Inasmuchas，onthissystem，anygivenamountofexpenditure，onceincurred，wouldprovidenotmerelyasingleemigration，butaperpetuallyflowingstreamofemigrants，whichwouldincreaseinbreadthanddepthasitflowedon;thismodeofrelievingoverpopulationhasarecommendation，notpossessedbyanyotherplaneverproposedformakingheadagainsttheconsequencesofincreasewithoutrestrainingtheincreaseitself:thereisanelementofindefinitenessinit;noonecanperfectlyforeseehowfaritsinfluence，asaventforsurpluspopulation，mightpossiblyreach。Thereishencethestrongestobligationonthegovernmentofacountrylikeourown，withacrowdedpopulation，andunoccupiedcontinentsunderitscommand，tobuild，asitwere，andkeepopen，inconcertwiththecolonialgovernments，abridgefromthemothercountrytothosecontinents，byestablishingtheself—supportingsystemofcolonizationonsuchascale，thatasgreatanamountofemigrationasthecoloniescanatthetimeaccommodate，mayatalltimesbeabletotakeplacewithoutcosttotheemigrantsthemselves。
　　Theimportanceoftheseconsiderations，asregardstheBritishislands，hasbeenoflateconsiderablydiminishedbytheunparalleledamountofspontaneousemigrationfromIreland;anemigrationnotsolelyofsmallfarmers，butofthepoorestclassofagriculturallabourers，andwhichisatoncevoluntaryandself—supporting，thesuccessionofemigrantsbeingkeptupbyfundscontributedfromtheearningsoftheirrelativesandconnexionswhohadgonebefore。Tothishasbeenaddedalargeamountofvoluntaryemigrationtotheseatsofthegolddiscoveries，whichhaspartlysuppliedthewantsofourmostdistantcolonies，where，bothforlocalandnationalinterests，itwasmostofallrequired。Butthestreamofboththeseemigrationshasalreadyconsiderablyslackened，andthoughthatfromIrelandhassincepartiallyrevived，itisnotcertainthattheaidofgovernmentinasystematicform，andontheself—supportingprinciple，willnotagainbecomenecessarytokeepthecommunicationopenbetweenthehandsneedingworkinEngland，andtheworkwhichneedshandselsewhere。
　　15。Thesameprinciplewhichpointsoutcolonization，andthereliefoftheindigent，ascasestowhichtheprincipalobjectiontogovernmentinterferencedoesnotapply，extendsalsotoavarietyofcases，inwhichimportantpublicservicesaretobeperformed，whileyetthereisnoindividualspeciallyinterestedinperformingthem，norwouldanyadequateremunerationnaturallyorspontaneouslyattendtheirperformance。Takeforinstanceavoyageofgeographicalorscientificexploration。Theinformationsoughtmaybeofgreatpublicvalue，yetnoindividualwouldderiveanybenefitfromitwhichwouldrepaytheexpenseoffittingouttheexpedition;andthereisnomodeofinterceptingthebenefitonitswaytothosewhoprofitbyit，inordertolevyatollfortheremunerationofitsauthors。Suchvoyagesare，ormightbe，undertakenbyprivatesubscription;butthisisarareandprecariousresource。Instancesaremorefrequentinwhichtheexpensehasbeenbornebypubliccompaniesorphilanthropicassociations;butingeneralsuchenterpriseshavebeenconductedattheexpenseofgovernment，whichisthusenabledtoentrustthemtothepersonsinitsjudgmentbestqualifiedforthetask。Again，itisaproperofficeofgovernmenttobuildandmaintainlighthouses，establishbuoys，&c。forthesecurityofnavigation:forsinceitisimpossiblethattheshipsatseawhicharebenefitedbyalighthouse，shouldbemadetopayatollontheoccasionofitsuse，noonewouldbuildlighthousesfrommotivesofpersonalinterest，unlessindemnifiedandrewardedfromacompulsorylevymadebythestate。Therearemanyscientificresearches，ofgreatvaluetoanationandtomankind，requiringassiduousdevotionoftimeandlabour，andnotunfrequentlygreatexpense，bypersonswhocanobtainahighpricefortheirservicesinotherways。Ifthegovernmenthadnopowertograntindemnityforexpense，andremunerationfortimeandlabourthusemployed，suchresearchescouldonlybeundertakenbytheveryfewpersonswho，withanindependentfortune，unitetechnicalknowledge，laborioushabits，andeithergreatpublicspirit，oranardentdesireofscientificcelebrity。
　　Connectedwiththissubjectisthequestionofproviding，bymeansofendowmentsorsalaries，forthemaintenanceofwhathasbeencalledalearnedclass。Thecultivationofspeculativeknowledge，thoughoneofthemostusefulofallemployments，isaservicerenderedtoacommunitycollectively，notindividually，andoneconsequentlyforwhichitis，primafacie，reasonablethatthecommunitycollectivelyshouldpay;sinceitgivesnoclaimonanyindividualforapecuniaryremuneration;andunlessaprovisionismadeforsuchservicesfromsomepublicfund，thereisnotonlynoencouragementtothem，butthereisasmuchdiscouragementasisimpliedintheimpossibilityofgainingalivingbysuchpursuits，andthenecessityconsequentlyimposedonmostofthosewhowouldbecapableofthem，toemploythegreatestpartoftheirtimeingainingasubsistence。Theevil，however，isgreaterinappearancethaninreality。Thegreatestthings，ithasbeensaid，havegenerallybeendonebythosewhohadtheleasttimeattheirdisposal;andtheoccupationofsomehourseverydayinaroutineemployment，hasoftenbeenfoundcompatiblewiththemostbrilliantachievementsinliteratureandphilosophy。Yetthereareinvestigationsandexperimentswhichrequirenotonlyalongbutacontinuousdevotionoftimeandattention:therearealsooccupationswhichsoengrossandfatiguethementalfaculties，astobeinconsistentwithanyvigorousemploymentofthemuponothersubjects，eveninanyintervalsofleisure。Itishighlydesirable，therefore，thatthereshouldbeamodeofinsuringtothepublictheservicesofscientificdiscoverers，andperhapsofsomeotherclassesofsavants，byaffordingthemthemeansofsupportconsistentlywithdevotingasufficientportionoftimetotheirpeculiarpursuits。
　　ThefellowshipsoftheUniversitiesareaninstitutionexcellentlyadaptedforsuchapurpose;butarehardlyeverappliedtoit，beingbestowed，atthebest，asarewardforpastproficiency，incommittingtomemorywhathasbeendonebyothers，andnotasthesalaryoffuturelaboursintheadvancementofknowledge。Insomecountries，Academiesofscience，antiquities，history，&c。，havebeenformed，withemolumentsannexed。Themosteffectualplan，andatthesametimeleastliabletoabuse，seemstobethatofconferringProfessorships，withdutiesofinstructionattachedtothem。Theoccupationofteachingabranchofknowledge，atleastinitshigherdepartments，isahelpratherthananimpedimenttothesystematiccultivationofthesubjectitself。Thedutiesofaprofessorshipalmostalwaysleavemuchtimefororiginalresearches;andthegreatestadvanceswhichhavebeenmadeinthevarioussciences，bothmoralandphysical，haveoriginatedwiththosewhowerepublicteachersofthem;fromPlatoandAristotletothegreatnamesoftheScotch，French，andGermanUniversities。IdonotmentiontheEnglish，becauseuntilverylatelytheirprofessorshipshavebeen，asiswellknown，littlemorethannominal。Inthecase，too，ofalecturerinagreatinstitutionofeducation，thepublicatlargehasthemeansofjudging，ifnotthequalityoftheteaching，atleastthetalentsandindustryoftheteacher;anditismoredifficulttomisemploythepowerofappointmenttosuchanoffice，thantojobinpensionsandsalariestopersonsnotsodirectlybeforethepubliceye。
　　Itmaybesaidgenerally，thatanythingwhichitisdesirableshouldbedoneforthegeneralinterestsofmankindoroffuturegenerations，orforthepresentinterestsofthosemembersofthecommunitywhorequireexternalaidbutwhichisnotofanaturetoremunerateindividualsorassociationsforundertakingit，isinitselfasuitablethingtobeundertakenbygovernment:
　　though，beforemakingtheworktheirown，governmentsoughtalwaystoconsideriftherebeanyrationalprobabilityofitsbeingdoneonwhatiscalledthevoluntaryprinciple，andifso，whetheritislikelytobedoneinabetterormoreeffectualmannerbygovernmentagency，thanbythezealandliberalityofindividuals。
　　16。Theprecedingheadscomprise，tothebestofmyjudgment，thewholeoftheexceptionstothepracticalmaxim，thatthebusinessofsocietycanbebestperformedbyprivateandvoluntaryagency。Itis，however，necessarytoadd，thattheinterventionofgovernmentcannotalwayspracticallystopshortatthelimitwhichdefinesthecasesintrinsicallysuitableforit。Intheparticularcircumstancesofagivenageornation，thereisscarcelyanythingreallyimportanttothegeneralinterest，whichitmaynotbedesirable，orevennecessary，thatthegovernmentshouldtakeuponitself，notbecauseprivateindividualscannoteffectuallyperformit，butbecausetheywillnot。Atsometimesandplaces，therewillbenoroads，docks，harbours，canals，worksofirrigation，hospitals，schools，colleges，printing—presses，unlessthegovernmentestablishesthem;thepublicbeingeithertoopoortocommandthenecessaryresources，ortoolittleadvancedinintelligencetoappreciatetheends，ornotsufficientlypractisedinjointactiontobecapableofthemeans。Thisistrue，moreorless，ofallcountriesinuredtodespotism，andparticularlyofthoseinwhichthereisaverywidedistanceincivilizationbetweenthepeopleandthegovernment:asinthosewhichhavebeenconqueredandareretainedinsubjectionbyamoreenergeticandmorecultivatedpeople。Inmanypartsoftheworld，thepeoplecandonothingforthemselveswhichrequireslargemeansandcombinedaction:allsuchthingsareleftundone，unlessdonebythestate。Inthesecases，themodeinwhichthegovernmentcanmostsurelydemonstratethesinceritywithwhichitintendsthegreatestgoodofitssubjects，isbydoingthethingswhicharemadeincumbentonitbythehelplessnessofthepublic，insuchamannerasshalltendnottoincreaseandperpetuate，buttocorrect，thathelplessness。Agoodgovernmentwillgiveallitsaidinsuchashape，astoencourageandnurtureanyrudimentsitmayfindofaspiritofindividualexertion。Itwillbeassiduousinremovingobstaclesanddiscouragementstovoluntaryenterprise，andingivingwhateverfacilitiesandwhateverdirectionandguidancemaybenecessary:itspecuniarymeanswillbeapplied，whenpracticable，inaidofprivateeffortsratherthaninsupersessionofthem，anditwillcallintoplayitsmachineryofrewardsandhonourstoelicitsuchefforts。Governmentaid，whengivenmerelyindefaultofprivateenterprise，shouldbesogivenastobeasfaraspossibleacourseofeducationforthepeopleintheartofaccomplishinggreatobjectsbyindividualenergyandvoluntaryco—operation。
　　Ihavenotthoughtitnecessaryheretoinsistonthatpartofthefunctionsofgovernmentwhichalladmittobeindispensable，thefunctionofprohibitingandpunishingsuchconductonthepartofindividualsintheexerciseoftheirfreedom，asisclearlyinjurioustootherpersons，whetherthecasebeoneofforce，fraud，ornegligence。Eveninthebeststatewhichsocietyhasyetreached，itislamentabletothinkhowgreataproportionofalltheeffortsandtalentsintheworldareemployedinmerelyneutralizingoneanother。Itistheproperendofgovernmenttoreducethiswretchedwastetothesmallestpossibleamount，bytakingsuchmeasuresasshallcausetheenergiesnowspentbymankindininjuringoneanother，orinprotectingthemselvesagainstinjury，tobeturnedtothelegitimateemploymentofthehumanfaculties，thatofcompellingthepowersofnaturetobemoreandmoresubservienttophysicalandmoralgood。
　　NOTES:
　　1。Supra，Bk，v，Ch。I。
　　2。Theonlycasesinwhichgovernmentagencyinvolvesnothingofacompulsorynature，aretherarecasesinwhich，withoutanyartificialmonopoly，itpaysitsownexpenses。Abridgebuiltwithpublicmoney，onwhichtollsarecollectedsufficienttopaynotonlyallcurrentexpenses，buttheinterestoftheoriginaloutlay，isonecaseinpoint。ThegovernmentrailwaysinBelgiumandGermanyareanotherexample。ThePostOffice，ifitsmonopolywereabolished，anditstillpaiditsexpenses，wouldbeanother。
　　3。DelaLiberteduTravail，Vol。II，pp。353—4。
　　4。Iquoteatsecondhand，fromMrCarey’sEssayontheRateofWages，pp。195—6。
　　5。Inoppositiontotheseopinions，awriter，withwhomonmanypointsIagree，butwhosehostilitytogovernmentinterventionseemstometooindiscriminateandunqualified，M。Dunoyer，observes，thatinstruction，howevergoodinitself，canonlybeusefultothepublicinsofarastheyarewillingtoreceiveit，andthatthebestproofthattheinstructionissuitabletotheirwantsisitssuccessasapecuniaryenterprise。Thisargumentseemsnomoreconclusiverespectinginstructionforthemind，thanitwouldberespectingmedicineforthebody。Nomedicinewilldothepatientanygoodifhecannotbeinducedtotakeit;
　　butwearenotboundtoadmitasacorollaryfromthis，thatthepatientwillselecttherightmedicinewithoutassistance。Isitnotprobablethatarecommendation，fromanyquarterwhichherespects，mayinducehimtoacceptabettermedicinethanhewouldspontaneouslyhavechosen？Thisis，inrespecttoeducation，theverypointindebate。Withoutdoubt，instructionwhichissofarinadvanceofthepeoplethattheycannotbeinducedtoavailthemselvesofit，istothemofnomoreworththanifitdidnotexist。Butbetweenwhattheyspontaneouslychoose，andwhattheywillrefusetoacceptwhenoffered，thereisabreadthofintervalproportionedtotheirdeferencefortherecommender。Besides，athingofwhichthepublicarebadjudges，mayrequiretobeshowntothemandpressedontheirattentionforalongtime，andtoproveitsadvantagesbylongexperience，beforetheylearntoappreciateit，yettheymaylearnatlast;
　　whichtheymightneverhavedone，ifthethinghadnotbeenthusobtrudedupontheminact，butonlyrecommendedintheory。Now，apecuniaryspeculationcannotwaityears，orperhapsgenerationsforsuccess;itmustsucceedrapidly，ornotatall。AnotherconsiderationwhichM。Dunoyerseemstohaveoverlooked，is，thatinstitutionsandmodesoftuitionwhichnevercouldbemadesufficientlypopulartorepay，withaprofit，theexpensesincurredonthem，maybeinvaluabletothemanybygivingthehighestqualityofeducationtothefewandkeepinguptheperpetualsuccessionofsuperiorminds，bywhomknowledgeisadvanced，andthecommunityurgedforwardincivilization。
　　6。ThepracticeoftheEnglishlawwithrespecttoinsanepersons，especiallyontheall—importantpointoftheascertainmentofinsanity，mosturgentlydemandsreform。Atpresentnopersons，whosepropertyisworthcoveting，andwhosenearestrelationsareunscrupulous，oronbadtermswiththem，aresecureagainstacommissionoflunacy。Attheinstanceofthepersonswhowouldprofitbytheirbeingdeclaredinsane，ajurymaybeimpanelledandaninvestigationheldattheexpenseoftheproperty，inwhichalltheirpersonalpeculiarities，withalltheadditionsmadebythelyinggossipoflowservants，arepouredintothecredulousearsoftwelvepettyshopkeepers，ignorantofallwaysoflifeexceptthoseoftheirownclass，andregardingeverytraitofindividualityincharacterortasteaseccentricity，andalleccentricityaseitherinsanityorwickedness。lfthissapienttribunalgivesthedesiredverdict，thepropertyishandedovertoperhapsthelastpersonswhomtherightfulownerwouldhavedesiredorsufferedtopossessit。Somerecentinstancesofthiskindofinvestigationhavebeenascandaltotheadministrationofjustice。Whateverotherchangesinthisbranchoflawmaybemade，twoatleastareimperative:
　　firSt，that，asinotherlegalproceedings，theexpensesshouldnotbebornebythepersonontrial，butbythepromotersoftheinquiry，subjecttorecoveryofcostsincaseofsuccess:andsecondly，thatthepropertyofapersondeclaredinsane，shouldinnocasebemadeovertoheirswhiletheproprietorisalive，butshouldbemanagedbyapublicofficeruntilhisdeathorrecovery。
　　7。Aparallelcasemaybefoundinthedistasteforpolitics，andabsenceofpublicspirit，bywhichwomen，asaclass，arecharacterizedinthepresentstateofsociety，andwhichisoftenfeltandcomplainedofbypoliticalreformers，without，ingeneral，makingthemwillingtorecognise，ordesiroustoremove，itscause。Itobviouslyarisesfromtheirbeingtaught，bothbyinstitutionsandbythewholeoftheireducation，toregardthemselvesasentirelyapartfrompolitics。Wherevertheyhavebeenpoliticians，theyhaveshownasgreatinterestinthesubject，andasgreataptitudeforit，accordingtothespiritoftheirtime，asthemenwithwhomtheywerecontemporaries:inthatperiodofhistory（forexample）inwhichIsabellaofCastileandElizabethofEnglandwere，notrareexceptions，butmerelybrilliantexamplesofaspiritandcapacityverylargelydiffusedamongwomenofhighstationandcultivationinEurope。
　　8。Theobjectionswhichhavebeenmade，withsomuchvirulence，insomeofthesecolonies，totheWakefieldsystem，apply，insofarastheyhaveanyvalidity，nottotheprinciple，buttosomeprovisionswhicharenopartofthesystem，andhavebeenmostunnecessarilyandimproperlyengraftedonit;suchastheofferingonlyalimitedquantityoflandforsale，andthatbyauction，andinlotsofnotlessthan640acres，insteadofsellingalllandwhichisaskedfor，andallowingtothebuyerunlimitedfreedomofchoice，bothastoquantityandsituation，atafixedprice。