection。Thatcrossinghaslargelymodifiedsomebreeds,noonewhowillstudywhathasbeenwrittenonthissubject——forinstance,Mr。Spooner’spaper——willdispute;buttoproduceuniformityinacrossedbreed,carefulselectionand"rigorousweeding,"asthisauthorexpressesit,areindispensable。
(3/95。’JournalofR。Agricult。Soc。ofEngland’volume20part2,W。C。
Spooneroncross—Breeding。)
Insomefewinstancesnewbreedshavesuddenlyoriginated;thus,in1791,aram—lambwasborninMassachusetts,havingshortcrookedlegsandalongback,likeaturnspit—dog。Fromthisonelambtheotteroranconsemi—
monstrousbreedwasraised;asthesesheepcouldnotleapoverthefences,itwasthoughtthattheywouldbevaluable;buttheyhavebeensupplantedbymerinos,andthusexterminated。ThesheepareremarkablefromtransmittingtheircharactersotrulythatColonelHumphreys(3/96。
’Philosoph。Transactions’London1813page88。)neverheardof"butonequestionablecase"ofananconramandewenotproducinganconoffspring。
Whentheyarecrossedwithotherbreedstheoffspring,withrareexceptions,insteadofbeingintermediateincharacter,perfectlyresembleeitherparent;evenoneoftwinshasresembledoneparentandthesecondtheother。Lastly,"theanconshavebeenobservedtokeeptogether,separatingthemselvesfromtherestoftheflockwhenputintoenclosureswithothersheep。"
AmoreinterestingcasehasbeenrecordedintheReportoftheJuriesfortheGreatExhibition(1851),namely,theproductionofamerinoram—lambontheMauchampfarm,in1828,whichwasremarkableforitslong,smooth,straight,andsilkywool。Bytheyear1833M。Grauxhadraisedramsenoughtoservehiswholeflock,andafterafewmoreyearshewasabletosellstockofhisnewbreed。Sopeculiarandvaluableisthewool,thatitsellsat25percentabovethebestmerinowool:eventhefleecesofhalf—bredanimalsarevaluable,andareknowninFranceasthe"Mauchamp—merino。"Itisinteresting,asshowinghowgenerallyanymarkeddeviationofstructureisaccompaniedbyotherdeviations,thatthefirstramandhisimmediateoffspringwereofsmallsize,withlargeheads,longnecks,narrowchests,andlongflanks;buttheseblemisheswereremovedbyjudiciouscrossesandselection。Thelongsmoothwoolwasalsocorrelatedwithsmoothhorns;andashornsandhairarehomologousstructures,wecanunderstandthemeaningofthiscorrelation。IftheMauchampandanconbreedshadoriginatedacenturyortwoago,weshouldhavehadnorecordoftheirbirth;andmanyanaturalistwouldnodoubthaveinsisted,especiallyinthecaseoftheMauchamprace,thattheyhadeachdescendedfrom,orbeencrossedwith,someunknownaboriginalform。
GOATS。
FromtherecentresearchesofM。Brandt,mostnaturalistsnowbelievethatallourgoatsaredescendedfromtheCapraaegagrusofthemountainsofAsia,possiblymingledwiththealliedIndianspeciesC。falconeriofIndia。(3/97。IsidoreGeoffroySt。Hilaire’Hist。Nat。Generale’tome3
page87。Mr。Blyth’LandandWater’1867page37hasarrivedatasimilarconclusion,buthethinksthatcertainEasternracesmayperhapsbeinpartdescendedfromtheAsiaticmarkhor。)InSwitzerland,duringtheneolithicperiod,thedomesticgoatwascommonerthanthesheep;andthisveryancientracedifferedinnorespectfromthatnowcommoninSwitzerland。
(3/98。Rutimeyer’Pfahlbauten’s。127。)Atthepresenttime,themanyracesfoundinseveralpartsoftheworlddiffergreatlyfromeachother;
nevertheless,asfarastheyhavebeentried(3/99。Godron’Del’Espece’
tome1page402。)theyareallquitefertilewhencrossed。Sonumerousarethebreeds,thatMr。G。Clark(3/100。’AnnalsandMag。ofNatHistory’2ndseriesvolume21848page363。)hasdescribedeightdistinctkindsimportedintotheoneislandofMauritius。Theearsofonekindwereenormouslydeveloped,being,asmeasuredbyMr。Clark,nolessthan19inchesinlengthand43/4inchesinbreadth。Aswithcattle,themammaeofthosebreedswhichareregularlymilkedbecomegreatlydeveloped;and,asMr。
Clarkremarks,"itisnotraretoseetheirteatstouchingtheground。"Thefollowingcasesareworthnoticeaspresentingunusualpointsofvariation。
AccordingtoGodron(3/101。’Del’Espece’tome1page406。Mr。Clarkalsoreferstodifferencesintheshapeofthemammae。GodronstatesthatintheNubianracethescrotumisdividedintotwolobes;andMr。Clarkgivesaludicrousproofofthisfact,forhesawintheMauritiusamalegoatoftheMuscatbreedpurchasedatahighpriceforafemaleinfullmilk。Thesedifferencesinthescrotumareprobablynotduetodescentfromdistinctspecies:forMr。Clarkstatesthatthispartvariesmuchinform。),themammaediffergreatlyinshapeindifferentbreeds,beingelongatedinthecommongoat,hemisphericalintheAngorarace,andbilobedanddivergentinthegoatsofSyriaandNubia。Accordingtothissameauthor,themalesofcertainbreedshavelosttheirusualoffensiveodour。InoneoftheIndianbreedsthemalesandfemaleshavehornsofwidely—differentshapes(3/102。
Mr。Clark’AnnalsandMag。ofNat。Hist。’2ndseriesvolume21848page361。);andinsomebreedsthefemalesaredestituteofhorns。(3/103。
Desmarest’Encyclop。Method。Mammalogie’page480。)M。RamuofNancyinformsmethatmanyofthegoatstherebearontheupperpartofthethroatapairofhairyappendages,70mm。inlengthandabout10mm。indiameter,whichinexternalappearanceresemblethoseabovedescribedonthejawsofpigs。Thepresenceofinter—digitalpitsorglandsonallfourfeethasbeenthoughttocharacterisethegenusOvis,andtheirabsencetobecharacteristicofthegenusCapra;butMr。HodgsonhasfoundthattheyexistinthefrontfeetofthemajorityofHimalayangoats。(3/104。
’JournalofAsiaticSoc。ofBengal’volume161847pages1020,1025。)Mr。
HodgsonmeasuredtheintestinesintwogoatsoftheDugurace,andhefoundthattheproportionallengthofthegreatandsmallintestinesdifferedconsiderably。Inoneofthesegoatsthecaecumwasthirteeninches,andintheothernolessthanthirty—sixinchesinlength!
CHAPTER1。IV。
DOMESTICRABBITS。
DOMESTICRABBITSDESCENDEDFROMTHECOMMONWILDRABBIT。
ANCIENTDOMESTICATION。
ANCIENTSELECTION。
LARGELOP—EAREDRABBITS。
VARIOUSBREEDS。
FLUCTUATINGCHARACTERS。
ORIGINOFTHEHIMALAYANBREED。
CURIOUSCASEOFINHERITANCE。
FERALRABBITSINJAMAICAANDTHEFALKLANDISLANDS。
PORTOSANTOFERALRABBITS。
OSTEOLOGICALCHARACTERS。
SKULL。
SKULLOFHALF—LOPRABBITS。
VARIATIONSINTHESKULLANALOGOUSTODIFFERENCESINDIFFERENTSPECIESOF
HARES。
VERTEBRAE。
STERNUM。
SCAPULA。
EFFECTSOFUSEANDDISUSEONTHEPROPORTIONSOFTHELIMBSANDBODY。
CAPACITYOFTHESKULLANDREDUCEDSIZEOFTHEBRAIN。
SUMMARYONTHEMODIFICATIONSOFDOMESTICATEDRABBITS。
Allnaturalists,with,asfarasIknow,asingleexception,believethattheseveraldomesticbreedsoftherabbitaredescendedfromthecommonwildspecies;Ishallthereforedescribethemmorecarefullythaninthepreviouscases。ProfessorGervais(4/1。M。P。Gervais’Hist。Nat。desMammiferes’1854。tome1page288。)states"thatthetruewildrabbitissmallerthanthedomestic;itsproportionsarenotabsolutelythesame;itstailissmaller;itsearsareshorterandmorethicklyclothedwithhair;
andthesecharacters,withoutspeakingofcolour,aresomanyindicationsopposedtotheopinionwhichunitestheseanimalsunderthesamespecificdenomination。"Fewnaturalistswillagreewiththisauthorthatsuchslightdifferencesaresufficienttoseparateasdistinctspeciesthewildanddomesticrabbit。Howextraordinaryitwouldbe,ifcloseconfinement,perfecttameness,unnaturalfood,andcarefulbreeding,allprolongedduringmanygenerations,hadnotproducedatleastsomeeffect!Thetamerabbithasbeendomesticatedfromanancientperiod。Confuciusrangesrabbitsamonganimalsworthytobesacrificedtothegods,and,asheprescribestheirmultiplication,theywereprobablyatthisearlyperioddomesticatedinChina。Theyarementionedbyseveraloftheclassicalwriters。In1631GervaiseMarkhamwrites,"Youshallnot,asinothercattell,looketotheirshape,buttotheirrichnesse,onelyelectyourbuckes,thelargestandgoodliestconiesyoucanget;andfortherichnesseoftheskin,thatisaccountedtherichestwhichhaththeequallestmixtureofblackeandwhitehairetogether,yettheblackerathershadowingthewhite;thefurreshouldbethicke,deepe,smooth,andshining;……theyareofbodymuchfatterandlarger,and,whenanotherskinisworthtwoorthreepence,theyareworthtwoshillings。"Fromthisfulldescriptionweseethatsilver—greyrabbitsexistedinEnglandatthisperiod;andwhatisfarmoreimportant,weseethatthebreedingorselectionofrabbitswasthencarefullyattendedto。Aldrovandi,in1637,describes,ontheauthorityofseveraloldwriters(asScaliger,in1557),rabbitsofvariouscolours,some"likeahare,"andheaddsthatP。Valerianus(whodiedaveryoldmanin1558)sawatVeronarabbitsfourtimesbiggerthanours。
(4/2。U。Aldrovandi’DeQuadrupedibusdigitatis’1637page383。ForConfuciusandG。Markhamseeawriterwhohasstudiedthesubjectin’CottageGardener’January22,1861page250。)
Fromthefactoftherabbithavingbeendomesticatedatanancientperiod,wemustlooktothenorthernhemisphereoftheOldWorld,andtothewarmertemperateregionsalone,fortheaboriginalparent—form;fortherabbitcannotlivewithoutprotectionincountriesascoldasSweden,and,thoughithasrunwildinthetropicalislandofJamaica,ithasnevergreatlymultipliedthere。Itnowexists,andhaslongexisted,inthewarmertemperatepartsofEurope,forfossilremainshavebeenfoundinseveralcountries。(4/3。Owen’BritishFossilMammals’page212。)Thedomesticrabbitreadilybecomesferalinthesesamecountries,andwhenvariouslycolouredkindsareturnedouttheygenerallyreverttotheordinarygreycolour。(4/4。Bechstein’Naturgesch。Deutschlands’1801b。1page1133。I
havereceivedsimilaraccountswithrespecttoEnglandandScotland。)Wildrabbits,iftakenyoung,canbedomesticated,thoughtheprocessisgenerallyverytroublesome。(4/5。’PigeonsandRabbits’byE。S。Delamer1854page133。SirJ。Sebright’ObservationsonInstinct’1836page10)
speaksmoststronglyonthedifficulty。Butthisdifficultyisnotinvariable,asIhavereceivedtwoaccountsofperfectsuccessintamingandbreedingfromthewildrabbit。SeealsoDr。P。Brocain’JournaldelaPhysiologie’tome2page368。)Thevariousdomesticracesareoftencrossed,andarebelievedtobequitefertiletogether,andaperfectgradationcanbeshowntoexistfromthelargestdomestickinds,havingenormouslydevelopedears,tothecommonwildkind。Theparent—formmusthavebeenaburrowinganimal,ahabitnotcommon,asfarasIcandiscover,toanyotherspeciesinthelargegenusLepus。OnlyonewildspeciesisknownwithcertaintytoexistinEurope;buttherabbit(ifitbeatruerabbit)fromMountSinai,andlikewisethatfromAlgeria,presentslightdifferences;andtheseformshavebeenconsideredbysomeauthorsasspecificallydistinct。(4/6。Gervais’Hist。Nat。desMammiferes’tome1
page292。)Butsuchslightdifferenceswouldaiduslittleinexplainingthemoreconsiderabledifferencescharacteristicoftheseveraldomesticraces。Ifthelatterarethedescendantsoftwoormorecloselyalliedspecies,these,withtheexceptionofthecommonrabbit,havebeenexterminatedinawildstate;andthisisveryimprobable,seeingwithwhatpertinacitythisanimalholdsitsground。Fromtheseseveralreasonswemayinferwithsafetythatallthedomesticbreedsarethedescendantsofthecommonwildspecies。ButfromwhatwehearofthemarvelloussuccessinFranceinrearinghybridsbetweenthehareandrabbit(4/7。SeeDr。P。
Broca’sinterestingmemoironthissubjectinBrown—Sequard’Journ。de。
Phys。’volume2page367。),itispossible,thoughnotprobable,fromthegreatdifficultyinmakingthefirstcross,thatsomeofthelargerraces,whicharecolouredlikethehare,mayhavebeenmodifiedbycrosseswiththisanimal。Nevertheless,thechiefdifferencesintheskeletonsoftheseveraldomesticbreedscannot,asweshallpresentlysee,havebeenderivedfromacrosswiththehare。
Therearemanybreedswhichtransmittheircharactersmoreorlesstruly。
Everyonehasseentheenormouslop—earedrabbitsexhibitedatourshows;
variousalliedsub—breedsarerearedontheContinent,suchastheso—
calledAndalusian,whichissaidtohavealargeheadwitharoundforehead,andtoattainagreatersizethananyotherkind;anotherlargeParisbreedisnamedtheRouennais,andhasasquarehead;theso—calledPatagonianrabbithasremarkablyshortearsandalargeroundhead。
AlthoughIhavenotseenallthesebreeds,Ifeelsomedoubtabouttherebeinganymarkeddifferenceintheshapeoftheirskulls。(4/8。Theskullsofthesebreedsarebrieflydescribedinthe’JournalofHorticulture’May7,1861page108。)Englishlop—earedrabbitsoftenweigh8poundsor10
pounds,andonehasbeenexhibitedweighing18pounds;whereasafull—sizedwildrabbitweighsonlyabout31/4pounds。Theheadorskullinallthelargelop—earedrabbitsexaminedbymeismuchlongerrelativelytoitsbreadththaninthewildrabbit。Manyofthemhaveloosetransversefoldsofskinordewlapsbeneaththethroat,whichcanbepulledoutsoastoreachnearlytotheendsofthejaws。Theirearsareprodigiouslydeveloped,andhangdownoneachsideoftheirfaces。Arabbitwasexhibitedin1867withitstwoears,measuredfromthetipofonetothetipoftheother,22inchesinlength,andeachear53/8inchesinbreadth。In1869onewasexhibitedwithears,measuredinthesamemanner,231/8inlengthand51/2inbreadth;"thusexceedinganyrabbiteverexhibitedataprizeshow。"InacommonwildrabbitIfoundthatthelengthoftwoears,fromtiptotip,was75/8inches,andthebreadthonly17/8
inch。Theweightofbodyinthelargerrabbits,andthedevelopmentoftheirears,arethequalitieswhichwinprizes,andhavebeencarefullyselected。
Thehare—coloured,or,asitissometimescalled,theBelgianrabbit,differsinnothingexceptcolourfromtheotherlargebreeds;butMr。J。
Young,ofSouthampton,agreatbreederofthiskind,informsmethatthefemales,inallthespecimensexaminedbyhim,hadonlysixmammae;andthiscertainlywasthecasewithtwofemaleswhichcameintomypossession。
Mr。B。P。Brent,however,assuresmethatthenumberisvariablewithotherdomesticrabbits。Thecommonwildrabbitalwayshastenmammae。TheAngorarabbitisremarkablefromthelengthandfinenessofitsfur,whichevenonthesolesofthefeetisofconsiderablelength。Thisbreedistheonlyonewhichdiffersinitsmentalqualities,foritissaidtobemuchmoresociablethanotherrabbits,andthemaleshowsnowishtodestroyitsyoung。(4/9。’JournalofHorticulture’1861page380。)TwoliverabbitswerebroughttomefromMoscow,ofaboutthesizeofthewildspecies,butwithlongsoftfur,differentfromthatoftheAngora。TheseMoscowrabbitshadpinkeyesandweresnow—white,exceptingtheears,twospotsnearthenose,theupperandundersurfaceofthetail,andthehindertarsi,whichwereblackish—brown。Inshort,theywerecolourednearlyliketheso—calledHimalayanrabbits,presentlytobedescribed,anddifferedfromthemonlyinthecharacteroftheirfur。Therearetwootherbreedswhichcometruetocolour,butdifferinnootherrespect,namelysilver—greysandchinchillas。Lastly,theNicardorDutchrabbitmaybementioned,whichvariesincolour,andisremarkablefromitssmallsize,somespecimensweighingonly11/4pounds;rabbitsofthisbreedmakeexcellentnursesforotherandmoredelicatekinds。(4/10。’JournalofHorticulture’May28,1861page169。)
(FIGURE5。HALF—LOPRABBIT。(CopiedfromE。S。Delamer’swork。)
Certaincharactersareremarkablyfluctuating,orareveryfeeblytransmittedbydomesticrabbits:thus,onebreedertellsmethatwiththesmallerkindshehashardlyeverraisedawholelitterofthesamecolour:
withthelargelop—earedbreeds"itisimpossible,"saysagreatjudge(4/11。’JournalofHorticulture’1861page327。WithrespecttotheearsseeDelameron’PigeonsandRabbits’1854page141;also’PoultryChronicle’volume2page499anddittofor1854page586。),"tobreedtruetocolour,butbyjudiciouscrossingagreatdealmaybedonetowardsit。
Thefanciershouldknowhowhisdoesarebred,thatis,thecolouroftheirparents。"Nevertheless,certaincolours,asweshallpresentlysee,aretransmittedtruly。Thedewlapisnotstrictlyinherited。Lop—earedrabbits,withtheirearshangingdownflatoneachsideoftheface,donottransmitthischaracteratalltruly。Mr。Delamerremarksthat,"withfancyrabbits,whenboththeparentsareperfectlyformed,havemodelears,andarehandsomelymarked,theirprogenydonotinvariablyturnoutthesame。"Whenoneparent,orevenboth,areoar—laps,thatis,havetheirearsstickingoutatrightangles,orwhenoneparentorbotharehalf—lops,thatis,haveonlyoneeardependent,thereisnearlyasgoodachanceoftheprogenyhavingbothearsfull—lop,asifbothparentshadbeenthuscharacterised。ButIaminformed,ifbothparentshaveuprightears,thereishardlyachanceofafull—lop。Insomehalf—lopstheearthathangsdownisbroaderandlongerthantheuprightear(4/12。Delamer’PigeonsandRabbits’page136。Seealso’JournalofHorticulture’1861page375。);sothatwehavetheunusualcaseofawantofsymmetryonthetwosides。Thisdifferenceinthepositionandsizeofthetwoearsprobablyindicatesthattheloppingresultsfromthegreatlengthandweightoftheear,favourednodoubtbytheweaknessofthemusclesconsequentondisuse。Anderson(4/13。’AnAccountofthedifferentKindsofSheepintheRussianDominions’1794page39。)mentionsabreedhavingonlyasingleear;andProfessorGervaisanotherbreeddestituteofears。
WecomenowtotheHimalayanbreed,whichissometimescalledChinese,Polish,orRussian。Theseprettyrabbitsarewhite,oroccasionallyyellow,exceptingtheirears,nose,feet,andtheuppersideofthetail,whichareallbrownish—black;butastheyhaveredeyes,theymaybeconsideredasalbinoes。Ihavereceivedseveralaccountsoftheirbreedingperfectlytrue。Fromtheirsymmetricalmarks,theywereatfirstrankedasspecificallydistinct,andwereprovisionallynamedL。nigripes。(4/14。
’Proc。Zoolog。Soc。’June23,1857page159。)Somegoodobserversthoughtthattheycoulddetectadifferenceintheirhabits,andstoutlymaintainedthattheyformedanewspecies。Theoriginofthisbreedissocurious,bothinitselfandasthrowingsomelightonthecomplexlawsofinheritancethatitisworthgivingindetail。Butitisfirstnecessarybrieflytodescribetwootherbreeds:silver—greysorsilver—sprigsgenerallyhaveblackheadsandlegs,andtheirfinegreyfurisinterspersedwithnumerousblackandwhitelonghairs。Theybreedperfectlytrue,andhavelongbeenkeptinwarrens。Whentheyescapeandcrosswithcommonrabbits,theproduct,asIhearfromMr。WyrleyBirch,ofWrethamHall,isnotamixtureofthetwocolours,butabouthalftakeaftertheoneparent,andtheotherhalfaftertheotherparent。Secondly,chinchillasortamesilver—greys(Iwillusetheformername)haveshort,paler,mouseorslate—colouredfur,interspersedwithlong,blackish,slate—coloured,andwhitehairs。(4/15。’JournalofHorticulture’April9,1861page35。)Theserabbitsbreedperfectlytrue。Awriterstatedin1857
(4/16。’CottageGardener’1857page141。)thathehadproducedHimalayanrabbitsinthefollowingmanner。Hehadabreedofchinchillaswhichhadbeencrossedwiththecommonblackrabbit,andtheiroffspringwereeitherblacksorchinchillas。Theselatterwereagaincrossedwithotherchinchillas(whichhadalsobeencrossedwithsilver—greys),andfromthiscomplicatedcrossHimalayanrabbitswereraised。Fromtheseandothersimilarstatements,Mr。Bartlett(4/17。Mr。Bartlettin’Proc。ZoologSoc。’
1861page40。)wasledtomakeacarefultrialintheZoologicalGardens,andhefoundthatbysimplycrossingsilver—greyswithchinchillashecouldalwaysproducesomefewHimalayans;andthelatter,notwithstandingtheirsuddenorigin,ifkeptseparate,bredperfectlytrue。ButIhaverecentlybeenassuredthepuresilver—greysofanysub—breedoccasionallyproduceHimalayans。
TheHimalayans,whenfirstborn,arequitewhite,andarethentruealbinoes;butinthecourseofafewmonthstheygraduallyassumetheirdarkears,nose,feet,andtail。Occasionally,however,asIaminformedbyMr。W。A。WoolerandtheRev。W。D。Fox,theyoungarebornofaverypalegreycolour,andspecimensofsuchfurweresentmebytheformergentleman。Thegreytint,however,disappearsastheanimalcomestomaturity。SothatwiththeseHimalayansthereisatendency,strictlyconfinedtoearlyyouth,toreverttothecolouroftheadultsilver—greyparent—stock。Silver—greysandchinchillas,ontheotherhand,presentaremarkablecontrastwiththeHimalayansintheircolourwhilstquiteyoung,fortheyarebornperfectlyblack,butsoonassumetheircharacteristicgreyorsilvertints。Thesamethingoccurswithgreyhorses,which,aslongastheyarefoals,aregenerallyofanearlyblackcolour,butsoonbecomegrey,andgetwhiterandwhiterastheygrowolder。HencetheusualruleisthatHimalayansarebornwhiteandafterwardsbecomeincertainpartsoftheirbodiesdark—coloured;whilstsilver—greysarebornblackandafterwardsbecomesprinkledwithwhite。Exceptions,however,andofadirectlyoppositenature,occasionallyoccurinbothcases。Foryoungsilver—greysaresometimesborninwarrens,asIhearfromMr。W。Birch,ofacream—colour,buttheseyounganimalsultimatelybecomeblack。TheHimalayans,ontheotherhand,sometimesproduce,asisstatedbyanexperiencedamateur(4/18。’PhenomenoninHimalayanRabbits’in’JournalofHorticulture’January27,1865page102。),asingleblackyoungoneinalitter;andthis,beforetwomonthselapse,becomesperfectlywhite。
Tosumupthewholecuriouscase:wildsilver—greysmaybeconsideredasblackrabbitswhichbecomegreyatanearlyperiodoflife。Whentheyarecrossedwithcommonrabbits,theoffspringaresaidnottohaveblendedcolours,buttotakeaftereitherparent;andinthisrespecttheyresembleblackandalbinovarietiesofmostquadrupeds,whichoftentransmittheircoloursinthissamemanner。Whentheyarecrossedwithchinchillas,thatis,withapalersub—variety,theyoungareatfirstpurealbinoes,butsoonbecomedark—colouredincertainpartsoftheirbodies,andarethencalledHimalayans。TheyoungHimalayans,however,aresometimesatfirsteitherpalegreyorcompletelyblack,ineithercasechangingafteratimetowhite。InafuturechapterIshalladvancealargebodyoffactsshowingthat,whentwovarietiesarecrossedbothofwhichdifferincolourfromtheirparent—stock,thereisastrongtendencyintheyoungtoreverttotheaboriginalcolour;andwhatisveryremarkable,thisreversionoccasionallysupervenes,notbeforebirth,butduringthegrowthoftheanimal。Hence,ifitcouldbeshownthatsilver—greysandchinchillasweretheoffspringofacrossbetweenablackandalbinovarietywiththecoloursintimatelyblended——asuppositioninitselfnotimprobable,andsupportedbythecircumstanceofsilver—greysinwarrenssometimesproducingcreamy—whiteyoung,whichultimatelybecomeblack——thenalltheabovegivenparadoxicalfactsonthechangesofcolourinsilver—greysandintheirdescendantstheHimalayanswouldcomeunderthelawofreversion,superveningatdifferentperiodsofgrowthandindifferentdegrees,eithertotheoriginalblackortotheoriginalalbinoparent—variety。
Itis,also,remarkablethatHimalayans,thoughproducedsosuddenly;breedtrue。Butas,whilstyoung,theyarealbinoes,thecasefallsunderaverygeneralrule;albinismbeingwellknowntobestronglyinherited,forinstancewithwhitemiceandmanyotherquadrupeds,andevenwhiteflowers。
Butwhy,itmaybeasked,dotheears,tail,nose,andfeet,andnootherpartofthebody,reverttoablackcolour?Thisapparentlydependsonalaw,whichgenerallyholdsgood,namely,thatcharacterscommontomanyspeciesofagenus——andthis,infact,implieslonginheritancefromtheancientprogenitorofthegenus——arefoundtoresistvariation,ortoreappeariflost,morepersistentlythanthecharacterswhichareconfinedtotheseparatespecies。Now,inthegenusLepus,alargemajorityofthespecieshavetheirearsandtheuppersurfaceofthetailtintedblack;butthepersistenceofthesemarksisbestseeninthosespecieswhichinwinterbecomewhite:thus,inScotlandtheL。variabilis(4/19。G。R。
Waterhouse’NaturalHistoryofMammalia:Rodents’1846pages52,60,105。)
initswinterdresshasashadeofcolouronitsnose,andthetipsofitsearsareblack:intheL。tibetanustheearsareblack,theuppersurfaceofthetailgreyish—black,andthesolesofthefeetbrown:inL。glacialisthewinterfurispurewhite,exceptthesolesofthefeetandthepointsoftheears。Eveninthevariously—colouredfancyrabbitswemayoftenobserveatendencyinthesesamepartstobemoredarklytintedthantherestofthebody。ThustheseveralcolouredmarksontheHimalayanrabbits,astheygrowold,arerenderedintelligible。Imayaddanearlyanalogouscase:fancyrabbitsveryoftenhaveawhitestarontheirforeheads;andthecommonEnglishhare,whilstyoung,generallyhas,asIhavemyselfobserved,asimilarwhitestaronitsforehead。
WhenvariouslycolouredrabbitsaresetfreeinEurope,andarethusplacedundertheirnaturalconditions,theygenerallyreverttotheaboriginalgreycolour;thismaybeinpartduetothetendencyinallcrossedanimals,aslatelyobserved,toreverttotheirprimordialstate。Butthistendencydoesnotalwaysprevail;thussilver—greyrabbitsarekeptinwarrens,andremaintruethoughlivingalmostinastateofnature;butawarrenmustnotbestockedwithbothsilver—greysandcommonrabbits;
otherwise"inafewyearstherewillbenonebutcommongreyssurviving。"
(4/20。Delameron’PigeonsandRabbits’page114。)Whenrabbitsrunwildinforeigncountriesundernewconditionsoflife,theybynomeansalwaysreverttotheiraboriginalcolour。InJamaicatheferalrabbitsaredescribedashavingbeen"slate—coloured,deeplytintedwithsprinklingsofwhiteontheneck,ontheshoulders,andontheback;softeningofftoblue—whiteunderthebreastandbelly。"(4/21。Gosse’SojourninJamaica’
1851page441asdescribedbyanexcellentobserver,Mr。R。Hill。Thisistheonlyknowncaseinwhichrabbitshavebecomeferalinahotcountry。
Theycanbekept,however,atLoanda(seeLivingstone’Travels’page407)。
InpartsofIndia,asIaminformedbyMr。Blyth,theybreedwell。)Butinthistropicalislandtheconditionswerenotfavourabletotheirincrease,andtheyneverspreadwidely,andarenowextinct,asIhearfromMr。R。
Hill,owingtoagreatfirewhichoccurredinthewoods。RabbitsduringmanyyearshaverunwildintheFalklandIslands;theyareabundantincertainparts,butdonotspreadextensively。Mostofthemareofthecommongreycolour;afew,asIaminformedbyAdmiralSulivan,arehare—
coloured,andmanyareblack,oftenwithnearlysymmetricalwhitemarksontheirfaces。Hence,M。Lessondescribedtheblackvarietyasadistinctspecies,underthenameofLepusmagellanicus,butthis,asIhaveelsewhereshown,isanerror。(4/22。Darwin’JournalofResearches’page193;and’ZoologyoftheVoyageoftheBeagle:Mammalia’page92。)WithinrecenttimesthesealershavestockedsomeofthesmalloutlyingisletsintheFalklandgroupwithrabbits;andonPebbleIslet,asIhearfromAdmiralSulivan,alargeproportionarehare—coloured,whereasonRabbitIsletalargeproportionareofabluishcolour,whichisnotelsewhereseen。Howtherabbitswerecolouredwhichwereturnedoutoftheseisletsisnotknown。
TherabbitswhichhavebecomeferalontheislandofPortoSanto,nearMadeira,deserveafulleraccount。In1418or1419,J。GonzalesZarco(4/23。Kerr’CollectionofVoyages’volume2page177:page205forCadaMosto。AccordingtoaworkpublishedinLisbonin1717entitled’HistoriaInsulana’writtenbyaJesuit,therabbitswereturnedoutin1420。Someauthorsbelievethattheislandwasdiscoveredin1413。)happenedtohaveafemalerabbitonboardwhichhadproducedyoungduringthevoyage,andheturnedthemalloutontheisland。Theseanimalssoonincreasedsorapidly,thattheybecameanuisance,andactuallycausedtheabandonmentofthesettlement。Thirty—sevenyearssubsequently,CadaMostodescribesthemasinnumerable;noristhissurprising,astheislandwasnotinhabitedbyanybeastofpreyorbyanyterrestrialmammal。Wedonotknowthecharacterofthemother—rabbit;butitwasprobablythecommondomesticatedkind。TheSpanishpeninsula,whenceZarcosailed,isknowntohaveaboundedwiththecommonwildspeciesatthemostremotehistoricalperiod;andastheserabbitsweretakenonboardforfood,itisimprobablethattheyshouldhavebeenofanypeculiarbreed。Thatthebreedwaswelldomesticatedisshownbythedoehavinglitteredduringthevoyage。Mr。Wollaston,atmyrequest,broughthometwooftheseferalrabbitsinspiritsofwine;and,subsequently,Mr。W。Haywoodsenttomethreemorespecimensinbrine,andtwoalive。Thesesevenspecimens,thoughcaughtatdifferentperiods,closelyresembledeachother。Theywerefullgrown,asshownbythestateoftheirbones。AlthoughtheconditionsoflifeinPortoSantoareevidentlyhighlyfavourabletorabbits,asprovedbytheirextraordinarilyrapidincrease,yettheydifferconspicuouslyintheirsmallsizefromthewildEnglishrabbit。FourEnglishrabbits,measuredfromtheincisorstotheanus,variedbetween17and173/4inchesinlength;whilsttwoofthePortoSantorabbitswereonly141/2and15inchesinlength。Butthedecreaseinsizeisbestshownbyweight;fourwildEnglishrabbitsaveraged3pounds5ounces,whilstoneofthePortoSantorabbits,whichhadlivedforfouryearsintheZoologicalGardens,buthadbecomethin,weighedonly1pound9ounces。Afairertestisaffordedbythecomparisonofthewell—cleanedlimb—bonesofaPortoSantorabbitkilledontheislandwiththesamebonesofawildEnglishrabbitofaveragesize,andtheydifferedintheproportionofratherlessthanfivetonine。SothatthePortoSantorabbitshavedecreasednearlythreeinchesinlength,andalmosthalfinweightofbody。(4/24。SomethingofthesamekindhasoccurredontheislandofLipari,where,accordingtoSpallanzani(’VoyagedanslesdeuxSiciles’quotedbyGodron’Del’Espece’page364),acountrymanturnedoutsomerabbitswhichmultipliedprodigiously,but,saysSpallanzani,"leslapinsdel’iledeLiparisontpluspetitsqueceuxqu’oneleveendomesticite。")Theheadhasnotdecreasedinlengthproportionallywiththebody;andthecapacityofthebraincaseis,asweshallhereaftersee,singularlyvariable。Ipreparedfourskulls,andtheseresembledeachothermorecloselythandogenerallytheskullsofwildEnglishrabbits;
buttheonlydifferenceinstructurewhichtheypresentedwasthatthesupra—orbitalprocessesofthefrontalboneswerenarrower。
IncolourthePortoSantorabbitdiffersconsiderablyfromthecommonrabbit;theuppersurfaceisredder,andisrarelyinterspersedwithanyblackorblack—tippedhairs。Thethroatandcertainpartsoftheundersurface,insteadofbeingpurewhite,aregenerallypalegreyorleadencolour。Butthemostremarkabledifferenceisintheearsandtail;IhaveexaminedmanyfreshEnglishrabbits,andthelargecollectionofskinsintheBritishMuseumfromvariouscountries,andallhavetheuppersurfaceofthetailandthetipsoftheearsclothedwithblackish—greyfur;andthisisgiveninmostworksasoneofthespecificcharactersoftherabbit。NowinthesevenPortoSantorabbitstheuppersurfaceofthetailwasreddish—brown,andthetipsoftheearshadnotraceoftheblackedging。Butherewemeetwithasingularcircumstance:inJune,1861I
examinedtwooftheserabbitsrecentlysenttotheZoologicalGardens,andtheirtailsandearswerecolouredasjustdescribed;butwhenoneoftheirdeadbodieswassenttomeinFebruary,1865,theearswereplainlyedged,andtheuppersurfaceofthetailwascoveredwithblackish—greyfur,andthewholebodywasmuchlessred;sothatundertheEnglishclimatethisindividualrabbithadrecoveredthepropercolourofitsfurinratherlessthanfouryears!
ThetwolittlePortoSantorabbits,whilstaliveintheZoologicalGardens,hadaremarkablydifferentappearancefromthecommonkind。Theywereextraordinarilywildandactive,sothatmanypersonsexclaimedonseeingthemthattheyweremorelikelargeratsthanrabbits。Theywerenocturnaltoanunusualdegreeintheirhabits,andtheirwildnesswasneverintheleastsubdued;sothatthesuperintendent,Mr。Bartlett,assuredmethathehadneverhadawilderanimalunderhischarge。Thisisasingularfact,consideringthattheyaredescendedfromadomesticatedbreed。Iwassomuchsurprisedatit,thatIrequestedMr。Haywoodtomakeinquiriesonthespot,whethertheyweremuchhuntedbytheinhabitants,orpersecutedbyhawks,orcats,orotheranimals;butthisisnotthecase,andnocausecanbeassignedfortheirwildness。Theylivebothonthecentral,higherrockylandandnearthesea—cliffs,and,frombeingexceedinglyshyandtimid,seldomappearinthelowerandcultivateddistricts。Theyaresaidtoproducefromfourtosixyoungatabirth,andtheirbreedingseasonisinJulyandAugust。Lastly,andthisisahighlyremarkablefact,Mr。
Bartlettcouldneversucceedingettingthesetworabbits,whichwerebothmales,toassociateorbreedwiththefemalesofseveralbreedswhichwererepeatedlyplacedwiththem。