Thereis"animportantdistinctionbetweensimpleandcomplex
cooperation。Oftheformer，oneisalwaysconsciousatthetime
ofpractisingit:itisobvioustothemostignorantandvulgar
eye。Ofthelatter，butaveryfewofthevastnumberswho
practiseitareinanydegreeconscious。Thecauseofthis
distinctioniseasilyseen。Whenseveralmenareemployedin
liftingthesameweight，orpullingthesamerope，atthesame
time，andinthesameplace，therecanbenosortofdoubtthat
theyco—operatewitheachother;thefactisimpressedonthe
mindbythemeresenseofsight;butwhenseveralmen，orbodies
ofmen，areemployedatdifferenttimesandplaces，andin
differentpursuits，theirco—operationwitheachother，thoughit
maybequiteascertain，isnotsoreadilyperceivedasinthe
othercase:inordertoperceiveit，acomplexoperationofthe
mindisrequired。"（2*）
Inthepresentstateofsocietythebreedingandfeedingof
sheepistheoccupationofonesetofpeople，dressingthewool
toprepareitforthespinneristhatofanother，spinningit
intothreadofathird，weavingthethreadintobroadclothofa
fourth，dyeingtheclothofafifth，makingitintoacoatofa
sixth，withoutcountingthemultitudeofcarriers，merchants，
factors，andretailers，putinrequisitionatthesuccessive
stagesofthisprogress。Allthesepersons，withoutknowledgeof
oneanotherorpreviousunderstanding，co—operateinthe
productionoftheultimateresult，acoat。Butthesearefarfrom
beingallwhoco—operateinit;foreachofthesepersons
requiresfood，andmanyotherarticlesofconsumption，andunless
hecouldhavereliedthatotherpeoplewouldproducethesefor
him，hecouldnothavedevotedhiswholetimetoonestepinthe
successionofoperationswhichproducesonesinglecommodity，a
coat。Everypersonwhotookpartinproducingfoodorerecting
housesforthisseriesofproducers，has，howeverunconsciously
onhispart，combinedhislabourwiththeirs。Itisbyareal，
thoughunexpressed，concert，"thatthebodywhoraisemorefood
thantheywant，canexchangewiththebodywhoraisemoreclothes
thantheywant;andifthetwobodieswereseparated，eitherby
distanceordisinclination——unlessthetwobodiesshould
virtuallyformthemselvesintoone，forthecommonobjectof
raisingenoughfoodandclothesforthewhole——theycouldnot
divideintotwodistinctpartsthewholeoperationofproducinga
sufficientquantityoffoodandclothes。"（3*）
2。Theinfluenceexercisedonproductionbytheseparationof
employments，ismorefundamentalthan，fromthemodeinwhichthe
subjectisusuallytreated，areadermightbeinducedtosuppose。
Itisnotmerelythatwhentheproductionofdifferentthings
becomesthesoleorprincipaloccupationofdifferentpersons，a
muchgreaterquantityofeachkindofarticleisproduced。The
truthismuchbeyondthis。Withoutsomeseparationof
employments，veryfewthingswouldbeproducedatall。
Supposeasetofpersons，oranumberoffamilies，all
employedpreciselyinthesamemanner;eachfamilysettledona
pieceofitsownland，onwhichitgrowsbyitslabourthefood
requiredforitsownsustenance，andastherearenopersonsto
buyanysurplusproducewhereallareproducers，eachfamilyhas
toproducewithinitselfwhateverotherarticlesitconsumes。In
suchcircumstances，ifthesoilwastolerablyfertile，and
populationdidnottreadtoocloselyontheheelsofsubsistence，
therewouldbe，nodoubt，somekindofdomesticmanufactures;
clothingforthefamilymightperhapsbespunandwovenwithin
it，bythelabourprobablyofthewomen（afirststepinthe
separationofemployments）;andadwellingofsomesortwouldbe
erectedandkeptinrepairbytheirunitedlabour。Butbeyond
simplefood（precarious，too，fromthevariationsofthe
seasons），coarseclothing，andveryimperfectlodging，itwould
bescarcelypossiblethatthefamilyshouldproduceanything
more。Theywould，ingeneral，requiretheirutmostexertionsto
accomplishsomuch。Theirpowerevenofextractingfoodfromthe
soilwouldbekeptwithinnarrowlimitsbythequalityoftheir
tools，whichwouldnecessarilybeofthemostwretched
description。Todoalmostanythinginthewayofproducingfor
themselvesarticlesofconvenienceorluxury，wouldrequiretoo
muchtime，and，inmanycases，theirpresenceinadifferent
place。Veryfewkindsofindustry，therefore，wouldexist;and
thatwhichdidexist，namelytheproductionofnecessaries，would
beextremelyinefficient，notsolelyfromimperfectimplements，
butbecause，whenthegroundandthedomesticindustryfedbyit
hadbeenmadetosupplythenecessariesofasinglefamilyin
tolerableabundance，therewouldbelittlemotive，whilethe
numbersofthefamilyremainedthesame，tomakeeithertheland
orthelabourproducemore。
Butsupposeaneventtooccur，whichwouldamounttoa
revolutioninthecircumstancesofthislittlesettlement。
Supposethatacompanyofartificers，providedwithtools，and
withfoodsufficienttomaintainthemforayear，arriveinthe
countryandestablishthemselvesinthemidstofthepopulation。
Thesenewsettlersoccupythemselvesinproducingarticlesofuse
orornamentadaptedtothetasteofasimplepeople;andbefore
theirfoodisexhaustedtheyhaveproducedtheseinconsiderable
quantity，andarereadytoexchangethemformorefood。The
economicalpositionofthelandedpopulationisnowmost
materiallyaltered。Theyhaveanopportunitygiventhemof
acquiringcomfortsandluxuries。Thingswhich，whilethey
dependedsolelyontheirownlabour，theynevercouldhave
obtained，becausetheycouldnothaveproduced，arenow
accessibletothemiftheycansucceedinproducinganadditional
quantityoffoodandnecessaries。Theyarethusincitedto
increasetheproductivenessoftheirindustry。Amongthe
conveniencesforthefirsttimemadeaccessibletothem，better
toolsareprobablyone:andapartfromthis，theyhaveamotive
tolabourmoreassiduously，andtoadoptcontrivancesformaking
theirlabourmoreeffectual。Bythesemeanstheywillgenerally
succeedincompellingtheirlandtoproduce，notonlyfoodfor
themselves，butasurplusforthenewcomers，wherewithtobuy
fromthemtheproductsoftheirindustry。Thenewsettlers
constitutewhatiscalledamarketforsurplusagricultural
produce:andtheirarrivalhasenrichedthesettlementnotonly
bythemanufacturedarticlewhichtheyproduce，butbythefood
whichwouldnothavebeenproducedunlesstheyhadbeenthereto
consumeit。
Thereisnoinconsistencybetweenthisdoctrine，andthe
propositionwebeforemaintained，thatamarketforcommodities
doesnotconstituteemploymentforlabour。（4*）Thelabourofthe
agriculturistswasalreadyprovidedwithemployment;theyarenot
indebtedtothedemandofthenewcomersforbeingableto
maintainthemselves。Whatthatdemanddoesforthemis，tocall
theirlabourintoincreasedvigourandefficiency;tostimulate
them，bynewmotives，tonewexertions。Neitherdothenewcomers
owetheirmaintenanceandemploymenttothedemandofthe
agriculturists:withayear’ssubsistenceinstore，theycould
havesettledsidebysidewiththeformerinhabitants，and
producedasimilarscantystockoffoodandnecessaries。
Neverthelessweseeofwhatsupremeimportancetothe
productivenessofthelabourofproducers，istheexistenceof
otherproducerswithinreach，employedinadifferentkindof
industry。Thepowerofexchangingtheproductsofonekindof
labourforthoseofanother，isacondition，butforwhich，there
wouldalmostalwaysbeasmallerquantityoflabouraltogether。
Whenanewmarketisopenedforanyproductofindustry，anda
greaterquantityofthearticleisconsequentlyproduced，the
increasedproductionisnotalwaysobtainedattheexpenseof
someotherproduct;itisoftenanewcreation，theresultof
labourwhichwouldotherwisehaveremainedunexerted;orof
assistancerenderedtolabourbyimprovementsorbymodesof
co—operationtowhichrecoursewouldnothavebeenhadifan
inducementhadnotbeenofferedforraisingalargerproduce。
3。Fromtheseconsiderationsitappearsthatacountrywill
seldomhaveaproductiveagriculture，unlessithasalargetown
population，ortheonlyavailablesubstitute，alargeexport
tradeinagriculturalproducetosupplyapopulationelsewhere。I
usethephrasetownpopulationforshortness，toimplya
populationnon—agricultural;whichwillgenerallybecollectedin
townsorlargevillages，forthesakeofcombinationoflabour。
TheapplicationofthistruthbyMr。Wakefieldtothetheoryof
colonization，hasexcitedmuchattention，andisdoubtless
destinedtoexcitemuchmore。Itisoneofthosegreatpractical
discoveries，which，oncemade，appearssoobviousthatthemerit
ofmakingthemseemslessthanitis。Mr。Wakefieldwasthefirst
topointoutthatthemodeofplantingnewsettlements，then
commonlypractised——settingdownanumberoffamiliessideby
side，eachonitspieceofland，allemployingthemselvesin
exactlythesamemanner，——thoughinfavourablecircumstancesit
mayassuretothosefamiliesarudeabundanceofmere
necessaries，canneverbeotherthanunfavourabletogreat
productionorrapidgrowth:andhissystemconsistsof
arrangementsforsecuringthateverycolonyshallhavefromthe
firstatownpopulationbearingdueproportiontoits
agricultural，andthatthecultivatorsofthesoilshallnotbe
sowidelyscatteredastobedeprivedbydistance，ofthebenefit
ofthattownpopulationasamarketfortheirproduce。The
principleOnwhichtheschemeisfounded，doesnotdependonany
theoryrespectingthesuperiorproductivenessoflandheldin
largeportions，andcultivatedbyhiredlabour。Supposingittrue
thatlandyieldsthegreatestproducewhendividedintosmall
propertiesandcultivatedbypeasantproprietors，atown
populationwillbejustasnecessarytoinducethoseproprietors
toraisethatlargerproduce:andiftheyweretoofarfromthe
nearestseatofnonagriculturalindustrytouseitasamarket
fordisposingoftheirsurplus，andtherebysupplyingtheirother
wants，neitherthatsurplusnoranyequivalentforitwould，
generallyspeaking，beproduced。
Itis，aboveall，thedeficiencyoftownpopulationwhich
limitstheproductivenessoftheindustryofacountrylike
India。TheagricultureofIndiaisconductedentirelyonthe
systemofsmallholdings。Thereis，however，aconsiderable
amountofcombinationoflabour。Thevillageinstitutionsand
customs，whicharetherealframeworkofIndiansociety，make
provisionforjointactioninthecasesinwhichitisseentobe
necessary;orwheretheyfailtodoso，thegovernment（when
tolerablywelladministered）stepsin，andbyanoutlayfromthe
revenue，executesbycombinedlabourthetanks，embankments，and
worksofirrigation，whichareindispensable。Theimplementsand
processesofagriculturearehoweversowretched，thatthe
produceofthesoil，inspiteofgreatnaturalfertilityanda
climatehighlyfavourabletovegetation，ismiserablysmall:and
thelandmightbemadetoyieldfoodinabundanceformanymore
thanthepresentnumberofinhabitants，withoutdepartingfrom
thesystemofsmallholdings。Buttothisthestimulusis
wanting，whichalargetownpopulation，connectedwiththerural
districtsbyeasyandunexpensivemeansofcommunication，would
afford。Thattownpopulation，again，doesnotgrowup，because
thefewwantsandunaspiringspiritofthecultivators（joined
untillatelywithgreatinsecurityofproperty，frommilitaryand
fiscalrapacity）preventthemfromattemptingtobecomeconsumers
oftownproduce。Inthesecircumstancesthebestchanceofan
earlydevelopmentoftheproductiveresourcesofIndia，consists
intherapidgrowthofitsexportofagriculturalproduce
（cotton，indigo，sugar，coffee，&c。）tothemarketsofEurope。
Theproducersofthesearticlesareconsumersoffoodsuppliedby
theirfellow——agriculturistsinIndia;andthemarketthus
openedforsurplusfoodwill，ifaccompaniedbygoodgovernment，
raiseupbydegreesmoreextendedwantsanddesires，directed
eithertowardsEuropeancommodities，ortowardsthingswhichwill
requirefortheirproductioninIndiaalargermanufacturing
population。
4。Thusfaroftheseparationofemployments，aformofthe
combinationoflabourwithoutwhichtherecannotbethefirst
rudimentsofindustrialcivilization。Butwhenthisseparationis
thoroughlyestablished;whenithasbecomethegeneralpractice
foreachproducertosupplymanyotherswithonecommodity，and
tobesuppliedbyotherswithmostofthethingswhichhe
consumes;reasonsnotlessreal，thoughlessimperative，invite
toafurtherextensionofthesameprinciple。Itisfoundthat
theproductivepoweroflabourisincreasedbycarryingthe
separationfurtherandfurther;bybreakingdownmoreandmore
everyprocessofindustryintoparts，sothateachlabourershall
confinehimselftoaneversmallernumberofsimpleoperations。
Andthus，intime，arisethoseremarkablecasesofwhatiscalled
thedivisionoflabour，withwhichallreadersonsubjectsof
thisnaturearefamiliar。AdamSmith’sillustrationfrom
pin—making，thoughsowellknown，issomuchtothepoint，thatI
willventureoncemoretotranscribeit。"Thebusinessofmaking
apinisdividedintoabouteighteendistinctoperations。Oneman
drawsoutthewire，anotherstraightsit，athirdcutsit，a
fourthpointsit，afifthgrindsitatthetopforreceivingthe
head;tomaketheheadrequirestwoorthreedistinctoperations;
toputiton，isapeculiarbusiness;towhitenthepinsis
another;itisevenatradebyitselftoputthemintothe
paper……Ihaveseenasmallmanufactorywheretenmenonly
wereemployed，andwheresomeofthem，consequently，performed
twoorthreedistinctoperations。Butthoughtheywereverypoor，
andthereforebutindifferentlyaccommodatedwiththenecessary
machinery，theycould，whentheyexertedthemselves，makeamong
themabouttwelvepoundsofpinsinaday。Thereareinapound
upwardsoffourthousandpinsofamiddlingsize。Thoseten
persons，therefore，couldmakeamongthemupwardsofforty—eight
thousandpinsinaday。Eachperson，therefore，makingatenth
partofforty—eightthousandpins，mightbeconsideredasmaking
fourthousandeighthundredpinsinaday。Butiftheyhadall
wroughtseparatelyandindependently，andwithoutanyofthem
havingbeeneducatedtothispeculiarbusiness，theycertainly
couldnoteachofthemhavemadetwenty，perhapsnotonepinina
day。"（5*）
M。Sayfurnishesastillstrongerexampleoftheeffectsof
divisionoflabour——fromanotveryimportantbranchof
industrycertainly，themanufactureofplayingcards。"Itissaid
bythoseengagedinthebusiness，thateachcard，thatis，a
pieceofpasteboardofthesizeofthehand，beforebeingready
forsale，doesnotundergofewerthanseventyoperations，（6*）
everyoneofwhichmightbetheoccupationofadistinctclassof
workmen。Andiftherearenotseventyclassesofwork—peoplein
eachcardmanufactory，itisbecausethedivisionoflabouris
notcarriedsofarasitmightbe;becausethesameworkmanis
chargedwithtwo，three，orfourdistinctoperations。The
influenceofthisdistributionofemploymentisimmense。Ihave
seenacardmanufactorywherethirtyworkmenproduceddaily
fifteenthousandfivehundredcards，beingabovefivehundred
cardsforeachlabourer;anditmaybepresumedthatifeachof
theseworkmenwereobligedtoperformalltheoperationshimself，
evensupposinghimapractisedhand，hewouldnotperhaps
completetwocardsinaday。andthethirtyworkmen，insteadof
fifteenthousandfivehundredcards，wouldmakeonlysixty。"（7*）
Inwatchmaking，asMr。Babbageobserves，"itwasstatedin
evidencebeforeaCommitteeoftheHouseofCommons，thatthere
areahundredandtwodistinctbranchesofthisart，toeachof
whichaboymaybeputapprentice;andthatheonlylearnshis
master’sdepartment，andisunable，afterhisapprenticeshiphas
expired，withoutsubsequentinstruction，toworkatanyother
branch。Thewatch—finisher，whosebusinessitistoputtogether
thescatteredparts，istheonlyone，outofthehundredandtwo
persons，whocanworkinanyotherdepartmentthanhisown。"（8*）
5。Thecausesoftheincreasedefficiencygiventolabourby
thedivisionofemploymentsaresomeofthemtoofamiliarto
requirespecification;butitisworthwhiletoattempta
completeenumerationofthem。ByAdamSmiththeyarereducedto
three。"First，theincreaseofdexterityineveryparticular
workman;secondly，thesavingofthetimewhichiscommonlylost
inpassingfromonespeciesofworktoanother。andlastly，the
inventionofagreatnumberofmachineswhichfacilitateand
abridgelabour，andenableonemantodotheworkofmany。"（9*）
Ofthese，theincreaseofdexterityoftheindividualworkman
isthemostobviousanduniversal。Itdoesnotfollowthat
becauseathinghasbeendoneofteneritwillbedonebetter。
Thatdependsontheintelligenceoftheworkman，andonthe
degreeinwhichhismindworksalongwithhishands。Butitwill
bedonemoreeasily。Theorgansthemselvesacquiregreaterpower:
themusclesemployedgrowstrongerbyfrequentexercise，the
sinewsmorepliant，andthementalpowersmoreefficient，and
lesssensibleoffatigue。Whatcanbedoneeasilyhasatleasta
betterchanceofbeingdonewell，andissuretobedonemore
expeditiously。Whatwasatfirstdoneslowlycomestobedone
quickly;whatwasatfirstdoneslowlywithaccuracyisatlast
donequicklywithequalaccuracy。Thisisastrueofmental
operationsasofbodily。Evenachild，aftermuchpractice，sums
upacolumnoffigureswitharapiditywhichresemblesintuition。
Theactofspeakinganylanguage，ofreadingfluently，ofplaying
musicatsight，arecasesasremarkableastheyarefamiliar。
Amongbodilyacts，dancing，gymnasticexercises，easeand
brilliancyofexecutiononamusicalinstrument，areexamplesof
therapidityandfacilityacquiredbyrepetition。Insimpler
manualoperationstheeffectisofcoursestillsoonerproduced。
"Therapidity，"AdamSmithobserves，"withwhichsomeofthe
operationsofcertainmanufacturesareperformed，exceedswhat
thehumanhandcould，bythosewhohadneverseenthem，be
supposedcapableofacquiring。"（10*）Thisskillis，naturally，
attainedaftershorterpractice，inproportionasthedivisionof
labourismoreminute;andwillnotbeattainedinthesame
degreeatall，iftheworkmanhasagreatervarietyofoperations
toexecutethanallowsofasufficientlyfrequentrepetitionof
each。Theadvantageisnotconfinedtothegreaterefficiency
ultimatelyattained，butincludesalsothediminishedlossof
time，andwasteofmaterial，inlearningtheart。"Acertain
quantityofmaterial，"saysMr。Babbage，（11*）"willinallcases
beconsumedunprofitably，orspoiled，byeverypersonwholearns
anart;andasheapplieshimselftoeachnewprocess，hewill
wastesomeoftherawmaterial，orofthepartlymanufactured
commodity。Butifeachmancommitthiswasteinacquiring
successivelyeveryprocess，thequantityofwastewillbemuch
greaterthanifeachpersonconfinehisattentiontoone
process。"Andingeneraleachwillbemuchsoonerqualifiedto
executehisoneprocess，ifhebenotdistractedwhilelearning
it，bythenecessityoflearningothers。
ThesecondadvantageenumeratedbyAdamSmithasarisingfrom
thedivisionoflabour，isoneonwhichIcannothelpthinking
thatmorestressislaidbyhimandothersthanitdeserves。To
dofulljusticetohisopinion，Iwillquotehisownexposition
ofit。"Theadvantagewhichisgainedbysavingthetimecommonly
lostinpassingfromonesortofworktoanother，ismuchgreater
thanweshouldatfirstviewbeapttoimagineit。Itis
impossibletopassveryquicklyfromonekindofworktoanother，
thatiscarriedoninadifferentplace，andwithquitedifferent
tools。Acountryweaver，whocultivatesasmallfarm，mustlosea
gooddealoftimeinpassingfromhisloomtothefield，andfrom
thefieldtohisloom。Whenthetwotradescanbecarriedonin
thesameworkhouse，thelossoftimeisnodoubtmuchless。Itis
eveninthiscase，however，veryconsiderable。Amancommonly
sauntersalittleinturninghishandfromonesortofemployment
toanother。Whenhefirstbeginsthenewwork，heisseldomvery
keenandhearty;hismind，astheysay，doesnotgotoit，and
forsometimeherathertriflesthanappliestogoodpurpose。The
habitofsaunteringandofindolentcarelessapplication，which
isnaturally，orrathernecessarilyacquiredbyeverycountry
workmanwhoisobligedtochangehisworkandhistoolsevery
halfhour，andtoapplyhishandintwentydifferentwaysalmost
everydayofhislife，rendershimalmostalwaysslothfuland
lazy，andincapableofanyvigorousapplicationevenonthemost
pressingoccasions。"（12*）Thisissurelyamostexaggerated
descriptionoftheinefficiencyofcountrylabour，whereithas
anyadequatemotivetoexertion。Fewworkmenchangetheirwork
andtheirtoolsoftenerthanagardener;isheusuallyincapable
ofvigorousapplication？Manyofthehigherdescriptionof
artisanshavetoperformagreatmultiplicityofoperationswith
avarietyoftools。Theydonotexecuteeachofthesewiththe
rapiditywithwhichafactoryworkmanperformshissingle
operation;buttheyare，exceptinamerelymanualsense，more
skilfullabourers，andinallsenseswhatevermoreenergetic。
Mr。Babbage，followinginthetrackofAdamSmith，says，
"Whenthehumanhand，orthehumanhead，hasbeenforsometime
occupiedinanykindofwork，itcannotinstantlychangeits
employmentwithfulleffect。Themusclesofthelimbsemployed
haveacquiredaflexibilityduringtheirexertion，andthosenot
inactionastiffnessduringrest，whichrenderseverychange
slowandunequalinthecommencement。Longhabitalsoproducesin
themusclesexercisedacapacityforenduringfatiguetoamuch
greaterdegreethantheycouldsupportunderothercircumstances。
Asimilarresultseemstotakeplaceinanychangeofmental
exertion;theattentionbestowedonthenewsubjectnotbeingso
perfectatfirstasitbecomesaftersomeexercise。The
employmentofdifferenttoolsinthesuccessiveprocesses，is
anothercauseofthelossoftimeinchangingfromoneoperation
toanother。Ifthesetoolsaresimple，andthechangeisnot
frequent，thelossoftimeisnotconsiderable;butinmany
processesofthearts，thetoolsareofgreatdelicacy，requiring
accurateadjustmenteverytimetheyareused;andinmanycases，
thetimeemployedinadjustingbearsalargeproportiontothat
employedinusingthetool。Thesliding—rest，thedividingand
thedrillingengineareofthiskind:andhence，inmanufactories
ofsufficientextent，itisfoundtobegoodeconomytokeepone
machineconstantlyemployedinonekindofwork:onelathe，for
example，havingascrewmotiontoitssliding—restalongthe
wholelengthofitsbed，iskeptconstantlymakingcylinders;
another，havingamotionforequalizingthevelocityofthework
atthepointatwhichitpassesthetool，iskeptforfacing
surfaces;whilstathirdisconstantlyemployedincutting
wheels。"
Iamveryfarfromimplyingthatthesedifferent
considerationsareofnoweight;butIthinkthereare
counter—considerationswhichareoverlooked。Ifonekindof
muscularormentallabourisdifferentfromanother，forthat
veryreasonitistosomeextentarestfromthatother。andif
thegreatestvigourisnotatonceobtainedinthesecond
occupation，neithercouldthefirsthavebeenindefinitely
prolongedwithoutsomerelaxationofenergy。Itisamatterof
commonexperiencethatachangeofoccupationwilloftenafford
reliefwherecompletereposewouldotherwisebenecessary，and
thatapersoncanworkmanymorehourswithoutfatigueata
successionofoccupations，thanifconfinedduringthewholetime
toone。Differentoccupationsemploydifferentmuscles，or
differentenergiesofthemind，someofwhichrestandare
refreshedwhileotherswork。Bodilylabouritselfrestsfrom
mental，andconversely。Thevarietyitselfhasaninvigorating
effectonwhat，forwantofamorephilosophicalappellation，we
musttermtheanimalspirits;soimportanttotheefficiencyof
allworknotmechanical，andnotunimportanteventothat。The
comparativeweightduetotheseconsiderationsisdifferentwith
differentindividuals;somearemorefittedthanothersfor
persistencyinoneoccupation，andlessfitforchange;they
requirelongertogetthesteamup（touseametaphornow
common）;theirksomenessofsettingtoworklastslonger，andit
requiresmoretimetobringtheirfacultiesintofullplay，and
thereforewhenthisisoncedone，theydonotliketoleaveoff，
butgoonlongwithoutintermission，eventotheinjuryoftheir
health。Temperamenthassomethingtodowiththesedifferences。
Therearepeoplewhosefacultiesseembynaturetocomeslowly
intoaction，andtoaccomplishlittleuntiltheyhavebeenalong
timeemployed。Others，again，getintoactionrapidly，but
cannot，withoutexhaustion，continuelong。Inthis，however，as
inmostotherthings，thoughnaturaldifferencesaresomething，
habitismuchmore。Thehabitofpassingrapidlyfromone
occupationtoanothermaybeacquired，likeotherhabits，by
earlycultivation;andwhenitisacquired，thereisnoneofthe
saunteringwhichAdamSmithspeaksof，aftereachchange;nowant
ofenergyandinterest，buttheworkmancomestoeachpartofhis
occupationwithafreshnessandaspiritwhichhedoesnotretain
ifhepersistsinanyonepart（unlessincaseofunusual
excitement）beyondthelengthoftimetowhichheisaccustomed。
Womenareusually（atleastintheirpresentsocial
circumstances）offargreaterversatilitythanmen;andthe
presenttopicisaninstanceamongmultitudes，howlittlethe
ideasandexperienceofwomenhaveyetcountedfor，informing
theopinionsofmankind。Therearefewwomenwhowouldnotreject
theideathatworkismadevigorousbybeingprotracted，andis
inefficientforsometimeafterchangingtoanewthing。Evenin
thiscase，habit，Ibelieve，muchmorethannature，isthecause
ofthedifference。Theoccupationsofnineoutofeverytenmen
arespecial，thoseofnineoutofeverytenwomengeneral，
embracingamultitudeofdetails，eachofwhichrequiresvery
littletime。Womenareintheconstantpracticeofpassing
quicklyfromonemanual，andstillmorefromonementaloperation
toanother，whichthereforerarelycoststhemeithereffortor
lossoftime，whileaman’soccupationgenerallyconsistsin
workingsteadilyforalongtimeatonething，oronevery
limitedclassofthings。Butthesituationsaresometimes
reversed，andwiththemthecharacters。Womenarenotfoundless
efficientthanmenfortheuniformityoffactorywork，orthey
wouldnotsogenerallybeemployedforit;andamanwhohas
cultivatedthehabitofturninghishandtomanythings，farfrom
beingtheslothfulandlazypersondescribedbyAdamSmith，is
usuallyremarkablylivelyandactive。Itistrue，however，that
changeofoccupationmaybetoofrequentevenforthemost
versatile。Incessantvarietyisevenmorefatiguingthan
perpetualsameness。
ThethirdadvantageattributedbyAdamSmithtothedivision
oflabour，is，toacertainextent，real。Inventionstendingto
savelabourinaparticularoperation，aremorelikelytooccur
toanyoneinproportionashisthoughtsareintenselydirected
tothatoccupation，andcontinuallyemployeduponit。Apersonis
notsolikelytomakepracticalimprovementsinonedepartmentof
things，whoseattentionisverymuchdivertedtoothers。But，in
this，muchmoredependsongeneralintelligenceandhabitual
activityofmind，thanonexclusivenessofoccupation;andif
thatexclusivenessiscarriedtoadegreeunfavourabletothe
cultivationofintelligence，therewillbemorelostinthiskind
ofadvantage，thangained。Wemayadd，thatwhatevermaybethe
causeofmakinginventions，whentheyareoncemade，the
increasedefficiencyoflabourisowingtotheinventionitself，
andnottothedivisionoflabour。
Thegreatestadvantage（nexttothedexterityoftheworkmen）
derivedfromtheminutedivisionoflabourwhichtakesplacein
modernmanufacturingindustry，isonenotmentionedbyAdam
Smith，buttowhichattentionhasbeendrawnbyMr。Babbage;the
moreeconomicaldistributionoflabour，byclassingthe
work—peopleaccordingtotheircapacity。Differentpartsofthe
sameseriesofoperationsrequireunequaldegreesofskilland
bodilystrength;andthosewhohaveskillenoughforthemost
difficult，orstrengthenoughforthehardestpartsofthe
labour，aremademuchmoreusefulbybeingemployedsolelyin
them;theoperationswhicheverybodyiscapableof，beingleftto
thosewhoarefitfornoothers。Productionismostefficient
whentheprecisequantityofskillandstrength，whichis
requiredforeachpartoftheprocess，isemployedinit，andno
more。Theoperationofpin—makingrequires，itseems，inits
differentparts，suchdifferentdegreesofskill，thatthewages
earnedbythepersonsemployedvaryfromfourpencehalfpennya
daytosixshillings;andiftheworkmanwhoispaidatthat
highestratehadtoperformthewholeprocess，hewouldbe
workingapartofhistimewithawasteperdayequivalenttothe
differencebetweensixshillingsandfourpencehalfpenny。Without
referencetothelosssustainedinquantityofworkdone，and
supposingeventhathecouldmakeapoundofpinsinthesame
timeinwhichtenworkmencombiningtheirlabourcanmaketen
pounds，Mr。Babbagecomputesthattheywouldcost，inmaking，
threetimesandthree—quartersasmuchastheynowdobymeansof
thedivisionoflabour。Inneedlemaking，headds，thedifference
wouldbestillgreater，forinthat，thescaleofremuneration
fordifferentpartsoftheprocessvariesfromsixpencetotwenty
shillingsaday。
Totheadvantagewhichconsistsinextractingthegreatest
possibleamountofutilityfromskill，maybeaddedtheanalogous
one，ofextractingtheutmostpossibleutilityfromtools。"If
anyman，"saysanablewriter，（13*）"hadallthetoolswhichmany
differentoccupationsrequire，atleastthree—fourthsofthem
wouldconstantlybeidleanduseless。Itwereclearlythen
better，wereanysocietytoexistwhereeachmanhadallthese
tools，andalternatelycarriedoneachoftheseoccupations，that
themembersofitshould，ifpossible，dividethemamongstthem，
eachrestrictinghimselftosomeparticularemployment。The
advantagesofthechangetothewholecommunity，andthereforeto
everyindividualinit，aregreat。Inthefirstplace，the
variousimplementsbeinginconstantemployment，yieldabetter
returnforwhathasbeenlaidoutinprocuringthem。In
consequencetheirownerscanaffordtohavethemofbetter
qualityandmorecompleteconstruction。Theresultofbothevents
is，thatalargerprovisionismadeforthefuturewantsofthe
wholesociety。"
6。Thedivisionoflabour，asallwritersonthesubjecthave
remarked，islimitedbytheextentofthemarket。If，bythe
separationofpin—makingintotendistinctemployments，
forty—eightthousandpinscanbemadeinaday，thisseparation
willonlybeadvisableifthenumberofaccessibleconsumersis
suchastorequire，everyday，somethinglikeforty—eight
thousandpins。Ifthereisonlyademandfortwenty—four
thousand，thedivisionoflabourcanonlybeadvantageously
carriedtotheextentwhichwilleverydayproducethatsmaller
number。This，therefore，isafurthermodeinwhichanaccession
ofdemandforacommoditytendstoincreasetheefficiencyofthe
labouremployedinitsproduction。Theextentofthemarketmay
belimitedbyseveralcauses:toosmallapopulation;the
populationtooscatteredanddistanttobeeasilyaccessible;
deficiencyofroadsandwatercarriage;or，finally，the
populationtoopoor，thatis，theircollectivelabourtoolittle
effective，toadmitoftheirbeinglargeconsumers。Indolence，
wantofskill，andwantofcombinationoflabour，amongthosewho
wouldotherwisebebuyersofacommodity，limit，therefore，the
practicalamountofcombinationoflabouramongitsproducers。In
anearlystageofcivilization，whenthedemandofanyparticular
localitywasnecessarilysmall，industryonlyflourishedamong
thosewhobytheircommandofthesea—coastorofanavigable
river，couldhavethewholeworld，orallthatpartofitwhich
layoncoastsornavigablerivers，asamarketfortheir
productions。Theincreaseofthegeneralrichesoftheworld，
whenaccompaniedwithfreedomofcommercialintercourse，
improvementsinnavigation，andinlandcommunicationbyroads，
canals，orrailways，tendstogiveincreasedproductivenessto
thelabourofeverynationinparticular，byenablingeach
localitytosupplywithitsspecialproductssomuchlargera
market，thatagreatextensionofthedivisionoflabourintheir
productionisanordinaryconsequence。
Thedivisionoflabourisalsolimited，inmanycases，bythe
natureoftheemployment。Agriculture，forexample，isnot
susceptibleofsogreatadivisionofoccupationsasmany
branchesofmanufactures，becauseitsdifferentoperationscannot
possiblybesimultaneous。Onemancannotbealwaysploughing，
anothersowing，andanotherreaping。Aworkmanwhoonlypractised
oneagriculturaloperationwouldheidleelevenmonthsofthe
year。Thesamepersonmayperformthemallinsuccession，and
have，inmostclimates，aconsiderableamountofunoccupiedtime。
Toexecuteagreatagriculturalimprovement，itisoften
necessarythatmanylabourersshouldworktogether;butin
general，exceptthefewwhosebusinessissuperintendence，they
allworkinthesamemanner。Acanalorarailwayembankment
cannothemadewithoutacombinationofmanylabourers;butthey
areallexcavators，excepttheengineersandafewclerks。
NOTES:
1。NotetoWakefield’seditionofAdamSmith，vol。i。p。26。
2。WealthofNations，ed。Wakefield，I，30。
3。WealthofNations，ed。Wakefield，I，29。
4。Supra，pp。78—88。
5。WealthofNations，ed。Wakefield，I，8。
6。"Cenesontpointlesmemesouvriersquipreparentlepapier
dontonfaitlescartes，nilescouleursdontonlesempreint;et
ennefesantattentionqu’auseulemploidecesmatieres，nous
trouveronsqu’unjeudecartesestleresultatdeplusiers
operationsdontchacuneoccupeuneseriedistincted’ouvrierset
d’ouvrieresquis’appliquenttoujoursalamemeopeation。Cesont
despersonnesdifferentes，ettoujourslesmemes，quiepluchent
lesbouchonsetgrosseursquisetrouventdanslepapieret
nuiraiental’egalited’epaisseur;lesmemesquicollentensemble
lestroisfeuillesdepapierdontsecomposelecartonetquile
mettentenpresse;lesmemesquiimprimentennoirledessindes
figures;d’autresouvriersimprimentlescouleursdesmemes
figures;d’autresfontsecheraurechaudlescartonsunefois
qu’ilssontimprimes;d’autress’occupentdeleslisserdessuset
dessous。C’estuneoccupationparticulierequedelescouper
d’egaledimension;c’enestuneautredelesassemblerpouren
formerdesjeux;uneautreencored’imprimerlesenveloppesdes
jeux，etuneautreencoredelesenvelopper;sanscompterles
fonctionsdespersonneschargeesdesventesetdesachats，de
payerlesouvriersetdetenirlesecritures。"——Say，Cours
d’EconomiePolitique，vol。i，p。340。
Itisremarkableproofoftheeconomyoflabouroccasionedby
thisminutedivisionofoccupations，thatanarticle，the
productionofwhichistheresultofsuchamultitudeofmanual
operations，canbesoldforatriflingsum。
7。Ibid，I，p。341。
8。EconomyofMachineryandManufactures，3rdEdition，p。201。
9。WealthofNations，ed。Wakefield，I，12—13。
10。"Inastronomicalobservations，thesensesoftheoperatorare
renderedsoacutebyhabit，thathecanestimatedifferencesof
timetothetenthofasecond;andadjusthismeasuring
instrumenttograduationsofwhichfivethousandoccupyonlyan
inch。Itisthesamethroughoutthecommonestprocessesof
manufacture。Achildwhofastensontheheadsofpinswillrepeat
anoperationrequiringseveraldistinctmotionsofthemuscles
onehundredtimesaminuteforseveralsuccessivehours。Ina
recentManchesterpaperitwasstatedtahatapeculiarsortof
twistor’gimp’，whichcostthreeshillingsmakingwhenfirst
introduced，wasnowmanufacturedforonepenny;andthisnot，as
usually，bytheinventionofanewmachine，butsolelythrough
theincreaseddexterityoftheworkman。"EdinburghReviewfor
January1840，p。81。
11。Page171。
12。WealthofNations，ed。Wakefield，I，14—15。
13。StatementofsomeNewPrinciplesonthesubjectofPolitical
Economy，byJohnRae，p。164。
ThePrinciplesofPoliticalEconomybyJohnStuartMillBook1，Chapter9
OfProductiononaLarge，andProductiononaSmallScale1。Fromtheimportanceofcombinationoflabour，itisanobviousconclusion，thattherearemanycasesinwhichproductionismademuchmoreeffectivebybeingconductedonalargescale。
Wheneveritisessentialtothegreatestefficiencyoflabourthatmanylabourersshouldcombine，eventhoughonlyinthewayofSimpleCo—operation，thescaleoftheenterprisemustbesuchastobringmanylabourerstogether，andthecapitalmustbelargeenoughtomaintainthem。Stillmoreneedfulisthiswhenthenatureoftheemploymentallows，andtheextentofthepossiblemarketencourages，aconsiderabledivisionoflabour。
Thelargertheenterprise，thefartherthedivisionoflabourmaybecarried。Thisisoneoftheprincipalcausesoflargemanufactories。Evenwhennoadditionalsubdivisionoftheworkwouldfollowanenlargementoftheoperations，therewillbegoodeconomyinenlargingthemtothepointatwhicheverypersontowhomitisconvenienttoassignaspecialoccupation，willhavefullemploymentinthatoccupation。ThispointiswellillustratedbyMr。Babbage。（1*）
"Ifmachinesbekeptworkingthroughthetwenty—fourhours，"
（whichisevidentlytheonlyeconomicalmodeofemployingthem，）
"itisnecessarythatsomepersonshallattendtoadmittheworkmenatthetimetheyrelieveeachother;andwhethertheporterorotherpersonsoemployedadmitonepersonortwenty，hisrestwillbeequallydisturbed。Itwillalsobenecessaryoccasionallytoadjustorrepairthemachine;andthiscanbedonemuchbetterbyaworkmanaccustomedtomachine—making，thanbythepersonwhousesit。Now，sincethegoodperformanceandthedurationofmachinesdepend，toaverygreatextent，uponcorrectingeveryshakeorimperfectionintheirpartsassoonastheyappear，thepromptattentionofaworkmanresidentonthespotwillconsiderablyreducetheexpenditurearisingfromthewearandtearofthemachinery。Butinthecaseofasinglelace—frame，orasingleloom，thiswouldbetooexpensiveaplan。
Herethenarisesanothercircumstancewhichtendstoenlargetheextentofafactory。Itoughttoconsistofsuchanumberofmachinesasshalloccupythewholetimeofoneworkmaninkeepingtheminorder:ifextendedbeyondthatnumber，thesameprincipleofeconomywouldpointoutthenecessityofdoublingortriplingthenumberofmachines，inordertoemploythewholetimeoftwoorthreeskilfulworkmen。
"Whenoneportionoftheworkman’slabourconsistsintheexertionofmerephysicalforce，asinweaving，andinmanysimilararts，itwillsoonoccurtothemanufacturer，thatifthatpartwereexecutedbyasteamengine，thesamemanmight，inthecaseofweaving，attendtotwoormoreloomsatonce:and，sincewealreadysupposethatoneormoreoperativeengineershavebeenemployed，thenumberofloomsmaybesoarrangedthattheirtimeshallbefullyoccupiedinkeepingthesteam—engineandtheloomsinorder。
"Pursuingthesameprinciples，themanufactorybecomesgraduallysoenlarged，thattheexpenseoflightingduringthenightamountstoaconsiderablesum:andastherearealreadyattachedtotheestablishmentpersonswhoareupallnight，andcanthereforeconstantlyattendtoit，andalsoengineerstomakeandkeepinrepairanymachinery，theadditionofanapparatusformakinggastolightthefactoryleadstoanewextension，atthesametimethatitcontributes，bydiminishingtheexpenseoflighting，andtheriskofaccidentsfromfire，toreducethecostofmanufacturing。
"Longbeforeafactoryhasreachedthisextent，itwillhavebeenfoundnecessarytoestablishanaccountant’sdepartment，withclerkstopaytheworkmen，andtoseethattheyarriveattheirstatedtimes;andthisdepartmentmustbeincommunicationwiththeagentswhopurchasetherawproduce，andwiththosewhosellthemanufacturedarticle。"Itwillcosttheseclerksandaccountantslittlemoretimeandtroubletopayalargenumberofworkmenthanasmallnumber;tochecktheaccountsoflargetransactions，thanofsmall。Ifthebusinessdoubleditself，itwouldprobablybenecessarytoincrease，butcertainlynottodouble，thenumbereitherofaccountants，orofbuyingandsellingagents。EveryincreaseofbusinesswouldenablethewholetobecaRedonwithaproportionatelysmalleramountoflabour。
Asageneralrule，theexpensesofabusinessdonotincreasebyanymeansproportionallytothequantityofbusiness。Letustakeasanexample，asetofoperationswhichweareaccustomedtoseecarriedonbyonegreatestablishment，thatofthePostOffice。Supposethatthebusiness，letussayonlyoftheLondonletter—post，insteadofbeingcentralizedinasingleconcern，weredividedamongfiveorsixcompetingcompanies。Eachofthesewouldbeobligedtomaintainalmostaslargeanestablishmentasisnowsufficientforthewhole。Sinceeachmustarrangeforreceivinganddeliveringlettersinallpartsofthetown，eachmustsendletter—carriersintoeverystreet，andalmosteveryalley，andthistooasmanytimesinthedayasisnowdonebythePostOffice，iftheserviceistobeaswellperformed。Eachmusthaveanofficeforreceivinglettersineveryneighbourhood，withallsubsidiaryarrangementsforcollectingthelettersfromthedifferentofficesandre—distributingthem。Tothismustbeaddedthemuchgreaternumberofsuperiorofficerswhowouldberequiredtocheckandcontrolthesubordinates，implyingnotonlyagreatercostinsalariesforsuchresponsibleofficers，butthenecessity，perhaps，ofbeingsatisfiedinmanyinstanceswithaninferiorstandardofqualification，andsofailingintheobject。
Whetherornottheadvantagesobtainedbyoperatingonalargescalepreponderateinanyparticularcaseoverthemorewatchfulattention，andgreaterregardtominorgainsandlosses，usuallyfoundinsmallestablishments，canbeascertained，inastateoffreecompetition，byanunfailingtest。Wherevertherearelargeandsmallestablishmentsinthesamebusiness，thatoneofthetwowhichinexistingcircumstancescarriesontheproductionatgreatestadvantagewillbeabletounderselltheother。Thepowerofpermanentlyundersellingcanonly，generallyspeaking，bederivedfromincreasedeffectivenessoflabour;andthis，whenobtainedbyamoreextendeddivisionofemployment，orbyaclassificationtendingtoabettereconomyofskill，alwaysimpliesagreaterproducefromthesamelabour，andnotmerelythesameproducefromlesslabour:itincreasesnotthesurplusonly，butthegrossproduceofindustry。Ifanincreasedquantityoftheparticulararticleisnotrequired，andpartofthelabourersinconsequencelosetheiremployment，thecapitalwhichmaintainedandemployedthemisalsosetatliberty;andthegeneralproduceofthecountryisincreasedbysomeotherapplicationoftheirlabour。
Anotherofthecausesoflargemanufactories，however，istheintroductionofprocessesrequiringexpensivemachinery。
Expensivemachinerysupposesalargecapital;andisnotresortedtoexceptwiththeintentionofproducing，andthehopeofselling，asmuchofthearticleascomesuptothefullpowersofthemachine。Forboththesereasons，wherevercostlymachineryisused，thelargesystemofproductionisinevitable。Butthepowerofundersellingisnotinthiscasesounerringatestasintheformer，ofthebeneficialeffectonthetotalproductionofthecommunity。Thepowerofundersellingdoesnotdependontheabsoluteincreaseofproduce，butonitsbearinganincreasedproportiontotheexpenses;which，aswasshowninaformerchapter，（2*）itmaydo，consistentlywithevenadiminutionofthegrossannualproduce。Bytheadoptionofmachinery，acirculatingcapital，whichwasperpetuallyconsumedandreproduced，hasbeenconvertedintoafixedcapital，requiringonlyasmallannualexpensetokeepitup:andamuchsmallerproducewillsufficeformerelycoveringthatexpense，andreplacingtheremainingcirculatingcapitaloftheproducer。Themachinerythereforemightanswerperfectlywelltothemanufacturer，andenablehimtoundersellhiscompetitors，thoughtheeffectontheproductionofthecountrymightbenotanincreasebutadiminution。Itistrue，thearticlewillbesoldcheaper，andtherefore，ofthatsinglearticle，therewillprobablybenotasmaller，butagreaterquantitysold;sincethelosstothecommunitycollectivelyhasfallenuponthework—people，andtheyarenottheprincipalcustomers，ifcustomersatall，ofmostbranchesofmanufacture。Butthoughthatparticularbranchofindustrymayextenditself，itwillbebyreplenishingitsdiminishedcirculatingcapitalfromthatofthecommunitygenerally;andifthelabourersemployedinthatdepartmentescapelossofemployment，itisbecausethelosswillspreaditselfoverthelabouringpeopleatlarge。Ifanyofthemarereducedtotheconditionofunproductivelabourers，supportedbyvoluntaryorlegalcharity，thegrossproduceofthecountryistothatextentpermanentlydiminished，untiltheordinaryprogressofaccumulationmakesitup;butiftheconditionofthelabouringclassesenablesthemtobearatemporaryreductionofwages，andthesupersededlabourersbecomeabsorbedinotheremployments，theirlabourisstillproductive，andthebreachinthegrossproduceoftheCOmmunityisrepaired，thoughnotthedetrimenttothelabourers。Ihaverestatedthisexposition，whichhasalreadybeenmadeinaformerplace，toimpressmorestronglythetruth，thatamodeofproductiondoesnotofnecessityincreasetheproductiveeffectofthecollectivelabourofacommunity，becauseitenablesaparticularcommoditytobesoldcheaper。Theoneconsequencegenerallyaccompaniestheother，butnotnecessarily。IwillnothererepeatthereasonsI
formerlygave，noranticipatethosewhichwillbegivenmorefullyhereafter，fordeemingtheexceptiontoberatheracaseabstractedlypossible，thanonewhichisfrequentlyrealizedinfact。