The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestic小说第1章

第1章

　　INTWOVOLUMES
　　VOLUMEI。
　　PREFACETOTHESECONDEDITION。
　　Duringthesevenyearswhichhaveelapsedsincethepublicationin1868ofthefirsteditionofthisWork，Ihavecontinuedtoattendtothesamesubjects，asfaraslayinmypower;andIhavethusaccumulatedalargebodyofadditionalfacts，chieflythroughthekindnessofmanycorrespondents。OfthesefactsIhavebeenableheretouseonlythosewhichseemedtomethemoreimportant。Ihaveomittedsomestatements，andcorrectedsomeerrors，thediscoveryofwhichIowetomyreviewers。Manyadditionalreferenceshavebeengiven。Theeleventhchapter，andthatonPangenesis，arethosewhichhavebeenmostaltered，partshavingbeenre—
　　modelled;butIwillgivealistofthemoreimportantalterationsforthesakeofthosewhomaypossessthefirsteditionofthisbook。
　　CONTENTS。
　　INTRODUCTION。
　　CHAPTER1。I。
　　DOMESTICDOGSANDCATS。
　　ANCIENTVARIETIESOFTHEDOG——RESEMBLANCEOFDOMESTICDOGSINVARIOUS
　　COUNTRIESTONATIVECANINESPECIES——ANIMALSNOTACQUAINTEDWITHMANAT
　　FIRSTFEARLESS——DOGSRESEMBLINGWOLVESANDJACKALS——HABITOFBARKING
　　ACQUIREDANDLOST——FERALDOGS——TAN—COLOUREDEYE—SPOTS——PERIODOFGESTATION—
　　—OFFENSIVEODOUR——FERTILITYOFTHERACESWHENCROSSED——DIFFERENCESINTHE
　　SEVERALRACESINPARTDUETODESCENTFROMDISTINCTSPECIES——DIFFERENCESIN
　　THESKULLANDTEETH——DIFFERENCESINTHEBODY，INCONSTITUTION——FEW
　　IMPORTANTDIFFERENCESHAVEBEENFIXEDBYSELECTION——DIRECTACTIONOF
　　CLIMATE——WATER—DOGSWITHPALMATEDFEET——HISTORYOFTHECHANGESWHICH
　　CERTAINENGLISHRACESOFTHEDOGHAVEGRADUALLYUNDERGONETHROUGH
　　SELECTION——EXTINCTIONOFTHELESSIMPROVEDSUB—BREEDS。
　　CATS，CROSSEDWITHSEVERALSPECIES——DIFFERENTBREEDSFOUNDONLYIN
　　SEPARATEDCOUNTRIES——DIRECTEFFECTSOFTHECONDITIONSOFLIFE——FERALCATS——
　　INDIVIDUALVARIABILITY。
　　CHAPTER1。II。
　　HORSESANDASSES。
　　HORSE——DIFFERENCESINTHEBREEDS——INDIVIDUALVARIABILITYOF——DIRECTEFFECTS
　　OFTHECONDITIONSOFLIFE——CANWITHSTANDMUCHCOLD——BREEDSMUCHMODIFIEDBY
　　SELECTION——COLOURSOFTHEHORSE——DAPPLING——DARKSTRIPESONTHESPINE，LEGS，SHOULDERS，ANDFOREHEAD——DUN—COLOUREDHORSESMOSTFREQUENTLYSTRIPED——
　　STRIPESPROBABLYDUETOREVERSIONTOTHEPRIMITIVESTATEOFTHEHORSE。
　　ASSES——BREEDSOF——COLOUROF——LEG—ANDSHOULDER—STRIPES——SHOULDER—STRIPES
　　SOMETIMESABSENT，SOMETIMESFORKED。
　　CHAPTER1。III。
　　PIGS——CATTLE——SHEEP——GOATS。
　　PIGSBELONGTOTWODISTINCTTYPES，SUSSCROFAANDINDICUS——TORFSCHWEIN——
　　JAPANPIGS——FERTILITYOFCROSSEDPIGS——CHANGESINTHESKULLOFTHEHIGHLY
　　CULTIVATEDRACES——CONVERGENCEOFCHARACTER——GESTATION——SOLID—HOOFEDSWINE——
　　CURIOUSAPPENDAGESTOTHEJAWS——DECREASEINSIZEOFTHETUSKS——YOUNGPIGS
　　LONGITUDINALLYSTRIPED——FERALPIGS——CROSSEDBREEDS。
　　CATTLE——ZEBUADISTINCTSPECIES——EUROPEANCATTLEPROBABLYDESCENDEDFROM
　　THREEWILDFORMS——ALLTHERACESNOWFERTILETOGETHER——BRITISHPARKCATTLE——
　　ONTHECOLOUROFTHEABORIGINALSPECIES——CONSTITUTIONALDIFFERENCES——SOUTH
　　AFRICANRACES——SOUTHAMERICANRACES——NIATACATTLE——ORIGINOFTHEVARIOUS
　　RACESOFCATTLE。
　　SHEEP——REMARKABLERACESOF——VARIATIONSATTACHEDTOTHEMALESEX——
　　ADAPTATIONSTOVARIOUSCONDITIONS——GESTATIONOF——CHANGESINTHEWOOL——SEMI—
　　MONSTROUSBREEDS。
　　GOATS——REMARKABLEVARIATIONSOF。
　　CHAPTER1。IV。
　　DOMESTICRABBITS。
　　DOMESTICRABBITSDESCENDEDFROMTHECOMMONWILDRABBIT——ANCIENT
　　DOMESTICATION——ANCIENTSELECTION——LARGELOP—EAREDRABBITS——VARIOUSBREEDS——
　　FLUCTUATINGCHARACTERS——ORIGINOFTHEHIMALAYANBREED——CURIOUSCASEOF
　　INHERITANCE——FERALRABBITSINJAMAICAANDTHEFALKLANDISLANDS——PORTOSANTO
　　FERALRABBITS——OSTEOLOGICALCHARACTERS——SKULL——SKULLOFHALF—LOPRABBITS——
　　VARIATIONSINTHESKULLANALOGOUSTODIFFERENCESINDIFFERENTSPECIESOF
　　HARES——VERTEBRAE——STERNUM——SCAPULA——EFFECTSOFUSEANDDISUSEONTHE
　　PROPORTIONSOFTHELIMBSANDBODY——CAPACITYOFTHESKULLANDREDUCEDSIZE
　　OFTHEBRAIN——SUMMARYONTHEMODIFICATIONSOFDOMESTICATEDRABBITS。
　　CHAPTER1。V。
　　DOMESTICPIGEONS。
　　ENUMERATIONANDDESCRIPTIONOFTHESEVERALBREEDS——INDIVIDUALVARIABILITY——
　　VARIATIONSOFAREMARKABLENATURE——OSTEOLOGICALCHARACTERS:SKULL，LOWER
　　JAW，NUMBEROFVERTEBRAE——CORRELATIONOFGROWTH:TONGUEWITHBEAK;EYELIDS
　　ANDNOSTRILSWITHWATTLEDSKIN——NUMBEROFWING—FEATHERSANDLENGTHOFWING—
　　—COLOURANDDOWN——WEBBEDANDFEATHEREDFEET——ONTHEEFFECTSOFDISUSE——
　　LENGTHOFFEETINCORRELATIONWITHLENGTHOFBEAK——LENGTHOFSTERNUM，SCAPULA，ANDFURCULUM——LENGTHOFWINGS——SUMMARYONTHEPOINTSOFDIFFERENCE
　　INTHESEVERALBREEDS。
　　CHAPTER1。VI。
　　PIGEONS——continued。
　　ONTHEABORIGINALPARENT—STOCKOFTHESEVERALDOMESTICRACES——HABITSOF
　　LIFE——WILDRACESOFTHEROCK—PIGEON——DOVECOTE—PIGEONS——PROOFSOFTHE
　　DESCENTOFTHESEVERALRACESFROMCOLUMBALIVIA——FERTILITYOFTHERACES
　　WHENCROSSED——REVERSIONTOTHEPLUMAGEOFTHEWILDROCK—PIGEON——
　　CIRCUMSTANCESFAVOURABLETOTHEFORMATIONOFTHERACES——ANTIQUITYAND
　　HISTORYOFTHEPRINCIPALRACES——MANNEROFTHEIRFORMATION——SELECTION——
　　UNCONSCIOUSSELECTION——CARETAKENBYFANCIERSINSELECTINGTHEIRBIRDS——
　　SLIGHTLYDIFFERENTSTRAINSGRADUALLYCHANGEINTOWELL—MARKEDBREEDS——
　　EXTINCTIONOFINTERMEDIATEFORMS——CERTAINBREEDSREMAINPERMANENT，WHILST
　　OTHERSCHANGE——SUMMARY。
　　CHAPTER1。VII。
　　FOWLS。
　　BRIEFDESCRIPTIONSOFTHECHIEFBREEDS——ARGUMENTSINFAVOUROFTHEIR
　　DESCENTFROMSEVERALSPECIES——ARGUMENTSINFAVOUROFALLTHEBREEDSHAVING
　　DESCENDEDFROMGALLUSBANKIVA——REVERSIONTOTHEPARENT—STOCKINCOLOUR——
　　ANALOGOUSVARIATIONS——ANCIENTHISTORYOFTHEFOWL——EXTERNALDIFFERENCES
　　BETWEENTHESEVERALBREEDS——EGGS——CHICKENS——SECONDARYSEXUALCHARACTERS——
　　WING—ANDTAIL—FEATHERS，VOICE，DISPOSITION，ETC。——OSTEOLOGICALDIFFERENCES
　　INTHESKULL，VERTEBRAE，ETC。——EFFECTSOFUSEANDDISUSEONCERTAINPARTS——
　　CORRELATIONOFGROWTH。
　　CHAPTER1。VIII。
　　DUCK——GOOSE——PEACOCK——TURKEY——GUINEA—FOWL——CANARY—BIRD——GOLD—FISH——HIVE—
　　BEES——SILK—MOTHS。
　　DUCKS，SEVERALBREEDSOF——PROGRESSOFDOMESTICATION——ORIGINOFFROMTHE
　　COMMONWILD—DUCK——DIFFERENCESINTHEDIFFERENTBREEDS——OSTEOLOGICAL
　　DIFFERENCES——EFFECTSOFUSEANDDISUSEONTHELIMB—BONES。
　　GOOSE，ANCIENTLYDOMESTICATED——LITTLEVARIATIONOF——SEBASTOPOLBREED。
　　PEACOCK，ORIGINOFBLACK—SHOULDEREDBREED。
　　TURKEY，BREEDSOF——CROSSEDWITHTHEUNITEDSTATESSPECIES——EFFECTSOF
　　CLIMATEON。
　　GUINEA—FOWL，CANARY—BIRD，GOLD—FISH，HIVE—BEE。
　　SILK—MOTHS，SPECIESANDBREEDSOF——ANCIENTLYDOMESTICATED——CAREINTHEIR
　　SELECTION——DIFFERENCESINTHEDIFFERENTRACES——INTHEEGG，CATERPILLAR，AND
　　COCOONSTATES——INHERITANCEOFCHARACTERS——IMPERFECTWINGS——LOSTINSTINCTS——
　　CORRELATEDCHARACTERS。
　　CHAPTER1。IX。
　　CULTIVATEDPLANTS:CEREALANDCULINARYPLANTS。
　　PRELIMINARYREMARKSONTHENUMBERANDPARENTAGEOFCULTIVATEDPLANTS——FIRST
　　STEPSINCULTIVATION——GEOGRAPHICALDISTRIBUTIONOFCULTIVATEDPLANTS。
　　CEREALIA——DOUBTSONTHENUMBEROFSPECIES——WHEAT:VARIETIESOF——INDIVIDUAL
　　VARIABILITY——CHANGEDHABITS——SELECTION——ANCIENTHISTORYOFTHEVARIETIES——
　　MAIZE:GREATVARIATIONOF——DIRECTACTIONOFCLIMATEON。
　　CULINARYPLANTS——CABBAGES:VARIETIESOF，INFOLIAGEANDSTEMS，BUTNOTIN
　　OTHERPARTS——PARENTAGEOF——OTHERSPECIESOFBRASSICA——PEAS:AMOUNTOF
　　DIFFERENCEINTHESEVERALKINDS，CHIEFLYINTHEPODSANDSEED——SOME
　　VARIETIESCONSTANT，SOMEHIGHLYVARIABLE——DONOTINTERCROSS——BEANS——
　　POTATOES:NUMEROUSVARIETIESOF——DIFFERLITTLEEXCEPTINTHETUBERS——
　　CHARACTERSINHERITED。
　　CHAPTER1。X。
　　PLANTScontinued——FRUITS——ORNAMENTALTREES——FLOWERS。
　　FRUITS——GRAPES——VARYINODDANDTRIFLINGPARTICULARS——MULBERRY——THEORANGE
　　GROUP——SINGULARRESULTSFROMCROSSING——PEACHANDNECTARINE——BUD—VARIATION——
　　ANALOGOUSVARIATION——RELATIONTOTHEALMOND——APRICOT——PLUMS——VARIATIONIN
　　THEIRSTONES——CHERRIES——SINGULARVARIETIESOF——APPLE——PEAR——STRAWBERRY——
　　INTERBLENDINGOFTHEORIGINALFORMS——GOOSEBERRY——STEADYINCREASEINSIZEOF
　　THEFRUIT——VARIETIESOF——WALNUT——NUT——CUCURBITACEOUSPLANTS——WONDERFUL
　　VARIATIONOF。
　　ORNAMENTALTREES——THEIRVARIATIONINDEGREEANDKIND——ASH—TREE——SCOTCH—FIR—
　　—HAWTHORN。
　　FLOWERS——MULTIPLEORIGINOFMANYKINDS——VARIATIONINCONSTITUTIONAL
　　PECULIARITIES——KINDOFVARIATION——ROSES——SEVERALSPECIESCULTIVATED——PANSY—
　　—DAHLIA——HYACINTH——HISTORYANDVARIATIONOF。
　　CHAPTER1。XI。
　　ONBUD—VARIATION，ANDONCERTAINANOMALOUSMODESOFREPRODUCTIONAND
　　VARIATION。
　　BUD—VARIATIONINTHEPEACH，PLUM，CHERRY，VINE，GOOSEBERRY，CURRANT，AND
　　BANANA，ASSHOWNBYTHEMODIFIEDFRUIT——INFLOWERS:CAMELLIAS，AZALEAS，CHRYSANTHEMUMS，ROSES，ETC。——ONTHERUNNINGOFTHECOLOURINCARNATIONS
　　——BUD—VARIATIONSINLEAVES——VARIATIONSBYSUCKERS，TUBERS，ANDBULBS——ON
　　THEBREAKINGOFTULIPS——BUD—VARIATIONSGRADUATEINTOCHANGESCONSEQUENTON
　　CHANGEDCONDITIONSOFLIFE——GRAFT—HYBRIDS——ONTHESEGREGATIONOFTHE
　　PARENTALCHARACTERSINSEMINALHYBRIDSBYBUD—VARIATION——ONTHEDIRECTOR
　　IMMEDIATEACTIONOFFOREIGNPOLLENONTHEMOTHER—PLANT——ONTHEEFFECTSOFA
　　PREVIOUSIMPREGNATIONONTHESUBSEQUENTOFFSPRINGOFFEMALEANIMALS——
　　CONCLUSIONANDSUMMARY。
　　CHAPTER1。XII。
　　INHERITANCE。
　　WONDERFULNATUREOFINHERITANCE——PEDIGREESOFOURDOMESTICATEDANIMALS——
　　INHERITANCENOTDUETOCHANCE——TRIFLINGCHARACTERSINHERITED——DISEASES
　　INHERITED——PECULIARITIESINTHEEYEINHERITED——DISEASESINTHEHORSE——
　　LONGEVITYANDVIGOUR——ASYMMETRICALDEVIATIONSOFSTRUCTURE——POLYDACTYLISM
　　ANDREGROWTHOFSUPERNUMERARYDIGITSAFTERAMPUTATION——CASESOFSEVERAL
　　CHILDRENSIMILARLYAFFECTEDFROMNON—AFFECTEDPARENTS——WEAKANDFLUCTUATING
　　INHERITANCE:INWEEPINGTREES，INDWARFNESS，COLOUROFFRUITANDFLOWERS——
　　COLOUROFHORSES——NON—INHERITANCEINCERTAINCASES——INHERITANCEOF
　　STRUCTUREANDHABITSOVERBORNEBYHOSTILECONDITIONSOFLIFE，BY
　　INCESSANTLYRECURRINGVARIABILITY，ANDBYREVERSION——CONCLUSION。
　　THEVARIATIONOFANIMALSANDPLANTSUNDERDOMESTICATION。
　　INTRODUCTION。
　　Theobjectofthisworkisnottodescribeallthemanyracesofanimalswhichhavebeendomesticatedbyman，andoftheplantswhichhavebeencultivatedbyhim;evenifIpossessedtherequisiteknowledge，sogiganticanundertakingwouldbeheresuperfluous。ItismyintentiontogiveundertheheadofeachspeciesonlysuchfactsasIhavebeenabletocollectorobserve，showingtheamountandnatureofthechangeswhichanimalsandplantshaveundergonewhilstunderman’sdominion，orwhichbearonthegeneralprinciplesofvariation。Inonecasealone，namelyinthatofthedomesticpigeon，Iwilldescribefullyallthechiefraces，theirhistory，theamountandnatureoftheirdifferences，andtheprobablestepsbywhichtheyhavebeenformed。Ihaveselectedthiscase，because，asweshallhereaftersee，thematerialsarebetterthaninanyother;andonecasefullydescribedwillinfactillustrateallothers。ButIshallalsodescribedomesticatedrabbits，fowls，andducks，withconsiderablefulness。
　　Thesubjectsdiscussedinthisvolumearesoconnectedthatitisnotalittledifficulttodecidehowtheycanbebestarranged。Ihavedeterminedinthefirstparttogive，undertheheadsofthevariousanimalsandplants，alargebodyoffacts，someofwhichmayatfirstappearbutlittlerelatedtooursubject，andtodevotethelatterparttogeneraldiscussions。WheneverIhavefounditnecessarytogivenumerousdetails，insupportofanypropositionorconclusion，smalltypehasbeenused。
　　（Hereshownwith[]。）Thereaderwill，Ithink，findthisplanaconvenience，for，ifhedoesnotdoubttheconclusionorcareaboutthedetails，hecaneasilypassthemover;yetImaybepermittedtosaythatsomeofthediscussionsthusprinteddeserveattention，atleastfromtheprofessednaturalist。
　　ItmaybeusefultothosewhohavereadnothingaboutNaturalSelection，ifIheregiveabriefsketchofthewholesubjectandofitsbearingontheoriginofspecies。（Introduction/1。Toanyonewhohasattentivelyreadmy’OriginofSpecies’thisIntroductionwillbesuperfluous。AsIstatedinthatworkthatIshouldsoonpublishthefactsonwhichtheconclusionsgiveninitwerefounded，Iherebegpermissiontoremarkthatthegreatdelayinpublishingthisfirstworkhasbeencausedbycontinuedill—
　　health。）Thisisthemoredesirable，asitisimpossibleinthepresentworktoavoidmanyallusionstoquestionswhichwillbefullydiscussedinfuturevolumes。
　　Fromaremoteperiod，inallpartsoftheworld，manhassubjectedmanyanimalsandplantstodomesticationorculture。Manhasnopowerofalteringtheabsoluteconditionsoflife;hecannotchangetheclimateofanycountry;headdsnonewelementtothesoil;buthecanremoveananimalorplantfromoneclimateorsoiltoanother，andgiveitfoodonwhichitdidnotsubsistinitsnaturalstate。Itisanerrortospeakofman"tamperingwithnature"andcausingvariability。Ifamandropsapieceofironintosulphuricacid，itcannotbesaidstrictlythathemakesthesulphateofiron，heonlyallowstheirelectiveaffinitiestocomeintoplay。Iforganicbeingshadnotpossessedaninherenttendencytovary，mancouldhavedonenothing。（Introduction/2。M。Pouchethasrecently（’PluralityofRaces’EnglishTranslation1864page83etc。）insistedthatvariationunderdomesticationthrowsnolightonthenaturalmodificationofspecies。Icannotperceivetheforceofhisarguments，or，tospeakmoreaccurately，ofhisassertionstothiseffect。）Heunintentionallyexposeshisanimalsandplantstovariousconditionsoflife，andvariabilitysupervenes，whichhecannotevenpreventorcheck。Considerthesimplecaseofaplantwhichhasbeencultivatedduringalongtimeinitsnativecountry，andwhichconsequentlyhasnotbeensubjectedtoanychangeofclimate。Ithasbeenprotectedtoacertainextentfromthecompetingrootsofplantsofotherkinds;ithasgenerallybeengrowninmanuredsoil;butprobablynotricherthanthatofmanyanalluvialflat;andlastly，ithasbeenexposedtochangesinitsconditions，beinggrownsometimesinonedistrictandsometimesinanother，indifferentsoils。Undersuchcircumstances，scarcelyaplantcanbenamed，thoughcultivatedintherudestmanner，whichhasnotgivenbirthtoseveralvarieties。Itcanhardlybemaintainedthatduringthemanychangeswhichthisearthhasundergone，andduringthenaturalmigrationsofplantsfromonelandorislandtoanother，tenantedbydifferentspecies，thatsuchplantswillnotoftenhavebeensubjectedtochangesintheirconditionsanalogoustothosewhichalmostinevitablycausecultivatedplantstovary。Nodoubtmanselectsvaryingindividuals，sowstheirseeds，andagainselectstheirvaryingoffspring。Buttheinitialvariationonwhichmanworks，andwithoutwhichhecandonothing，iscausedbyslightchangesintheconditionsoflife，whichmustoftenhaveoccurredundernature。Man，therefore，maybesaidtohavebeentryinganexperimentonagiganticscale;anditisanexperimentwhichnatureduringthelonglapseoftimehasincessantlytried。Henceitfollowsthattheprinciplesofdomesticationareimportantforus。Themainresultisthatorganicbeingsthustreatedhavevariedlargely，andthevariationshavebeeninherited。
　　Thishasapparentlybeenonechiefcauseofthebelieflongheldbysomefewnaturaliststhatspeciesinastateofnatureundergochange。
　　Ishallinthisvolumetreat，asfullyasmymaterialspermit，thewholesubjectofvariationunderdomestication。Wemaythushopetoobtainsomelight，littlethoughitbe，onthecausesofvariability，——onthelawswhichgovernit，suchasthedirectactionofclimateandfood，theeffectsofuseanddisuse，andofcorrelationofgrowth，——andontheamountofchangetowhichdomesticatedorganismsareliable。Weshalllearnsomethingofthelawsofinheritance，oftheeffectsofcrossingdifferentbreeds，andonthatsterilitywhichoftensuperveneswhenorganicbeingsareremovedfromtheirnaturalconditionsoflife，andlikewisewhentheyaretoocloselyinterbred。DuringthisinvestigationweshallseethattheprincipleofSelectionishighlyimportant。Althoughmandoesnotcausevariabilityandcannotevenpreventit，hecanselect，preserve，andaccumulatethevariationsgiventohimbythehandofnaturealmostinanywaywhichhechooses;andthushecancertainlyproduceagreatresult。
　　Selectionmaybefollowedeithermethodicallyandintentionally，orunconsciouslyandunintentionally。Manmayselectandpreserveeachsuccessivevariation，withthedistinctintentionofimprovingandalteringabreed，inaccordancewithapreconceivedidea;andbythusaddingupvariations，oftensoslightastobeimperceptiblebyanuneducatedeye，hehaseffectedwonderfulchangesandimprovements。Itcan，also，beclearlyshownthatman，withoutanyintentionorthoughtofimprovingthebreed，bypreservingineachsuccessivegenerationtheindividualswhichheprizesmost，andbydestroyingtheworthlessindividuals，slowly，thoughsurely，inducesgreatchanges。Asthewillofmanthuscomesintoplay，wecanunderstandhowitisthatdomesticatedbreedsshowadaptationtohiswantsandpleasures。Wecanfurtherunderstandhowitisthatdomesticracesofanimalsandcultivatedracesofplantsoftenexhibitanabnormalcharacter，ascomparedwithnaturalspecies;fortheyhavebeenmodifiednotfortheirownbenefit，butforthatofman。
　　InanotherworkIshalldiscuss，iftimeandhealthpermit，thevariabilityoforganicbeingsinastateofnature;namely，theindividualdifferencespresentedbyanimalsandplants，andthoseslightlygreaterandgenerallyinheriteddifferenceswhicharerankedbynaturalistsasvarietiesorgeographicalraces。Weshallseehowdifficult，orratherhowimpossibleitoftenis，todistinguishbetweenracesandsub—species，asthelesswell—
　　markedformshavesometimesbeendenominated;andagainbetweensub—speciesandtruespecies。Ishallfurtherattempttoshowthatitisthecommonandwidelyranging，or，astheymaybecalled，thedominantspecies，whichmostfrequentlyvary;andthatitisthelargeandflourishinggenerawhichincludethegreatestnumberofvaryingspecies。Varieties，asweshallsee，mayjustlybecalledincipientspecies。
　　Butitmaybeurged，grantingthatorganicbeingsinastateofnaturepresentsomevarieties，——thattheirorganisationisinsomeslightdegreeplastic;grantingthatmanyanimalsandplantshavevariedgreatlyunderdomestication，andthatmanbyhispowerofselectionhasgoneonaccumulatingsuchvariationsuntilhehasmadestronglymarkedandfirmlyinheritedraces;grantingallthis，how，itmaybeasked，havespeciesariseninastateofnature？Thedifferencesbetweennaturalvarietiesareslight;whereasthedifferencesareconsiderablebetweenthespeciesofthesamegenus，andgreatbetweenthespeciesofdistinctgenera。Howdotheselesserdifferencesbecomeaugmentedintothegreaterdifference？Howdovarieties，orasIhavecalledthemincipientspecies，becomeconvertedintotrueandwell—definedspecies？Howhaseachnewspeciesbeenadaptedtothesurroundingphysicalconditions，andtotheotherformsoflifeonwhichitinanywaydepends？Weseeoneverysideofusinnumerableadaptationsandcontrivances，whichhavejustlyexcitedthehighestadmirationofeveryobserver。Thereis，forinstance，afly（Cecidomyia（Introduction/3。LeonDufourin’AnnalesdesScience。Nat。’（3rdseries，Zoolog。）tome5page6。））whichdepositsitseggswithinthestamensofaScrophularia，andsecretesapoisonwhichproducesagall，onwhichthelarvafeeds;butthereisanotherinsect（Misocampus）whichdepositsitseggswithinthebodyofthelarvawithinthegall，andisthusnourishedbyitslivingprey;sothathereahymenopterousinsectdependsonadipterousinsect，andthisdependsonitspowerofproducingamonstrousgrowthinaparticularorganofaparticularplant。Soitis，inamoreorlessplainlymarkedmanner，inthousandsandtensofthousandsofcases，withthelowestaswellaswiththehighestproductionsofnature。
　　Thisproblemoftheconversionofvarietiesintospecies，——thatis，theaugmentationoftheslightdifferencescharacteristicofvarietiesintothegreaterdifferencescharacteristicofspeciesandgenera，includingtheadmirableadaptationsofeachbeingtoitscomplexorganicandinorganicconditionsoflife，——hasbeenbrieflytreatedinmy’OriginofSpecies。’Itwasthereshownthatallorganicbeings，withoutexception，tendtoincreaseatsohigharatio，thatnodistrict，nostation，noteventhewholesurfaceofthelandorthewholeocean，wouldholdtheprogenyofasinglepairafteracertainnumberofgenerations。Theinevitableresultisanever—recurrentStruggleforExistence。Ithastrulybeensaidthatallnatureisatwar;thestrongestultimatelyprevail，theweakestfail;andwewellknowthatmyriadsofformshavedisappearedfromthefaceoftheearth。Ifthenorganicbeingsinastateofnaturevaryeveninaslightdegree，owingtochangesinthesurroundingconditions，ofwhichwehaveabundantgeologicalevidence，orfromanyothercause;if，inthelongcourseofages，inheritablevariationseverariseinanywayadvantageoustoanybeingunderitsexcessivelycomplexandchangingrelationsoflife;
　　anditwouldbeastrangefactifbeneficialvariationsdidneverarise，seeinghowmanyhavearisenwhichmanhastakenadvantageofforhisownprofitorpleasure;ifthenthesecontingencieseveroccur，andIdonotseehowtheprobabilityoftheiroccurrencecanbedoubted，thenthesevereandoften—recurrentstruggleforexistencewilldeterminethatthosevariations，howeverslight，whicharefavourableshallbepreservedorselected，andthosewhichareunfavourableshallbedestroyed。
　　Thispreservation，duringthebattleforlife，ofvarietieswhichpossessanyadvantageinstructure，constitution，orinstinct，IhavecalledNaturalSelection;andMr。HerbertSpencerhaswellexpressedthesameideabytheSurvivaloftheFittest。Theterm"naturalselection"isinsomerespectsabadone，asitseemstoimplyconsciouschoice;butthiswillbedisregardedafteralittlefamiliarity。Nooneobjectstochemistsspeakingof"electiveaffinity;"andcertainlyanacidhasnomorechoiceincombiningwithabase，thantheconditionsoflifehaveindeterminingwhetherornotanewformbeselectedorpreserved。Thetermissofaragoodoneasitbringsintoconnectiontheproductionofdomesticracesbyman’spowerofselection，andthenaturalpreservationofvarietiesandspeciesinastateofnature。ForbrevitysakeIsometimesspeakofnaturalselectionasanintelligentpower;——inthesamewayasastronomersspeakoftheattractionofgravityasrulingthemovementsoftheplanets，orasagriculturistsspeakofmanmakingdomesticracesbyhispowerofselection。Intheonecase，asintheother，selectiondoesnothingwithoutvariability，andthisdependsinsomemannerontheactionofthesurroundingcircumstancesontheorganism。Ihave，also，oftenpersonifiedthewordNature;forIhavefounditdifficulttoavoidthisambiguity;butImeanbynatureonlytheaggregateactionandproductofmanynaturallaws，——andbylawsonlytheascertainedsequenceofevents。
　　Ithasbeenshownfrommanyfactsthatthelargestamountoflifecanbesupportedoneacharea，bygreatdiversificationordivergenceinthestructureandconstitutionofitsinhabitants。Wehave，also，seenthatthecontinuedproductionofnewformsthroughnaturalselection，whichimpliesthateachnewvarietyhassomeadvantageoverothers，inevitablyleadstotheexterminationoftheolderandlessimprovedforms。Theselatterarealmostnecessarilyintermediateinstructure，aswellasindescent，betweenthelast—producedformsandtheiroriginalparent—species。Now，ifwesupposeaspeciestoproducetwoormorevarieties，andtheseinthecourseoftimetoproduceothervarieties，theprincipalofgoodbeingderivedfromdiversificationofstructurewillgenerallyleadtothepreservationofthemostdivergentvarieties;thusthelesserdifferencescharacteristicofvarietiescometobeaugmentedintothegreaterdifferencescharacteristicofspecies，and，bytheexterminationoftheolderintermediateforms，newspeciesendbybeingdistinctlydefinedobjects。Thus，also，weshallseehowitisthatorganicbeingscanbeclassedbywhatiscalledanaturalmethodindistinctgroups——speciesundergenera，andgeneraunderfamilies。
　　Asalltheinhabitantsofeachcountrymaybesaid，owingtotheirhighrateofreproduction，tobestrivingtoincreaseinnumbers;aseachformcomesintocompetitionwithmanyotherformsinthestruggleforlife，——fordestroyanyoneanditsplacewillbeseizedbyothers;aseverypartoftheorganisationoccasionallyvariesinsomeslightdegree，andasnaturalselectionactsexclusivelybythepreservationofvariationswhichareadvantageousundertheexcessivelycomplexconditionstowhicheachbeingisexposed，nolimitexiststothenumber，singularity，andperfectionofthecontrivancesandco—adaptationswhichmaythusbeproduced。Ananimaloraplantmaythusslowlybecomerelatedinitsstructureandhabitsinthemostintricatemannertomanyotheranimalsandplants，andtothephysicalconditionsofitshome。Variationsintheorganisationwillinsomecasesbeaidedbyhabit，orbytheuseanddisuseofparts，andtheywillbegovernedbythedirectactionofthesurroundingphysicalconditionsandbycorrelationofgrowth。
　　Ontheprinciplesherebrieflysketchedout，thereisnoinnateornecessarytendencyineachbeingtoitsownadvancementinthescaleoforganisation。Wearealmostcompelledtolookatthespecialisationordifferentiationofpartsororgansfordifferentfunctionsasthebestorevensolestandardofadvancement;forbysuchdivisionoflaboureachfunctionofbodyandmindisbetterperformed。Andasnaturalselectionactsexclusivelythroughthepreservationofprofitablemodificationsofstructure，andastheconditionsoflifeineachareagenerallybecomemoreandmorecomplexfromtheincreasingnumberofdifferentformswhichinhabititandfrommostoftheseformsacquiringamoreandmoreperfectstructure，wemayconfidentlybelieve，that，onthewhole，organisationadvances。Neverthelessaverysimpleformfittedforverysimpleconditionsoflifemightremainforindefiniteagesunalteredorunimproved;forwhatwoulditprofitaninfusorialanimalcule，forinstance，oranintestinalworm，tobecomehighlyorganised？Membersofahighgroupmightevenbecome，andthisapparentlyhasoftenoccurred，fittedforsimplerconditionsoflife;andinthiscasenaturalselectionwouldtendtosimplifyordegradetheorganisation，forcomplicatedmechanismforsimpleactionswouldbeuselessorevendisadvantageous。
　　TheargumentsopposedtothetheoryofNaturalSelection，havebeendiscussedinmy’OriginofSpecies，’asfarasthesizeofthatworkpermitted，underthefollowingheads:thedifficultyinunderstandinghowverysimpleorganshavebeenconvertedbysmallandgraduatedstepsintohighlyperfectandcomplexorgans;themarvellousfactsofInstinct;thewholequestionofHybridity;and，lastly，theabsenceinourknowngeologicalformationsofinnumerablelinksconnectingallalliedspecies。
　　Althoughsomeofthesedifficultiesareofgreatweight，weshallseethatmanyofthemareexplicableonthetheoryofnaturalselection，andareotherwiseinexplicable。
　　Inscientificinvestigationsitispermittedtoinventanyhypothesis，andifitexplainsvariouslargeandindependentclassesoffactsitrisestotherankofawell—groundedtheory。Theundulationsoftheetherandevenitsexistencearehypothetical，yeteveryonenowadmitstheundulatorytheoryoflight。Theprincipleofnaturalselectionmaybelookedatasamerehypothesis，butrenderedinsomedegreeprobablebywhatwepositivelyknowofthevariabilityoforganicbeingsinastateofnature，——bywhatwepositivelyknowofthestruggleforexistence，andtheconsequentalmostinevitablepreservationoffavourablevariations，——andfromtheanalogicalformationofdomesticraces。Nowthishypothesismaybetested，——andthisseemstometheonlyfairandlegitimatemannerofconsideringthewholequestion，——bytryingwhetheritexplainsseverallargeandindependentclassesoffacts;suchasthegeologicalsuccessionoforganicbeings，theirdistributioninpastandpresenttimes，andtheirmutualaffinitiesandhomologies。Iftheprincipleofnaturalselectiondoesexplaintheseandotherlargebodiesoffacts，itoughttobereceived。Ontheordinaryviewofeachspecieshavingbeenindependentlycreated，wegainnoscientificexplanationofanyoneofthesefacts。WecanonlysaythatithassopleasedtheCreatortocommandthatthepastandpresentinhabitantsoftheworldshouldappearinacertainorderandincertainareas;thatHehasimpressedonthemthemostextraordinaryresemblances，andhasclassedthemingroupssubordinatetogroups。Butbysuchstatementswegainnonewknowledge;wedonotconnecttogetherfactsandlaws;weexplainnothing。
　　Itwastheconsiderationofsuchlargegroupsoffactsasthesewhichfirstledmetotakeupthepresentsubject。WhenIvisitedduringthevoyageofH。M。S。"Beagle，"theGalapagosArchipelago，situatedinthePacificOceanabout500milesfromSouthAmerica，Ifoundmyselfsurroundedbypeculiarspeciesofbirds，reptiles，andplants，existingnowhereelseintheworld。
　　YettheynearlyallboreanAmericanstamp。Inthesongofthemocking—
　　thrush，intheharshcryofthecarrion—hawk，inthegreatcandlestick—likeopuntias，IclearlyperceivedtheneighbourhoodofAmerica，thoughtheislandswereseparatedbysomanymilesofoceanfromthemainland，anddifferedmuchintheirgeologicalconstitutionandclimate。Stillmoresurprisingwasthefactthatmostoftheinhabitantsofeachseparateislandinthissmallarchipelagowerespecificallydifferent，thoughmostcloselyrelatedtoeachother。Thearchipelago，withitsinnumerablecratersandbarestreamsoflava，appearedtobeofrecentorigin;andthusIfanciedmyselfbroughtneartotheveryactofcreation。Ioftenaskedmyselfhowthesemanypeculiaranimalsandplantshadbeenproduced:thesimplestanswerseemedtobethattheinhabitantsoftheseveralislandshaddescendedfromeachother，undergoingmodificationinthecourseoftheirdescent;andthatalltheinhabitantsofthearchipelagoweredescendedfromthoseofthenearestland，namelyAmerica，whencecolonistswouldnaturallyhavebeenderived。Butitlongremainedtomeaninexplicableproblemhowthenecessarydegreeofmodificationcouldhavebeeneffected，anditwouldhavethusremainedforever，hadInotstudieddomesticproductions，andthusacquiredajustideaofthepowerofSelection。AssoonasIhadfullyrealisedthisidea，Isaw，onreadingMalthusonPopulation，thatNaturalSelectionwastheinevitableresultoftherapidincreaseofallorganicbeings;forIwaspreparedtoappreciatethestruggleforexistencebyhavinglongstudiedthehabitsofanimals。
　　BeforevisitingtheGalapagosIhadcollectedmanyanimalswhilsttravellingfromnorthtosouthonbothsidesofAmerica，andeverywhere，underconditionsoflifeasdifferentasitispossibletoconceive，Americanformsweremetwith——speciesreplacingspeciesofthesamepeculiargenera。ThusitwaswhentheCordilleraswereascended，orthethicktropicalforestspenetrated，orthefreshwatersofAmericasearched。
　　SubsequentlyIvisitedothercountries，whichinalltheirconditionsoflifewereincomparablymorelikepartsofSouthAmerica，thanthedifferentpartsofthatcontinentaretoeachother;yetinthesecountries，asinAustraliaorSouthernAfrica，thetravellercannotfailtobestruckwiththeentiredifferenceoftheirproductions。AgainthereflectionwasforcedonmethatcommunityofdescentfromtheearlyinhabitantsofSouthAmericawouldaloneexplainthewideprevalenceofAmericantypesthroughoutthatimmensearea。
　　Toexhumewithone’sownhandsthebonesofextinctandgiganticquadrupedsbringsthewholequestionofthesuccessionofspeciesvividlybeforeone’smind;andIfoundinSouthAmericagreatpiecesoftesselatedarmourexactlylike，butonamagnificentscale，thatcoveringthepigmyarmadillo;Ihadfoundgreatteethlikethoseofthelivingsloth，andboneslikethoseofthecavy。AnanalogoussuccessionofalliedformshadbeenpreviouslyobservedinAustralia。Herethenweseetheprevalence，asifbydescent，intimeasinspace，ofthesametypesinthesameareas;
　　andinneitherthecasedoesthesimilarityoftheconditionsbyanymeansseemsufficienttoaccountforthesimilarityoftheformsoflife。Itisnotoriousthatthefossilremainsofcloselyconsecutiveformationsarecloselyalliedinstructure，andwecanatonceunderstandthefactiftheyarecloselyalliedbydescent。Thesuccessionofthemanydistinctspeciesofthesamegenusthroughoutthelongseriesofgeologicalformationsseemstohavebeenunbrokenorcontinuous。Newspeciescomeingraduallyonebyone。Ancientandextinctformsoflifeareoftenintermediateincharacter，likethewordsofadeadlanguagewithrespecttoitsseveraloffshootsorlivingtongues。Allthesefactsseemedtometopointtodescentwithmodificationasthemeansofproductionofnewspecies。
　　Theinnumerablepastandpresentinhabitantsoftheworldareconnectedtogetherbythemostsingularandcomplexaffinities，andcanbeclassedingroupsundergroups，inthesamemannerasvarietiescanbeclassedunderspeciesandsub—varietiesundervarieties，butwithmuchhighergradesofdifference。Thesecomplexaffinitiesandtherulesforclassification，receivearationalexplanationonthetheoryofdescent，combinedwiththeprincipleofnaturalselection，whichentailsdivergenceofcharacterandtheextinctionofintermediateforms。Howinexplicableisthesimilarpatternofthehandofaman，thefootofadog，thewingofabat，theflipperofaseal，onthedoctrineofindependentactsofcreation！howsimplyexplainedontheprincipleofthenaturalselectionofsuccessiveslightvariationsinthedivergingdescendantsfromasingleprogenitor！Soitiswithcertainpartsororgansinthesameindividualanimalorplant，forinstance，thejawsandlegsofacrab，orthepetals，stamens，andpistilsofaflower。Duringthemanychangestowhichinthecourseoftimeorganicbeingshavebeensubjected，certainorgansorpartshaveoccasionallybecomeatfirstoflittleuseandultimatelysuperfluous;andtheretentionofsuchpartsinarudimentaryanduselessconditionisintelligibleonthetheoryofdescent。Itcanbeshownthatmodificationsofstructurearegenerallyinheritedbytheoffspringatthesameageatwhicheachsuccessivevariationappearedintheparents;itcanfurtherbeshownthatvariationsdonotcommonlysuperveneataveryearlyperiodofembryonicgrowth，andonthesetwoprincipleswecanunderstandthatmostwonderfulfactinthewholecircuitofnaturalhistory，namely，theclosesimilarityoftheembryoswithinthesamegreatclass——forinstance，thoseofmammals，birds，reptiles，andfish。
　　Itistheconsiderationandexplanationofsuchfactsasthesewhichhasconvincedmethatthetheoryofdescentwithmodificationbymeansofnaturalselectionisinthemaintrue。ThesefactshaveasyetreceivednoexplanationonthetheoryofindependentCreation;theycannotbegroupedtogetherunderonepointofview，buteachhastobeconsideredasanultimatefact。Asthefirstoriginoflifeonthisearth，aswellasthecontinuedlifeofeachindividual，isatpresentquitebeyondthescopeofscience，Idonotwishtolaymuchstressonthegreatersimplicityoftheviewofafewformsorofonlyoneformhavingbeenoriginallycreated，insteadofinnumerablemiraculouscreationshavingbeennecessaryatinnumerableperiods;thoughthismoresimpleviewaccordswellwithMaupertuis’sphilosophicalaxiomof"leastaction。"
　　Inconsideringhowfarthetheoryofnaturalselectionmaybeextended，——thatis，indeterminingfromhowmanyprogenitorstheinhabitantsoftheworldhavedescended，——wemayconcludethatatleastallthemembersofthesameclasshavedescendedfromasingleancestor。Anumberoforganicbeingsareincludedinthesameclass，becausetheypresent，independentlyoftheirhabitsoflife，thesamefundamentaltypeofstructure，andbecausetheygraduateintoeachother。Moreover，membersofthesameclasscaninmostcasesbeshowntobecloselyalikeatanearlyembryonicage。
　　Thesefactscanbeexplainedonthebeliefoftheirdescentfromacommonform;thereforeitmaybesafelyadmittedthatallthemembersofthesameclassaredescendedfromoneprogenitor。Butasthemembersofquitedistinctclasseshavesomethingincommoninstructureandmuchincommoninconstitution，analogywouldleadusonestepfurther，andtoinferasprobablethatalllivingcreaturesaredescendedfromasingleprototype。
　　Ihopethatthereaderwillpausebeforecomingtoanyfinalandhostileconclusiononthetheoryofnaturalselection。Thereadermayconsultmy’OriginofSpecies’forageneralsketchofthewholesubject;butinthatworkhehastotakemanystatementsontrust。Inconsideringthetheoryofnaturalselection，hewillassuredlymeetwithweightydifficulties，butthesedifficultiesrelatechieflytosubjects——suchasthedegreeofperfectionofthegeologicalrecord，themeansofdistribution，thepossibilityoftransitionsinorgans，etc。——onwhichweareconfessedlyignorant;nordoweknowhowignorantweare。Ifwearemuchmoreignorantthanisgenerallysupposed，mostofthesedifficultieswhollydisappear。
　　Letthereaderreflectonthedifficultyoflookingatwholeclassesoffactsfromanewpointofview。Lethimobservehowslowly，butsurely，thenobleviewsofLyellonthegradualchangesnowinprogressontheearth’ssurfacehavebeenacceptedassufficienttoaccountforallthatweseeinitspasthistory。Thepresentactionofnaturalselectionmayseemmoreorlessprobable;butIbelieveinthetruthofthetheory，becauseitcollects，underonepointofview，andgivesarationalexplanationof，manyapparentlyindependentclassesoffacts。（Introduction/4。IntreatingtheseveralsubjectsincludedinthepresentandmyotherworksIhavecontinuallybeenledtoaskforinformationfrommanyzoologists，botanists，geologists，breedersofanimals，andhorticulturists，andIhaveinvariablyreceivedfromthemthemostgenerousassistance。WithoutsuchaidIcouldhaveeffectedlittle。Ihaverepeatedlyappliedforinformationandspecimenstoforeigners，andtoBritishmerchantsandofficersoftheGovernmentresidingindistantlands，and，withtherarestexceptions，I
　　havereceivedprompt，open—handed，andvaluableassistance。Icannotexpresstoostronglymyobligationstothemanypersonswhohaveassistedme，andwho，Iamconvinced，wouldbeequallywillingtoassistothersinanyscientificinvestigation。）
　　CHAPTER1。I。
　　DOMESTICDOGSANDCATS。
　　ANCIENTVARIETIESOFTHEDOG。
　　RESEMBLANCEOFDOMESTICDOGSINVARIOUSCOUNTRIESTONATIVECANINESPECIES。
　　ANIMALSNOTACQUAINTEDWITHMANATFIRSTFEARLESS。
　　DOGSRESEMBLINGWOLVESANDJACKALS。
　　HABITOFBARKINGACQUIREDANDLOST。
　　FERALDOGS。
　　TAN—COLOUREDEYE—SPOTS。
　　PERIODOFGESTATION。
　　OFFENSIVEODOUR。
　　FERTILITYOFTHERACESWHENCROSSED。
　　DIFFERENCESINTHESEVERALRACESINPARTDUETODESCENTFROMDISTINCT
　　SPECIES。
　　DIFFERENCESINTHESKULLANDTEETH。
　　DIFFERENCESINTHEBODY，INCONSTITUTION。
　　FEWIMPORTANTDIFFERENCESHAVEBEENFIXEDBYSELECTION。
　　DIRECTACTIONOFCLIMATE。
　　WATER—DOGSWITHPALMATEDFEET。
　　HISTORYOFTHECHANGESWHICHCERTAINENGLISHRACESOFTHEDOGHAVE
　　GRADUALLYUNDERGONETHROUGHSELECTION。
　　EXTINCTIONOFTHELESSIMPROVEDSUB—BREEDS。
　　CATS，CROSSEDWITHSEVERALSPECIES。
　　DIFFERENTBREEDSFOUNDONLYINSEPARATEDCOUNTRIES。
　　DIRECTEFFECTSOFTHECONDITIONSOFLIFE。
　　FERALCATS。
　　INDIVIDUALVARIABILITY。
　　Thefirstandchiefpointofinterestinthischapteris，whetherthenumerousdomesticatedvarietiesofthedoghavedescendedfromasinglewildspecies，orfromseveral。Someauthorsbelievethatallhavedescendedfromthewolf，orfromthejackal，orfromanunknownandextinctspecies。
　　Othersagainbelieve，andthisoflatehasbeenthefavouritetenet，thattheyhavedescendedfromseveralspecies，extinctandrecent，moreorlesscommingledtogether。Weshallprobablyneverbeabletoascertaintheiroriginwithcertainty。Palaeontology（1/1。Owen’BritishFossilMammals’
　　pages123to133。Pictet’TraitedePal。’1853tome1page202。DeBlainvilleinhis’Osteographie，Canidae’page142haslargelydiscussedthewholesubject，andconcludesthattheextinctparentofalldomesticateddogscamenearesttothewolfinorganisation，andtothejackalinhabits。SeealsoBoydDawkins，’CaveHunting’1874page131etc。
　　andhisotherpublications。Jeitteleshasdiscussedingreatdetailthecharacterofthebreedsofpre—historicdogs:’DievorgeschichtlichenAlterthumerderStadtOlmutz’II。Theil，1872page44toend。）doesnotthrowmuchlightonthequestion，owing，ontheonehand，totheclosesimilarityoftheskullsofextinctaswellaslivingwolvesandjackals，andowing，ontheotherhand，tothegreatdissimilarityoftheskullsoftheseveralbreedsofthedomesticdogs。Itseems，however，thatremainshavebeenfoundinthelatertertiarydepositsmorelikethoseofalargedogthanofawolf，whichfavoursthebeliefofDeBlainvillethatourdogsarethedescendantsofasingleextinctspecies。Ontheotherhand，someauthorsgosofarastoassertthateverychiefdomesticbreedmusthavehaditswildprototype。Thislatterviewisextremelyimprobable:itallowsnothingforvariation;itpassesoverthealmostmonstrouscharacterofsomeofthebreeds;anditalmostnecessarilyassumesthatalargenumberofspecieshavebecomeextinctsincemandomesticatedthedog;whereasweplainlyseethatwildmembersofthedog—familyareextirpatedbyhumanagencywithmuchdifficulty;evensorecentlyas1710thewolfexistedinsosmallanislandasIreland。
　　Thereasonswhichhaveledvariousauthorstoinferthatourdogshavedescendedfrommorethanonewildspeciesareasfollows。（1/2。Pallas，I
　　believe，originatedthisdoctrinein’Act。Acad。St。Petersburgh’1780Part2。Ehrenberghasadvocatedit，asmaybeseeninDeBlainville’s’Osteographie’page79。IthasbeencarriedtoanextremeextentbyCol。
　　HamiltonSmithinthe’NaturalistLibrary’volumes9and10。Mr。W。C。
　　Martinadoptsitinhisexcellent’HistoryoftheDog’1845;asdoesDr。
　　Morton，aswellasNottandGliddon，intheUnitedStates。Prof。Low，inhis’DomesticatedAnimals’1845page666，comestothissameconclusion。NoonehasarguedonthissidewithmoreclearnessandforcethanthelateJamesWilson，ofEdinburgh，invariouspapersreadbeforetheHighlandAgriculturalandWernerianSocieties。IsidoreGeoffroySaint—Hilaire（’Hist。Nat。Gen。’1860tome3page107），thoughhebelievesthatmostdogshavedescendedfromthejackal，yetinclinestothebeliefthatsomearedescendedfromthewolf。Prof。Gervais（’Hist。Nat。Mamm。’1855tome2page69，referringtotheviewthatallthedomesticracesarethemodifieddescendantsofasinglespecies，afteralongdiscussion，says，"Cetteopinionest，suivantnousdumoins，lamoinsprobable。"）Firstly，thegreatdifferencebetweentheseveralbreeds;butthiswillappearofcomparativelylittleweight，afterweshallhaveseenhowgreatarethedifferencesbetweentheseveralracesofvariousdomesticatedanimalswhichcertainlyhavedescendedfromasingleparent—form。Secondly，themoreimportantfact，that，atthemostancientlyknownhistoricalperiods，severalbreedsofthedogexisted，veryunlikeeachother，andcloselyresemblingoridenticalwithbreedsstillalive。
　　Wewillbrieflyrunbackthroughthehistoricalrecords。ThematerialsareremarkablydeficientbetweenthefourteenthcenturyandtheRomanclassicalperiod。（1/3。Berjeau’TheVarietiesoftheDog;inoldSculpturesandPictures’1863。’DerHund’vonDr。F。L。Walther，Giessen1817s。48:thisauthorseemscarefullytohavestudiedallclassicalworksonthesubject。
　　SeealsoVolz’BeitragezurKulturgeschichte’Leipzig1852s。115，’YouattontheDog’1845page6。AveryfullhistoryisgivenbyDeBlainvilleinhis’Osteographie，Canidae。’）Atthislatterperiodvariousbreeds，namelyhounds，house—dogs，lapdogs，etc，existed;but，asDr。Waltherhasremarked，itisimpossibletorecognisethegreaternumberwithanycertainty。Youatt，however，givesadrawingofabeautifulsculptureoftwogreyhoundpuppiesfromtheVillaofAntoninus。OnanAssyrianmonument，about640B。C。，anenormousmastiff（1/4。IhaveseendrawingsofthisdogfromthetombofthesonofEsarHaddon，andclaymodelsintheBritishMuseum。NottandGliddon，intheir’TypesofMankind’1854page393，giveacopyofthesedrawings。ThisdoghasbeencalledaThibetanmastiff，butMr。H。A。Oldfield，whoisfamiliarwiththeso—calledThibetmastiff，andhasexaminedthedrawingsintheBritishMuseum，informsmethatheconsidersthemdifferent。）isfigured;andaccordingtoSirH。Rawlinson（asIwasinformedattheBritishMuseum），similardogsarestillimportedintothissamecountry。IhavelookedthroughthemagnificentworksofLepsiusandRosellini，andontheEgyptianmonumentsfromthefourthtothetwelfthdynasties（i。e。fromabout3400B。C。to2100B。C。）severalvarietiesofthedogarerepresented;mostofthemarealliedtogreyhounds;atthelateroftheseperiodsadogresemblingahoundisfigured，withdroopingears，butwithalongerbackandmorepointedheadthaninourhounds。Thereis，also，aturnspit，withshortandcrookedlegs，closelyresemblingtheexistingvariety;butthiskindofmonstrosityissocommonwithvariousanimals，aswiththeanconsheep，andeven，accordingtoRengger，withjaguarsinParaguay，thatitwouldberashtolookatthemonumentalanimalastheparentofallourturnspits:ColonelSykes（1/5。’Proc。Zoolog。Soc。’July12，1831。）alsohasdescribedanIndianpariahdogaspresentingthesamemonstrouscharacter。ThemostancientdogrepresentedontheEgyptianmonumentsisoneofthemostsingular;itresemblesagreyhound，buthaslongpointedearsandashortcurledtail:acloselyalliedvarietystillexistsinNorthernAfrica;forMr。E。VernonHarcourt（1/6。’SportinginAlgeria’page51。）statesthattheArabboar—houndis"aneccentrichieroglyphicanimal，suchasCheopsoncehuntedwith，somewhatresemblingtheroughScotchdeer—hound;theirtailsarecurledtightroundontheirbacks，andtheirearsstickoutatrightangles。"Withthismostancientvarietyapariah—likedogcoexisted。
　　Wethusseethat，ataperiodbetweenfourandfivethousandyearsago，variousbreeds，viz。pariahdogs，greyhounds，commonhounds，mastiffs，house—dogs，lapdogs，andturnspits，existed，moreorlesscloselyresemblingourpresentbreeds。Butthereisnotsufficientevidencethatanyoftheseancientdogsbelongedtothesameidenticalsub—varietieswithourpresentdogs。（1/7。BerjeaugivesfacsimilesoftheEgyptiandrawings。
　　Mr。C。L。Martininhis’HistoryoftheDog’1845copiesseveralfiguresfromtheEgyptianmonuments，andspeakswithmuchconfidencewithrespecttotheiridentitywithstilllivingdogs。Messrs。NottandGliddon（’TypesofMankind’1854page388）givestillmorenumerousfigures。Mr。Gliddonassertsthatacurl—tailedgreyhound，likethatrepresentedonthemostancientmonuments，iscommoninBorneo;buttheRajah，SirJ。Brooke，informsmethatnosuchdogexiststhere。）Aslongasmanwasbelievedtohaveexistedonthisearthonlyabout6000years，thisfactofthegreatdiversityofthebreedsatsoearlyaperiodwasanargumentofmuchweightthattheyhadproceededfromseveralwildsources，fortherewouldnothavebeensufficienttimefortheirdivergenceandmodification。Butnowthatweknow，fromthediscoveryofflinttoolsembeddedwiththeremainsofextinctanimalsindistrictswhichhavesinceundergonegreatgeographicalchanges，thatmanhasexistedforanincomparablylongerperiod，andbearinginmindthatthemostbarbarousnationspossessdomesticdogs，theargumentfrominsufficienttimefallsawaygreatlyinvalue。
　　LongbeforetheperiodofanyhistoricalrecordthedogwasdomesticatedinEurope。IntheDanishMiddensoftheNeolithicorNewerStoneperiod，bonesofacanineanimalareembedded，andSteenstrupingeniouslyarguesthatthesebelongedtoadomesticdog;foraverylargeproportionofthebonesofbirdspreservedintherefuseconsistsoflongbones，whichitwasfoundontrialdogscannotdevour。（1/8。These，andthefollowingfactsontheDanishremains，aretakenfromM。Morlot’smostinterestingmemoirin’Soc。