ellesperiraientsiellesnereussissaientpasaysatisfie。
"Voici，ausurplus，surcepointdesdetailsdontl’exactitudenosparaitpleinementattesteeparl’excellencedutravailounouslesavonspuises。Cesdetails，contenusdanslastatistiquedelacommunedeVensat（PuydeDome），publieerecementparM。ledocteurJusseraud，mairedelacommune，sontd’autantplusprecieux，qu’ilsmettentdanstoutleurlanaturedeschangementsqueledeveloppementdelapetiteculturea，danslepaysdontils’agit，apportesaunombreetal’especedesanimauxdontleproduitenengraissoutientetacroitlafertilitedesterres。DanslacommunedeVensat，quicomprend1612hectaresdivisesen4600parcellesappartenanta591
proprietaires，leterritoireexploitesecomposede1466
hectares。Or，en1790，17fermesenoccupaientlesdeuxtierset20autrestoutlereste。Depuislors，lesculturessesontmorcelees，etmaintenantleurpetitesseestextreme。Quelleaetel’influenceduchangementsurlaquantitedesanimaux？Uneaugmentationconsiderable。En1790，lacommunenepossedaitqu’environ676despremieres，et533seulementdessecondes。
Ainsipourremplacer1300moutonselleaacquis376boeufsetvaches，ettoutcompense，lasommedesengraiss’estaccruedanslaproportionde490a729，oudeplusde48pourcent。Etencoreest—ilaremarquerque，plusfortsetmieuxnourrisapresent，lesanimauxcontribuentbiendavantageaentretenirlafertilitedesterres。
"Voilacequelesfaitsnousapprennentsurcepoint:iln’estdoncpasvraiquelapetiteculturenenourrissepasautantd’animauxquelesautres;loindela，aconditionlocalespareilles，c’estellequienpossedeleplus，etilnedevaitpasetredifficiledelapresumer;car，dumomentouc’estellequidemandeleplusauxterres，ilfautbienqu’elleleurdonnedessoinsd’autantplusreparateursqu’elleenexigedavantage。Quel’onprenneunaunlesautresreproches;qu’onlesexaminealaclartedefaitsbienapprecies，ons’appercevrabientotqu’ilsnesauraientetremieuxfondes，etqu’ilsn’onteteformulesqueparcequ’onacomparel’etatdesculturesdansdescontreesoulescausesdelaprosperiteagricolen’agissaientpasaveclamemeenergie。"（pp。116—120）
6。Seepp。352and353ofaFrenchtranslationpublishedatBrusselsin1839，byM。FreddeKemmeter，ofGhent。
7。"DansledepartmentduNord，"saysM。Passy，"unefermede20
hectaresrecueilleenveaus，laitage，oeufs，etvolailles，parfoispourunmillierdefrancsdansl’annee;et，lesfraisdefalques，c’estl’equivalentd’uneadditionauroduitnetde15
a20francsparhectare。"DesSystemesdeCulture，p。114。
8。Duringtheintervalbetweenthecensusof1851andthatof1856，theincreaseofthepopulationofParisalone，exceededtheaggregateincreaseofallFrance;whilenearlyalltheotherlargetownslikewiseshowedanincrease。
9。EconomieRuraledelaFrancedepuis1789。ParM。LeoncedeLavergne。Membredel’InstitutetdelaSocieteCentraled’AgriculturedeFrance。2meed。p。59。
ThePrinciplesofPoliticalEconomy
byJohnStuartMill
Book1，Chapter10
OftheLawoftheIncreaseofLabour
1。Wehavenowsuccessivelyconsideredeachoftheagentsor
conditionsofproduction，andofthemeansbywhichtheefficacy
ofthesevariousagentsispromoted。Inordertocometoanend
ofthequestionswhichrelateexclusivelytoproduction，one
more，ofprimaryimportance，remains。
Productionisnotafixed，butanincreasingthing。Whennot
keptbackbybadinstitutions，oralowstateoftheartsof
life，theproduceofindustryhasusuallytendedtoincrease;
stimulatednotonlybythedesireoftheproducerstoaugment
theirmeansofconsumption，butbytheincreasingnumberofthe
consumers。Nothinginpoliticaleconomycanbeofmoreimportance
thantoascertainthelawofthisincreaseofproduction;the
conditionstowhichitissubject:whetherithaspracticallyany
limits，andwhattheseare。Thereisalsonosubjectinpolitical
economywhichispopularlylessunderstood，oronwhichthe
errorscommittedareofacharactertoproduce，anddoproduce，
greatermischief。
Wehaveseenthattheessentialrequisitesofproductionare
three——labour，capital，andnaturalagents;thetermcapital
includingallexternalandphysicalrequisiteswhichareproducts
oflabour，thetermnaturalagentsallthosewhicharenot。But
amongnaturalagentsweneednottakeintoaccountthosewhich，
existinginunlimitedquantity，beingincapableofappropriation，
andneveralteringintheirqualities，arealwaysreadytolend
anequaldegreeofassistancetoproduction，whatevermaybeits
extent;asair，andthelightofthesun。Beingnowaboutto
considertheimpedimentstoproduction，notthefacilitiesfor
it，weneedadverttonoothernaturalagentsthanthosewhich
areliabletobedeficienteitherinquantityorinproductive
power。Thesemaybeallrepresentedbythetermland。Land，in
thenarrowestacceptation，asthesourceofagriculturalproduce，
isthechiefofthem;andifweextendthetermtominesand
fisheries——towhatisfoundintheearthitself，orinthe
waterswhichpartlycoverit，aswellastowhatisgrownorfed
onitssurface，itembraceseverythingwithwhichweneedat
presentconcernourselves。
Wemaysay，then，withoutagreaterstretchoflanguagethan
underthenecessaryexplanationispermissible，thatthe
requisitesofproductionareLabour，Capital，andLand。The
increaseofproduction，therefore，dependsonthepropertiesof
theseelements。Itisaresultoftheincreaseeitherofthe
elementsthemselves，oroftheirproductiveness。Thelawofthe
increaseofproductionmustbeaconsequenceofthelawsofthese
elements;thelimitstotheincreaseofproductionmustbethe
limits，whatevertheyare，setbythoselaws。Weproceedto
considerthethreeelementssuccessively，withreferencetothis
effect;orinotherwords，thelawoftheincreaseofproduction，
viewedinrespectofitsdependence，firstonLabour，secondlyon
Capital，andlastlyonLand。
2。Theincreaseoflabouristheincreaseofmankind;of
population。OnthissubjectthediscussionsexcitedbytheEssay
ofMr。Malthushavemadethetruth，thoughbynomeans
universallyadmitted，yetsofullyknown，thatabriefer
examinationofthequestionthanwouldotherwisehavebeen
necessarywillprobablyonthepresentoccasionsuffice。
Thepowerofmultiplicationinherentinallorganiclifemay
beregardedasinfinite。Thereisnoonespeciesofvegetableor
animal，which，iftheearthwereentirelyabandonedtoit，andto
thethingsonwhichitfeeds，wouldnotinasmallnumberof
yearsoverspreadeveryregionoftheglobe，ofwhichtheclimate
wascompatiblewithitsexistence。Thedegreeofpossible
rapidityisdifferentindifferentordersofbeings;butinall
itissufficient，fortheearthtobeveryspeedilyfilledup。
Therearemanyspeciesofvegetablesofwhichasingleplantwill
produceinoneyearthegermsofathousand;ifonlytwocometo
maturity，infourteenyearsthetwowillhavemultipliedto
sixteenthousandandmore。Itisbutamoderatecaseoffecundity
inanimalstobecapableofquadruplingtheirnumbersinasingle
year;iftheyonlydoasmuchinhalfacentury，tenthousand
willhaveswelledwithintwocenturiestoupwardsoftwomillions
andahalf。Thecapacityofincreaseisnecessarilyina
geometricalprogression:thenumericalratioaloneisdifferent。
Tothispropertyoforganizedbeings，thehumanspeciesforms
noexception。Itspowerofincreaseisindefinite，andtheactual
multiplicationwouldheextraordinarilyrapid，ifthepowerwere
exercisedtotheutmost。
Itneverisexercisedtotheutmost，andyet，inthemost
favourablecircumstancesknowntoexist，whicharethoseofa
fertileregioncolonizedfromanindustriousandcivilized
community，populationhascontinued，forseveralgenerations，
independentlyoffreshimmication，todoubleitselfinnotmuch
morethantwentyyears。（1*）Thatthecapacityofmultiplication
inthehumanspeciesexceedseventhis，isevidentifweconsider
howgreatistheordinarynumberofchildrentoafamily，where
theclimateisgoodandearlymarriagesusual;andhowsmalla
proportionofthemdiebeforetheageofmaturity，inthepresent
stateofhygienicknowledge，wherethelocalityishealthy，and
thefamilyadequatelyprovidedwiththemeansofliving。Itisa
verylowestimateofthecapacityofincrease，ifweonlyassume，
thatinagoodsanitaryconditionofthepeople，eachgeneration
maybedoublethenumberofthegenerationwhichprecededit。
Twentyorthirtyyearsago，thesepropositionsmightstill
haverequiredconsiderableenforcementandillustration;butthe
evidenceofthemissoampleandincontestable，thattheyhave
madetheirwayagainstallkindsofopposition，andmaynowbe
regardedasaxiomatic:thoughtheextremereluctancefeltto
admittingthem，everynowandthengivesbirthtosomeephemeral
theory，speedilyforgotten，ofadifferentlawofincreasein
differentcircumstances，throughaprovidentialadaptationofthe
fecundityofthehumanspeciestotheexigenciesofsociety。（2*）
Theobstacletoajustunderstandingofthesubjectdoesnot
arisefromthesetheories，butfromtooconfusedanotionofthe
causeswhich，atmosttimesandplaces，keeptheactualincrease
ofmankindsofarbehindthecapacity。
3。Thosecauses，nevertheless，areinnowaymysterious。What
preventsthepopulationofharesandrabbitsfromoverstocking
theearth？Notwantoffecundity，butcausesverydifferent:many
enemies，andinsufficientsubsistence;notenoughtoeat，and
liabilitytobeeaten。Inthehumanrace，whichisnotgenerally
subjecttothelatterinconvenience，theequivalentsforitare
waranddisease。Ifthemultiplicationofmankindproceededonly，
likethatoftheotheranimals，fromablindinstinct，itwould
belimitedinthesamemannerwiththeirs;thebirthswouldbeas
numerousasthephysicalconstitutionofthespeciesadmittedof，
andthepopulationwouldbekeptdownbydeaths。（3*）Butthe
conductofhumancreaturesismoreorlessinfluencedby
foresightofconsequences，andbyimpulsessuperiortomere
animalinstincts:andtheydonot，therefore，propagatelike
swine，butarecapable，thoughinveryunequaldegrees，ofbeing
withheldbyprudence，orbythesocialaffections，fromgiving
existencetobeingsbornonlytomiseryandprematuredeath。In
proportionasmankindriseabovetheconditionofthebeasts，
populationisrestrainedbythefearofwantratherthanbywant
itself。Evenwherethereisnoquestionofstarvation，manyare
similarlyacteduponbytheapprehensionoflosingwhathavecome
toberegardedasthedecenciesoftheirsituationinlife。
Hithertonoothermotivesthanthesetwohavebeenfoundstrong
enough，inthegeneralityofmankind，tocounteractthetendency
toincrease。Ithasbeenthepracticeofagreatmajorityofthe
middleandthepoorerclasses，wheneverfreefromexternal
control，tomarryasearly，andinmostcountriestohaveasmany
children，withmaintainingthemselvesintheconditionofwere
bornto，orwereaccustomedtoconsiderastheirs。Amongthe
middleclasses，inmanyindividualinstances，thereisan
additionalrestraintexercisedfromthedesireofdoingmorethan
maintainingtheircircumstances——ofimprovingthem;butsucha
desireisrarelyfound，orrarelyhasthateffect，inthe
labouringclasses。Iftheycanbringupafamilyastheywere
themselvesbroughtup，eventheprudentamongthemareusually
satisfied。Toooftentheydonotthinkevenofthat，butrelyon
fortune，orontheresourcestobefoundinlegalorvoluntary
charity。
Inaverybackwardstateofsociety，likethatofEuropein
theMiddleAges，andmanypartsofAsiaatpresent，populationis
keptdownbyactualstarvation。Thestarvationdoesnottake
placeinordinaryyears，butinseasonsofscarcity，whichin
thosestatesofsocietyaremuchmorefrequentandmoreextreme
thanEuropeisnowaccustomedto。Intheseseasonsactualwant，
orthemaladiesconsequentonit，carryoffnumbersofthe
population，whichinasuccessionoffavourableyearsagain
expands，tobeagaincruellydecimated。Inamoreimprovedstate，
few，evenamongthepoorestofthepeople，arelimitedtoactual
necessaries，andtoabaresufficiencyofthose:andtheincrease
iskeptwithinbounds，notbyexcessofdeaths，butbylimitation
ofbirths。Thelimitationisbroughtaboutinvariousways。In
somecountries，itistheresultofprudentorconscientious
self—restraint。Thereisaconditiontowhichthelabouring
peoplearehabituated;theyperceivethatbyhavingtoonumerous
families，theymustsinkbelowthatcondition，orfailto
transmitittotheirchildren;andthistheydonotchooseto
submitto。Thecountriesinwhich，sofarasisknown，agreat
degreeofvoluntaryprudencehasbeenlongestpractisedonthis
subject，areNorwayandpartsofSwitzerland。Concerningboth，
therehappenstobeunusuallyauthenticinformation;manyfacts
werecarefullybroughttogetherbyMr。Malthus，andmuch
additionalevidencehasbeenobtainedsincehistime。Inboth
thesecountriestheincreaseofpopulationisveryslow;andwhat
checksitisnotmultitudeofdeaths，butfewnessofbirths。Both
thebirthsandthedeathsareremarkablyfewinproportiontothe
population;theaveragedurationoflifeisthelongestin
Europe;thepopulationcontainsfewerchildren，andagreater
proportionalnumberofpersonsinthevigouroflife，thanis
knowntobethecaseinanyotherpartoftheworld。Thepaucity
ofbirthstendsdirectlytoprolonglife，bykeepingthepeople
incomfortablecircumstances;andthesameprudenceisdoubtless
exercisedinavoidingcausesofdisease，asinkeepingclearof
theprincipalcauseofpoverty。Itisworthyofremarkthatthe
twocountiesthushonourablydistinguished，arecountriesof
smalllandedproprietors。
Thereareothercasesinwhichtheprudenceandforethought，
whichperhapsmightnotbeexercisedbythepeoplethemselves，
areexercisedbythestatefortheirbenefit;marriagenotbeing
permitteduntilthecontractingpartiescanshowthattheyhave
theprospectofacomfortablesupport。Undertheselaws，ofwhich
Ishallspeakmorefullyhereafter，theconditionofthepeople
isreportedtobegood，andtheillegitimatebirthsnotso
numerousasmightbeexpected。Thereareplaces，again，inwhich
therestrainingcauseseemstobenotsomuchindividual
prudence，assomegeneralandperhapsevenaccidentalhabitof
thecountry。IntheruraldistrictsofEngland，duringthelast
century，thegrowthofpopulationwasveryeffectuallyrepressed
bythedifficultyofobtainingacottagetolivein。Itwasthe
customforunmarriedlabourerstolodgeandboardwiththeir
employers;itwasthecustomformarriedlabourerstohavea
cottage:andtheruleoftheEnglishpoorlawsbywhichaparish
waschargedwiththesupportofitsunemployedpoor，rendered
landownersaversetopromotemarriage。Abouttheendofthe
century，thegreatdemandformeninwarandmanufactures，made
itbethoughtapatrioticthingtoencouragepopulation:and
aboutthesametimethegrowinginclinationoffarmerstolive
likerichpeople，favouredasitwasbyalongperiodofhigh
prices，madethemdesirousofkeepinginferiorsatagreater
distance，and，pecuniarymotivesarisingfromabusesofthepoor
lawsbeingsuperadded，theygraduallydrovetheirlabourersinto
cottages，whichthelandlordsnownolongerrefusedpermissionto
build。Insomecountriesanoldstandingcustomthatagirl
shouldnotmarryuntilshehadspunandwovenforherselfan
ampletrousseau（destinedforthesupplyofherwholesubsequent
life，）issaidtohaveactedasasubstantialcheckto
population。InEngland，atpresent，theinfluenceofprudencein
keepingdownmultiplicationisseenbythediminishednumberof
marriagesinthemanufacturingdistrictsinyearswhentradeis
bad。
Butwhateverbethecausesbywhichpopulationisanywhere
limitedtoacomparativelyslowrateofincrease，anacceleration
oftherateveryspeedilyfollowsanydiminutionofthemotives
torestraint。Itisbutrarelythatimprovementsinthecondition
ofthelabouringclassesdoanythingmorethangiveatemporary
margin，speedyfilledupbyanincreaseoftheirnumbers。Theuse
theycommonlychoosetomakeofanyadvantageouschangeintheir
circumstances，istotakeitoutintheformwhich，byaugmenting
thepopulation，deprivesthesucceedinggenerationofthe
benefit。Unless，eitherbytheirgeneralimprovementin
intellectualandmoralculture，oratleastbyraisingtheir
habitualstandardofcomfortableliving，theycanbetaughtto
makeabetteruseoffavourablecircumstances，nothingpermanent
canbedoneforthem;themostpromisingschemesendonlyin
havingamorenumerous，butnotahappierpeople。Bytheir
habitualstandard，Imeanthat（whenanysuchthereis）downto
whichtheywillmultiply，butnotlower。Everyadvancetheymake
ineducation，civilization，andsocialimprovement，tendsto
raisethisstandard;andthereisnodoubtthatitisgradually，
thoughslowly，risinginthemoreadvancedcountriesofWestern
Europe。SubsistenceandemploymentinEnglandhavenever
increasedmorerapidlythaninthelastfortyyears，butevery
censussince1821showedasmallerproportionalincreaseof
populationthanthatoftheperiodpreceding;andtheproduceof
Frenchagricultureandindustryisincreasinginaprogressive
ratio，whilethepopulationexhibitsineveryquinquennial
census，asmallerproportionofbirthstothepopulation。
Thesubject，however，ofpopulation，initsconnexionwith
theconditionofthelabouringclasses，willbeconsideredin
anotherplace;inthepresentwehavetodowithitsolelyasone
oftheelementsofProduction;andinthatcharacterwecouldnot
dispensewithpointingouttheunlimitedextentofitsnatural
powersofincrease，andthecausesowingtowhichsosmalla
portionofthatunlimitedpowerisforthemostpartactually
exercised。Afterthisbriefindication，weshallproceedtothe
otherelements。
NOTES:
1。Thishasbeendisputed;butthehighestestimateIhaveseen
ofthetermwhichpopulationrequiresfordoublingitselfinthe
UnitedStates，independentlyofimmigrantsandoftheirprogeny
——thatofMr。Carey——doesnotexceedthirtyyears。
2。Oneofthesetheories，thatofMr。Doubleday，maybethought
torequireapassingnotice，becauseithasoflateobtainedsome
followers，andbecauseitderivesasemblanceofsupportfromthe
generalanalogiesoforganiclife。thistheorymaintainsthatthe
fecundityofthehumananimal，andofallotherlivingbeings，is
ininverseproportiontothequantityofnutriment;thatan
underfedpopulationsmultipliesrapidly，butthatallclassesin
comfortablecircumstancesare，byaphysiologicallaw，so
unprolific，asseldomtokeepuptheirnumberswithoutbeing
recruitedfromapoorerclass。Thereisnodoubtthatapositive
excessofnutriment，inanimalsaswellasinfruittrees，is
unfavourabletoreproduction;anditisquitepossible，thoughby
nomeansproved，thatthephysiologicalconditionsoffecundity
mayexistinthegreatestdegreewhenthesupplyoffoodis
somewhatstinted。Butanyonewhomightbeinclinedtodrawfrom
this，evenifadmitted，conclusionsatvariancewiththe
principlesofMrMalthus，needsonlybeinvitedtolookthrougha
volumeofthePeerage，andobservetheenormousfamilies，almost
universalinthatclass;orcalltomindthelargefamiliesof
theEnglishclergy，andgenerallyofthemiddleclassesof
England。
Itis，besides，wellremarkedbyMrCarey，that，tobe
consistentwithMrDoubleday’stheory，theincreaseofthe
populationoftheUnitedStates，apartfromimmigrants，oughtto
beoneoftheslowestonrecord。
MrCareyhasatheoryofhisown，alsogroundedona
physiologicaltruth，thatthetotalsumofnutrimentreceivedby
anorganizedbodydirectsitselfinlargestproportiontothe
partsofthesystemwhicharemostused;fromwhichhe
anticipatesadiminutioninthefecundityofhumanbeings，not
throughmoreabundantfeeding，butthroughthegreateruseof
theirbrainsincidienttoanadvancedcivilization。Thereis
considerableplausibilityinthisspeculation，andexperiencemay
hereafterconfirmit。Butthechangeinthehumanconstitution
whichitsupposes，ifeverrealized，willconducetotheexpected
effectratherbyrenderingphysicalself—restrainteasier，than
bydispensingwithitsnecessity;sincethemostrapidknowrate
ofmultiplicatonisquitecompatiblewithaverysparing
employmentofthemultiplyingpower。
3。MrCareyexpatiatesontheabsurdityofsupposingthatmatter
tendstoassumethehighestformoforganization，thehuman，ata
morerapidratethanitassumesthelowerforms，whichcompose
humanfood;thathumanbeingsmultiplyfasterthanturnipsand
cabbages。Butthelimittotheincreaseofmankind，accordingto
thedoctrineofMrMalthus，doesnotdependeonthepowerof
increaseofturnipsandcabbages，butonthelimitedquantityof
thelandonwhichtheycanbegrown。Solongasthequantityof
landispracticallyunlimited，whichitisintheUnitedStates，
andfood，consequently，canbeincreasedatthehighestrate
whichisnaturaltoit，mankindalsomay，withoutaugmented
difficultyinobtainingsubsistence，increaseattheirhighest
rate。WhenMrCareycanshow，notthatturnipsandcabbages，but
thatthesoilitself，orthenutritiveelementscontaininginit，
tendnaturallytomultiply，andthattooatarateexceedingthe
mostrapidpossibleincreaseofmankind，hewillhavesaid
somethingtothepurpose。Tillthen，thispartatleastofhis
argumentmaybeconsideredasnon—existent。
ThePrinciplesofPoliticalEconomy
byJohnStuartMill
Book1，Chapter11
OftheLawoftheIncreaseofCapital
1。Therequisitesofproductionbeinglabour，capital，and
land，ithasbeenseenfromtheprecedingchapterthatthe
impedimentstotheincreaseofproductiondonotarisefromthe
firstoftheseelements。Onthesideoflabourthereisno
obstacletoanincreaseofproduction，indefiniteinextentand
ofunslackeningrapidity。Populationhasthepowerofincreasing
inanuniformandrapidgeometricalratio。Iftheonlyessential
conditionofproductionwerelabour，theproducemight，and
naturallywould，increaseinthesameratio;andtherewouldbe
nolimit，untilthenumbersofmankindwerebroughttoastand
fromactualwantofspace。
Butproductionhasotherrequisites，andofthese，theone
whichweshallnextconsiderisCapital。Therecannotbemore
peopleinanycountry，orintheworld，thancanbesupported
fromtheproduceofpastlabouruntilthatofpresentlabour
comesin。Therewillbenogreaternumberofproductivelabourers
inanycountry，orintheworld，thancanbesupportedfromthat
portionoftheproduceofpastlabour，whichissparedfromthe
enjoymentsofitspossessorforpurposesofreproduction，andis
termedCapital。Wehavenext，therefore，toinquireintothe
conditionsoftheincreaseofcapital:thecausesbywhichthe
rapidityofitsincreaseisdetermined，andthenecessary
limitationsofthatincrease。
Sinceallcapitalistheproductofsaving，thatis，of
abstinencefrompresentconsumptionforthesakeofafuture
good，theincreaseofcapitalmustdependupontwothings——the
amountofthefundfromwhichsavingcanbemade，andthe
strengthofthedispositionswhichprompttoit。
Thefundfromwhichsavingcanbemade，isthesurplusofthe
produceoflabour，aftersupplyingthenecessariesoflifetoall
concernedintheproduction:（includingthoseemployeein
replacingthematerials，andkeepingthefixedcapitalin
repair。）Morethanthissurpluscannotbesavedunderany
circumstances。Asmuchasthis，thoughitneverissaved，always
mightbe。Thissurplusisthefundfromwhichtheenjoyments，as
distinguishedfromthenecessaries，oftheproducersare
provided;itisthefundfromwhichallaresubsisted，whoare
notthemselvesengagedinproduction;andfromwhichall
additionsaremadetocapital。Itistherealnetproduceofthe
country。Thephrase，netproduce，isoftentakeninamore
limitedsense，todenoteonlytheprofitsofthecapitalistand
therentofthelandlord，undertheideathatnothingcanbe
includedinthenetproduceofcapital，butwhatisreturnedto
theownerofthecapitalafterreplacinghisexpenses。Butthis
istoonarrowanacceptationoftheterm。Thecapitalofthe
employerformstherevenueofthelabourers，andifthisexceeds
thenecessariesoflife，itgivesthemasurpluswhichtheymay
eitherexpendinenjoyments，orsave。Foreverypurposeforwhich
therecanbeoccasiontospeakofthenetproduceofindustry，
thissurplusoughttobeincludedinit。Whenthisisincluded，
andnototherwise，thenetproduceofthecountryisthemeasure
ofitseffectivepower;ofwhatitcanspareforanypurposesof
publicutility，orprivateindulgence;theportionofitsproduce
ofwhichitcandisposeatpleasure;whichcanbedrawnuponto
attainanyends，orgratifyanywishes，eitherofthegovernment
orofindividuals;whichitcaneitherspendforits
satisfaction，orsaveforfutureadvantage。
Theamountofthisfund，thisnetproduce，thisexcessof
productionabovethephysicalnecessariesoftheproducers，is
oneoftheelementsthatdeterminetheamountofsaving。The
greatertheproduceoflabouraftersupportingthelabourers，the
morethereiswhichcanbesaved。Thesamethingalsopartly
contributestodeterminehowmuchwillbesaved。Apartofthe
motivetosavingconsistsintheprospectofderivinganincome
fromsavings;inthefactthatcapital，employedinproduction，
iscapableofnotonlyreproducingitselfbutyieldingan
increase。Thegreatertheprofitthatcanbemadefromcapital，
thestrongeristhetoitsaccumulation。Thatindeedwhichforms
theinducementtosave，isnotthewholeofthefundwhich
suppliesthemeansofsaving，notthewholenetproduceofthe
land，capital，andlabourofthecountry，butonlyapartofit，
thepartwhichformstheremunerationofthecapitalist，andis
calledprofitofstock。Itwillhoweverbereadilyenough
understood，evenpreviouslytotheexplanationswhichwillbe
givenhereafter，thatwhenthegeneralproductivenessoflabour
andcapitalisgreat，thereturnstothecapitalistarelikelyto
belarge，andthatsomeproportion，thoughnotanuniformone，
willcommonlyobtainbetweenthetwo。
2。Butthedispositiontosavedoesnotwhollydependonthe
externalinducementtoit;ontheamountofprofittobemade
fromsavings。Withthesamepecuniaryinducement，theinclination
isverydifferent，indifferentpersons，andindifferent
communities。Theeffectivedesireofaccumulationisofunequal
strength，notonlyaccordingtothe。varietiesofindividual
character，buttothegeneralstateofsocietyandcivilization。
Likeallothermoralattributes，itisoneinwhichthehuman
raceexhibitsgreatdifferences，conformablytothediversityof
itscircumstancesandthestageofitsprogress。
Ontopicswhichiftheyweretobefullyinvestigatedwould
exceedtheboundsthatcanbeallottedtotheminthistreatise，
itissatisfactorytobeabletorefertootherworksinwhich
thenecessarydevelopmentshavebeenpresentedmoreatlength。On
thesubjectofPopulationthisvaluableservicehasbeenrendered
bythecelebratedEssayofMr。Malthus;andonthepointwhich
nowoccupiesusIcanreferwithequalconfidencetoanother，
thoughalessknownwork，"NewPrinciplesofPoliticalEconomy，"
byDr。Rae。（1*）Innootherbookknowntomeissomuchlight
thrown，bothfromprincipleandhistory，onthecauseswhich
determinetheaccumulationofcapital。
Allaccumulationinvolvesthesacrificeofapresent，forthe
sakeofafuturegood。Buttheexpediencyofsuchasacrifice
variesverymuchindifferentstatesofcircumstances;andthe
willingnesstomakeit，variesstillmore。
Inweighingthefutureagainstthepresent，theuncertainty
ofallthingsfutureisaleadingelement;andthatuncertainty
isofverydifferentdegrees。"Allcircumstances"therefore，
"increasingtheprobabilityoftheprovisionwemakeforfuturity
beingenjoyedbyourselvesorothers，tend"justlyandreasonably
"togivestrengthtotheeffectivedesireofaccumulation。Thusa
healthyclimateoroccupation，byincreasingtheprobabilityof
life，hasatendencytoaddtothisdesire。Whenengagedinsafe
occupations，andlivinginhealthycountries，menaremuchmore
apttobefrugal，thaninunhealthyorhazardousoccupations，and
inclimatespernicioustohumanlife。Sailorsandsoldiersare
prodigals。IntheWestIndies，NewOrleans，theEastIndies，the
expenditureoftheinhabitantsisprofuse。Thesamepeople，
comingtoresideinthehealthypartsofEurope，andnotgetting
intothevortexofextravagantfashion，liveeconomically。War
andpestilencehavealwayswasteandluxuryamongtheotherevils
thatfollowintheirtrain。Forsimilarreasons，whatevergives
securitytotheaffairsofthecommunityisfavourabletothe
strengthofthisprinciple。Inthisrespectthegeneral
prevalenceoflawandorder，andtheprospectofthecontinuance
ofpeaceandtranquillity，haveconsiderableinfluence。"*The
moreperfectthesecurity，thegreaterwillbetheeffective
strengthofthedesireofaccumulation。Wherepropertyisless
safe，orthevicissitudesruinoustofortunesaremorefrequent
andsevere，fewerpersonswillsaveatall，andofthosewhodo，
manywillrequiretheinducementofahigherrateofprofiton
capital，tomakethempreferadoubtfulfuturetothetemptation
ofpresentenjoyment。
Theseareconsiderationswhichaffecttheexpediency，inthe
eyeofreason，ofconsultingfutureinterestsattheexpenseof
present。Buttheinclinationtomakethesacrificedoesnot
solelydependuponitsexpediency。Thedispositiontosaveis
oftenfarshortofwhatreasonwoulddictate:andatothertimes
isliabletobeinexcessofit。
Deficientstrengthofthedesireofaccumulationmayarise
fromimprovidence，orfromwantofinterestinother。
Improvidencemaybeconnectedwithintellectualaswellasmoral
causes。individualsandcommunitiesofaverylowstateof
intelligencearealwaysimprovident。Acertainmeasureof
intellectualdevelopmentseemsnecessarytoenableabsentthings，
andespeciallythingsfuture，toactwithanyforceonthe
imaginationandwill。Theeffectofwantofinterestinothersin
diminishingaccumulationwillbeadmitted，ifweconsideredhow
muchsavingatpresenttakesplace，whichhasforitsobjectthe
interestofothersratherthanofourselves;theeducationof
children，theiradvancementinlife，thefutureinterestsof
otherpersonalconnexions，thepowerofpromoting，bythe
bestowalofmoneyortime，objectsofpublicorprivate
usefulness。Ifmankindweregenerallyinthestateofmindto
whichsomeapproachwasseeninthedecliningperiodoftheRoman
Empire——caringnothingfortheirheirs，aswellasnothingfor
friends，thepublic，oranyobjectwhichsurvivedthem——they
wouldseldomdenythemselvesanyindulgenceforthesakeof
saving，beyondwhatwasnecessaryfortheirownfutureyears;
whichtheywouldplaceinlifeannuities，orinsomeotherform
whichwouldmakeitsexistenceandtheirlivesterminate
together。
3。Fromthesevariouscauses，intellectualandmoral，there
is，indifferentportionsofthehumanrace，agreaterdiversity
thanisusuallyadvertedto，inthestrengthoftheeffective
desireofaccumulation。Abackwardstateofgeneralcivilization
isoftenmoretheeffectofdeficiencyinthisparticular，than
inmanyotherswhichattractmoreattention。Inthe
circumstances，forexample，ofahuntingtribe，"manmaybesaid
tobenecessarilyimprovident，andregardlessoffuturity，
because，inthisstate，thefuturepresentsnothingwhichcanbe
withcertaintyeitherforeseenorgoverned……Besidesawant
ofthemotivesexcitingtoprovidefortheneedsoffuturity
throughmeansoftheabilitiesofthepresent，thereisawantof
thehabitsofperceptionandaction，leadingtoaconstant
connexioninthemindofthosedistantpoints，andoftheseries
ofeventsservingtounitethem。Even，therefore，ifmotivesbe
awakenedcapableofproducingtheexertionnecessarytoeffect
thisconnexion，thereremainsthetaskoftrainingthemindto
thinkandactsoastoestablishit。"
Forinstance:"UponthebanksoftheSt。Lawrencethereare
severallittleIndianvillages。Theyaresurrounded，ingeneral，
byagooddealofland，fromwhichthewoodseemstohavebeen
longextirpated，andhave，besides，attachedtothem，extensive
tractsofforest。Theclearedlandisrarely，Imayalmostsay
never，cultivated，norareanyinroadsmadeintheforestfor
suchapurpose。Thesoilis，nevertheless，fertile，andwereit
not，manureliesinheapsbytheirhouses。Wereeveryfamilyto
inclosehalfanacreofground，tillit，andplantitinpotatoes
andmaize，itwouldyieldasufficiencytosupportthemonehalf
theyear。Theysuffer，too，everynowandthen，extremewant，
insomuchthat，joinedtooccasionalintemperance，itisrapidly
reducingtheirnumbers。This，tous，sostrangeapathyproceeds
not，inanygreatdegree，fromrepugnancetolabour;onthe
contrary，theyapplyverydiligentlytoitwhenitsrewardis
immediate。Thus，besidestheirpeculiaroccupationsofhunting
andfishing，inwhichtheyareeverreadytoengage，theyare
muchemployedinthenavigationoftheSt。Lawrence，andmaybe
seenlabouringattheoar，orsettingwiththepole，inthelarge
boatsusedforthepurpose，andalwaysfurnishthegreaterpart
oftheadditionalhandsnecessarytoconductraftsthroughsome
oftherapids。Noristheobstacleaversiontoagricultural
labour。Thisisnodoubtaprejudiceoftheirs;butmere
prejudicesalwaysyield，principlesofactioncannotbecreated。
Whenthereturnsfromagriculturallabourarespeedyandgreat，
theyarealsoagriculturists。Thus，someofthelittleislandson
LakeSt。Francis，neartheIndianvillageofSt。Regis，are
favourabletothegrowthofmaize，aplantyieldingareturnofa
hundredfold，andforming，evenwhenhalfripe，apleasantand
substantialrepast。Patchesofthebestlandontheseislandsare
thereforeeveryyearcultivatedbythemforthispurpose。As
theirsituationrenderstheminaccessibletocattle，nofenceis
required;werethisadditionaloutlaynecessary，Isuspectthey
wouldbeneglected，likethecommonsadjoiningtheirvillage。
Thesehadapparently，atonetime，beenundercrop。Thecattleof
theneighbouringsettlerswouldnow，however，destroyanycrop
notsecurelyfenced，andthisadditionalnecessaryoutlay
consequentlybarstheirculture。Itremovesthemtoanorderof
instrumentsofslowerreturnthanthatwhichcorrespondstothe
strengthoftheeffectivedesireofaccumulationinthislittle
society。
"Itisheredeservingofnotice，thatwhatinstrumentsof
thiskindtheydoform，arecompletelyformed。Thesmallspotsof
corntheycultivatearethoroughlyweededandhoed。Alittle
neglectinthispartwouldindeedreducethecropverymuch;of
thisexperiencehasmadethemperfectlyaware，andtheyact
accordingly。Itisevidentlynotthenecessarylabourthatisthe
obstacletomoreextendedculture，butthedistantreturnfrom
thatlabour。Iamassured，indeed，thatamongsomeofthemore
remotetribes，thelabourthusexpendedmuchexceedsthatgiven
bythewhites。Thesameportionsofgroundbeingcroppedwithout
remission，andmanurenotbeingused，theywouldscarcelyyield
anyreturn，werenotthesoilmostcarefullybrokenand
pulverized，bothwiththehoeandthehand。Insuchasituationa
whitemanwouldclearafreshpieceofground。Itwouldperhaps
scarcerepayhislabourthefirstyear，andhewouldhavetolook
forhisrewardinsucceedingyears。OntheIndian，succeeding
yearsaretoodistanttomakesufficientimpression;though，to
obtainwhatlabourmaybringaboutinthecourseofafewmonths，
hetoilsevenmoreassiduouslythanthewhiteman。"*
Thisviewofthingsisconfirmedbytheexperienceofthe
Jesuits，intheirinterestingeffortstocivilizetheIndiansof
Paraguay。Theygainedtheconfidenceofthesesavagesinamost
extraordinarydegree。Theyacquiredinfluenceoverthem
sufficienttomakethemchangetheirwholemanneroflife。They
obtainedtheirabsolutesubmissionandobedience。They
establishedpeace。Theytaughtthemalltheoperationsof
Europeanagriculture，andmanyofthemoredifficultarts。There
wereeverywheretobeseen，accordingtoCharlevoix，"workshops
ofgilders，painters，sculptors，goldsmiths，watchmakers，
carpenters，joiners，dyers，"*&c。Theseoccupationswerenot
practisedforthepersonalgainoftheartificers:theproduce
wasattheabsolutedisposalofthemissionaries，whoruledthe
peoplebyavoluntarydespotism。Theobstaclesarisingfrom
aversiontolabourwerethereforeverycompletelyovercome。The
realdifficultywastheimprovidenceofthepeople;their
inabilitytothinkforthefuture:andthenecessityaccordingly
ofthemostunremittingandminutesuperintendenceonthepartof
theirinstructors。"Thusatfirst，ifthesegaveuptothemthe
careoftheoxenwithwhichtheyploughed，theirindolent
thoughtlessnesswouldprobablyleavethemateveningstillyoked
totheimplement。Worsethanthis，instancesoccurredwherethey
cutthemupforsupper，thinking，whenreprehended，thatthey
sufficientlyexcusedthemselvesbysayingtheywerehungry……
Thesefathers，saysUlloa，havetovisitthehouses，toexamine
whatisreallywanted:forwithoutthiscare，theIndianswould
neverlookafteranything。Theymustbepresent，too，when
animalsareslaughtered，notonlythatthemeatmaybeequally
divided，butthatnothingmaybelost。""Butnotwithstandingall
thiscareandsuperintendence，"saysCharlevoix，"andallthe
precautionswhicharetakentopreventanywantofthe
necessariesoflife，themissionariesaresometimesmuch
embarrassed。Itoftenhappensthatthey"（theIndians，）"donot
reservetothemselvesasufficiencyofgrain，evenforseed。As
fortheirotherprovisions，weretheynotwelllookedafter，they
wouldsoonbewithoutwherewithaltosupportlife。"*
Asanexampleintermediate，inthestrengthoftheeffective
desireofaccumulation，betweenthestateofthingsthusdepicted
andthatofmodernEurope，thecaseoftheChinesedeserves
attention。Fromvariouscircumstancesintheirpersonalhabits
andsocialcondition，itmightbeanticipatedthattheywould
possessadegreeofprudenceandself—controlgreaterthanother
Asiatics，butinferiortomostEuropeannations。andthe
followingevidenceisadducedofthefact。
"Durabilityisoneofthechiefqualities，markingahigh
degreeoftheeffectivedesireofaccumulation。Thetestimonyof
travellersascribestotheinstrumentsformedbytheChinese，a
veryinferiordurabilitytosimilarinstrumentsconstructedby
Europeans。Thehouses，wearetold，unlessofthehigherranks，
areingeneralofunburntbricks，ofclay，orofhurdles
plasteredwithearth;theroofs，ofreedsfastenedtolaths。We
canscarcelyconceivemoreunsubstantialortemporaryfabrics。
Theirpartitionsareofpaper，requiringtoberenewedevery
year。Asimilarobservationmaybemadeconcerningtheir
implementsofhusbandry，andotherutensils。Theyarealmost
entirelyofwood，themetalsenteringbutverysparinglyinto
theirconstruction;consequentlytheysoonwearout，andrequire
frequentrenewals。Agreaterdegreeofstrengthintheeffective
desireofaccumulation，wouldcausethemtobeconstructedof
materialsrequiringagreaterpresentexpenditurebutbeingfar
moredurable。Fromthesamecause，muchland，thatinother
countrieswouldbecultivated，lieswaste。Alltravellerstake
noticeoflargetractsoflands，chieflyswamps，whichcontinue
inastateofnature。Tobringaswampintotillageisgenerally
aprocess，tocompletewhich，requiresseveralyears。Itmustbe
previouslydrained，thesurfacelongexposedtothesun，andmany
operationsperformed，beforeitcanbemadecapableofbearinga
crop。Thoughyielding，probably，averyconsiderablereturnfor
thelabourbestowedonit，thatreturnisnotmadeuntilalong
timehaselapsed。Thecultivationofsuchlandimpliesagreater
strengthoftheeffectivedesireofaccumulationthanexistsin
theempire。
"Theproduceoftheharvestis，aswehaveremarked，always
aninstrumentofsomeorderoranother;itisaprovisionfor
futurewant，andregulatedbythesamelawsasthosetowhich
othermeansofattainingasimilarendconform。Itisthere
chieflyrice，ofwhichtherearetwoharvests，theoneinJune，
theotherinOctober。Theperiodthenofeightmonthsbetween
OctoberandJune，isthatforwhichprovisionismadeeachyear，
andthedifferentestimatetheymakeofto—dayandthisdayeight
monthswillappearintheself—denialtheypractisenow，inorder
toguardagainstwantthen。Theamountofthisself—denialwould
seemtobesmall。ThefatherParennin，indeed，（whoseemstohave
beenoneofthemostintelligentoftheJesuits，andspentalong
lifeamongtheChineseofallclasses，）asserts，thatitistheir
greatdeficiencyinforethoughtandfrugalityinthisrespect，
whichisthecauseofthescarcitiesandfaminesthatfrequently
occur。"
Thatitisdefectofprovidence，notdefectofindustry，that
limitsproductionamongtheChinese，isstillmoreobviousthan
inthecaseofthesemi—agriculturizedIndians。"Wherethe
returnsarequick，wheretheinstrumentsformedrequirebut
littletimetobringtheeventsforwhichtheywereformedtoan
issue，"itiswellknownthat"thegreatprogresswhichhasbeen
madeintheknowledgeoftheartssuitedtothenatureofthe
countryandthewantsofitsinhabitants"makesindustry
energeticandeffective。"Thewarmthoftheclimate，thenatural
fertilityofthecountry，theknowledgewhichtheinhabitants
haveacquiredoftheartsofagriculture，andthediscoveryand
gradualadaptationtoeverysoilofthemostusefulvegetable
productions，enablethemveryspeedilytodrawfromalmostany
partofthesurface，whatisthereesteemedanequivalenttomuch
morethanthelabourbestowedintillingandcroppingit。They
havecommonlydouble，sometimestrebleharvests。These，whenthey
consistofaCainsoproductiveasrice，theusualcrop，can
scarcefailtoyieldtotheirskill，fromalmostanyportionof
soilthatcanbeatoncebroughtintoculture，veryample
returns。Accordinglythereisnospotthatlabourcanimmediately
bringundercultivationthatisnotmadetoyieldtoit。Hills，
evenmountains，areascendedandformedintoterraces;andwater，
inthatcountrythegreatproductiveagent，isledtoeverypart
bydrains，orcarrieduptoitbytheingeniousandsimple
hydraulicmachineswhichhavebeeninusefromtimeimmemorial
amongthissingularpeople。Theyeffectthisthemoreeasily，
fromthesoil，eveninthesesituations，beingverydeepand
coveredwithmuchvegetablemould。Butwhatyetmorethismarks
thereadinesswithwhichlabourisforcedtoformthemost
difficultmaterialsintoinstruments，wheretheseinstruments
soonbringtoanissuetheeventsforwhichtheyareformed，is
thefrequentoccurrenceonmanyoftheirlakesandrivers，of
structuresresemblingthefloatinggardensofthePeruvians，
raftscoveredwithvegetablesoilandcultivated。Labourinthis
waydrawsfromthematerialsonwhichitactsveryspeedy
returns。Nothingcanexceedtheluxurianceofvegetationwhenthe
quickeningpowersofagenialsunareministeredtobyarich
soilandabundantmoisture。Itisotherwise，aswehaveseen，in
caseswherethereturn，thoughcopious，isdistant。European
travellersaresurprisedatmeetingtheselittlefloatingfarms
bythesideofswampswhichonlyrequiredrainingtorenderthem
tillable。Itseemstothemstrangethatlabourshouldnotrather
bebestowedonthesolidearth，whereitsfruitsmightendure，
thanonstructuresthatmustdecayandperishinafewyears。The
peopletheyareamongthinknotsomuchoffutureyearsasofthe
presenttime。Theeffectivedesireofaccumulationisofvery
differentstrengthintheone，fromwhatitisintheother。The
viewsoftheEuropeanextendtoadistantfuturity，andheis
surprisedattheChinese，condemnedthroughimprovidence，and
wantofsufficientprospectivecare，toincessanttoil，andashe
thinks，insufferablewretchedness。TheviewsoftheChineseare
confinedtonarrowerbounds;heiscontenttolivefromdayto
day，andhaslearnttoconceiveevenalifeoftoilablessing。"*
Whenacountryhascarriedproductionasfarasinthe
existingstateofknowledgeitcanbecarriedwithanamountof
returncorrespondingtotheaveragestrengthoftheeffective
desireofaccumulationinthatcountry，ithasreachedwhatis
calledthestationarystate;thestateinwhichnofurther
additionwillbemadetocapital，unlesstheretakesplaceeither
someimprovementintheartsofproduction，oranincreaseinthe
strengthofthedesiretoaccumulate。Inthestationarystate，
thoughcapitaldoesnotonthewholeincrease，somepersonsgrow
richerandotherspoorer。Thosewhosedegreeofprovidenceis
belowtheusualstandard，becomeimpoverished，theircapital
perishes，andmakesroomforthesavingsofthosewhoseeffective
desireofaccumulationexceedstheaverage。Thesebecometheof
thelands，manufactories，andotherinstrumentsofproduction
ownedbytheirlessprovidentcountrymen。
Whatthecausesarewhichmakethereturntocapitalgreater
inonecountrythaninanother，andwhich，incertain
circumstances，makeitimpossibleforanyadditionalcapitalto
findinvestmentunlessatdiminishedreturns，willappearclearly
hereafter。InChina，ifthatcounthasreallyattained，asitis
supposedtohavedone，thestationarystate，accumulationhas
stoppedwhenthereturnstocapitalarestillashighasis
indicatedbyarateofinterestlegallytwelvepercent，and
practicallyvarying（itissaid）betweeneighteenandthirty—six。
Itistobepresumedthereforethatnogreateramountofcapital
thanthecountryalreadypossesses，canfindemploymentatthis
highrateofprofit，andthatanylowerratedoesnotholdoutto
aChinesesufficienttemptationtoinducehimtoabstainfrom
presentenjoyment。WhatacontrastwithHolland，where，during
themostflourishingperiodofitshistory，thegovernmentwas
ablehabituallytoborrowattwopercent，andprivate
individuals，ongoodsecurity，atthree。SinceChinaisnota
countrylikeBurmaorthenativestatesofIndia，wherean
enormousinterestisbutanindispensablecompensationforthe
riskincurredfromthebadfaithorpovertyofthestate，andof
almostallprivateborrowers;thefact，iffactitbe，thatthe
increaseofcapitalhascometoastandwhilethereturnstoit
arestillsolarge，denotesamuchlessdegreeoftheeffective
desireofaccumulation，inotherwordsamuchlowerestimateof
thefuturerelativelytothepresent，thanthatofmostEuropean
nations。
4。Wehavehithertospokenofcountriesinwhichtheaverage
strengthofthedesiretoaccumulateisshortofthatwhich，in
circumstancesofanytolerablesecurity，reasonandsober
calculationwouldapprove。Wehavenowtospeakofothersin
whichitdecidedlysurpassesthatstandard。Inthemore
prosperouscountriesofEurope，therearetobefoundabundance
ofprodigals;insomeofthem（andinnonemorethanEngland）the
ordinarydegreeofeconomyandprovidenceamongthosewholiveby
manuallabourcannotbeconsideredhigh:still，inavery
numerousportionofthecommunity，theprofessional，
manufacturing，andtradingclasses，beingthosewho，generally
speaking，unitemoreofthemeanswithmoreofthemotivesfor
savingthananyotherclass，thespiritofaccumulationisso
strong，thatthesignsofrapidlyincreasingwealthmeetevery
eye:andthegreatamountofcapitalseekinginvestmentexcites
astonishment，wheneverpeculiarcircumstancesturningmuchofit
intosomeonechannel，suchasrailwayconstructionorforeign
speculativeadventure，bringthelargenessofthetotalamount
intoevidence。