WhenthechroniclersoftheMiddleAges，whoallbelongedtothearistocracybybirthoreducation，relatethetragicalendofanoble，theirgriefflowsapace;whereastheytellyouatabreath，andwithoutwincing，ofmassacresandtorturesinflictedonthecommonsortofpeople。Notthatthesewritersfelthabitualhatredorsystematicdisdainforthepeople;warbetweentheseveralclassesofthecommunitywasnotyetdeclared。Theywereimpelledbyaninstinctratherthanbyapassion;astheyhadformednoclearnotionofapoorman’ssufferings，theycaredbutlittleforhisfate。Thesamefeelingsanimatedthelowerorderswheneverthefeudaltiewasbroken。Thesameageswhichwitnessedsomanyheroicactsofself—devotiononthepartofvassalsfortheirlords，werestainedwithatrociousbarbarities，exercisedfromtimetotimebythelowerclassesonthehigher。
　　Itmustnotbesupposedthatthismutualinsensibilityarosesolelyfromtheabsenceofpublicorderandeducation;fortracesofitaretobefoundinthefollowingcenturies，whichbecametranquilandenlightenedwhilsttheyremainedaristocratic。In1675thelowerclassesinBrittanyrevoltedattheimpositionofanewtax。Thesedisturbanceswereputdownwithunexampledatrocity。ObservethelanguageinwhichMadamedeSevigne，awitnessofthesehorrors，relatesthemtoherdaughter:—
　　"AuxRochers，30Octobre，1675。
　　"MonDieu，mafille，quevotrelettred’Aixestplaisante！
　　Aumoinsrelisezvoslettresavantquedelesenvoyer;
　　laissez—voussurpendrealeuragrement，etconsolez—vousparceplaisirdelapeinequevousavezd’entantecrire。VousavezdoncbaisetoutelaProvence？iln’yauraitpassatisfactionabaisertoutelaBretagne，amoinsqu’onn’aimatasentirlevin……Voulez—voussavoirdesnouvellesdeRennes？Onafaitunetaxedecentmilleecussurlebourgeois;etsionnetrouvepointcettesommedansvingt—quatreheures，elleseradoubleeetexigibleparlessoldats。Onachasseetbannitouteunegrandrue，etdefendudelesrecueillirsouspeinedelavie;desortequ’onvoyaittouscesmiserables，veillards，femmesaccouchees，enfans，errerenpleursausortirdecettevillesanssavoiroualler。Onrouaavant—hierunviolon，quiavaitcommenceladanseetlapilleriedupapiertimbre;ilaeteecarteleapressamort，etsesquatrequartiersexposesauxquatrecoinsdelaville。Onaprissoixantebourgeois，etoncommencedemainlespunitions。
　　Cetteprovinceestunbelexemplepourlesautres，etsurtoutderespecterlesgouverneursetlesgouvernantes，etdenepointjeterdepierresdansleurjardin。*a[Footnotea:TofeelthepointofthisjokethereadershouldrecollectthatMadamedeGrignanwasGouvernantedeProvence。]
　　"MadamedeTarenteetaithierdanscesboisparuntempsenchante:iln’estquestionnidechambrenidecollation;elleentreparlabarriereets’enretournedememe……"
　　Inanotherlettersheadds:—
　　"Vousmeparlezbienplaisammentdenosmiseres;nousnesommesplussiroues;unenhuitjours，pourentretenirlajustice。Ilestvraiquelapenderiemeparaitmaintenantunrefraichissement。J’aiunetoutautreideedelajustice，depuisquejesuisencepays。Vosgaleriensmeparaissentunesocieted’honnetesgensquisesontretiresdumondepourmeneruneviedouce。"
　　ItwouldbeamistaketosupposethatMadamedeSevigne，whowrotetheselines，wasaselfishorcruelperson;shewaspassionatelyattachedtoherchildren，andveryreadytosympathizeinthesorrowsofherfriends;nay，herlettersshowthatshetreatedhervassalsandservantswithkindnessandindulgence。ButMadamedeSevignehadnoclearnotionofsufferinginanyonewhowasnotapersonofquality。
　　InourtimetheharshestmanwritingtothemostinsensiblepersonofhisacquaintancewouldnotventurewantonlytoindulgeinthecrueljocularitywhichIhavequoted;andevenifhisownmannersallowedhimtodoso，themannersofsocietyatlargewouldforbidit。Whencedoesthisarise？Havewemoresensibilitythanourforefathers？Iknownotthatwehave;butI
　　amsurethatourinsensibilityisextendedtoafargreaterrangeofobjects。Whenalltheranksofacommunityarenearlyequal，asallmenthinkandfeelinnearlythesamemanner，eachofthemmayjudgeinamomentofthesensationsofalltheothers;hecastsarapidglanceuponhimself，andthatisenough。Thereisnowretchednessintowhichhecannotreadilyenter，andasecretinstinctrevealstohimitsextent。Itsignifiesnotthatstrangersorfoesbethesufferers;imaginationputshimintheirplace;somethinglikeapersonalfeelingismingledwithhispity，andmakeshimselfsufferwhilstthebodyofhisfellow—creatureisintorture。Indemocraticagesmenrarelysacrificethemselvesforoneanother;buttheydisplaygeneralcompassionforthemembersofthehumanrace。Theyinflictnouselessills;andtheyarehappytorelievethegriefsofothers，whentheycandosowithoutmuchhurtingthemselves;theyarenotdisinterested，buttheyarehumane。
　　AlthoughtheAmericanshave，inamanner，reducedegotismtoasocialandphilosophicaltheory，theyareneverthelessextremelyopentocompassion。InnocountryiscriminaljusticeadministeredwithmoremildnessthanintheUnitedStates。
　　WhilsttheEnglishseemdisposedcarefullytoretainthebloodytracesofthedarkagesintheirpenallegislation，theAmericanshavealmostexpungedcapitalpunishmentfromtheircodes。NorthAmericais，Ithink，theonlyonecountryuponearthinwhichthelifeofnoonecitizenhasbeentakenforapoliticaloffenceinthecourseofthelastfiftyyears。ThecircumstancewhichconclusivelyshowsthatthissingularmildnessoftheAmericansariseschieflyfromtheirsocialcondition，isthemannerinwhichtheytreattheirslaves。Perhapsthereisnot，uponthewhole，asingleEuropeancolonyintheNewWorldinwhichthephysicalconditionoftheblacksislessseverethanintheUnitedStates;yettheslavesstillendurehorridsufferingsthere，andareconstantlyexposedtobarbarouspunishments。Itiseasytoperceivethatthelotoftheseunhappybeingsinspirestheirmasterswithbutlittlecompassion，andthattheylookuponslavery，notonlyasaninstitutionwhichisprofitabletothem，butasanevilwhichdoesnotaffectthem。Thusthesamemanwhoisfullofhumanitytowardshisfellow—creatureswhentheyareatthesametimehisequals，becomesinsensibletotheirafflictionsassoonasthatequalityceases。Hismildnessshouldthereforebeattributedtotheequalityofconditions，ratherthantocivilizationandeducation。
　　WhatIhavehereremarkedofindividualsis，toacertainextent，applicabletonations。Wheneachnationhasitsdistinctopinions，belief，laws，andcustoms，itlooksuponitselfasthewholeofmankind，andismovedbynosorrowsbutitsown。Shouldwarbreakoutbetweentwonationsanimatedbythisfeeling，itissuretobewagedwithgreatcruelty。Atthetimeoftheirhighestculture，theRomansslaughteredthegeneralsoftheirenemies，afterhavingdraggedthemintriumphbehindacar;andtheyflungtheirprisonerstothebeastsoftheCircusfortheamusementofthepeople。Cicero，whodeclaimedsovehementlyatthenotionofcrucifyingaRomancitizen，hadnotawordtosayagainstthesehorribleabusesofvictory。ItisevidentthatinhiseyesabarbariandidnotbelongtothesamehumanraceasaRoman。Onthecontrary，inproportionasnationsbecomemorelikeeachother，theybecomereciprocallymorecompassionate，andthelawofnationsismitigated。
　　ChapterII:ThatDemocracyRendersTheHabitualIntercourseOfTheAmericansSimpleAndEasyDemocracydoesnotattachmenstronglytoeachother;butitplacestheirhabitualintercourseuponaneasierfooting。IftwoEnglishmenchancetomeetattheAntipodes，wheretheyaresurroundedbystrangerswhoselanguageandmannersarealmostunknowntothem，theywillfirststareateachotherwithmuchcuriosityandakindofsecretuneasiness;theywillthenturnaway，or，ifoneaccoststheother，theywilltakecareonlytoconversewithaconstrainedandabsentairuponveryunimportantsubjects。Yetthereisnoenmitybetweenthesemen;theyhaveneverseeneachotherbefore，andeachbelievestheothertobearespectableperson。Whythenshouldtheystandsocautiouslyapart？WemustgobacktoEnglandtolearnthereason。
　　Whenitisbirthalone，independentofwealth，whichclassesmeninsociety，everyoneknowsexactlywhathisownpositionisuponthesocialscale;hedoesnotseektorise，hedoesnotfeartosink。Inacommunitythusorganized，menofdifferentcastescommunicateverylittlewitheachother;butifaccidentbringsthemtogether，theyarereadytoconversewithouthopingorfearingtolosetheirownposition。Theirintercourseisnotuponafootingofequality，butitisnotconstrained。Whenmoneyedaristocracysucceedstoaristocracyofbirth，thecaseisaltered。Theprivilegesofsomearestillextremelygreat，butthepossibilityofacquiringthoseprivilegesisopentoall:
　　whenceitfollowsthatthosewhopossessthemareconstantlyhauntedbytheapprehensionoflosingthem，orofothermen’ssharingthem;thosewhodonotyetenjoythemlongtopossessthematanycost，or，iftheyfailtoappearatleasttopossessthem—whichisnotimpossible。Asthesocialimportanceofmenisnolongerostensiblyandpermanentlyfixedbyblood，andisinfinitelyvariedbywealth，ranksstillexist，butitisnoteasyclearlytodistinguishataglancethosewhorespectivelybelongtothem。Secrethostilitiesthenariseinthecommunity;
　　onesetofmenendeavorbyinnumerableartificestopenetrate，ortoappeartopenetrate，amongstthosewhoareabovethem;anothersetareconstantlyinarmsagainsttheseusurpersoftheirrights;orratherthesameindividualdoesbothatonce，andwhilstheseekstoraisehimselfintoahighercircle，heisalwaysonthedefensiveagainsttheintrusionofthosebelowhim。
　　SuchistheconditionofEnglandatthepresenttime;andI
　　amofopinionthatthepeculiaritybeforeadvertedtoisprincipallytobeattributedtothiscause。AsaristocraticprideisstillextremelygreatamongsttheEnglish，andasthelimitsofaristocracyareill—defined，everybodylivesinconstantdreadlestadvantageshouldbetakenofhisfamiliarity。
　　Unabletojudgeatonceofthesocialpositionofthosehemeets，anEnglishmanprudentlyavoidsallcontactwiththem。Menareafraidlestsomeslightservicerenderedshoulddrawthemintoanunsuitableacquaintance;theydreadcivilities，andtheyavoidtheobtrusivegratitudeofastrangerquiteasmuchashishatred。Manypeopleattributethesesingularanti—socialpropensities，andthereservedandtaciturnbearingoftheEnglish，topurelyphysicalcauses。Imayadmitthatthereissomethingofitintheirrace，butmuchmoreofitisattributabletotheirsocialcondition，asisprovedbythecontrastoftheAmericans。
　　InAmerica，wheretheprivilegesofbirthneverexisted，andwhererichesconfernopeculiarrightsontheirpossessors，menunacquaintedwitheachotherareveryreadytofrequentthesameplaces，andfindneitherperilnoradvantageinthefreeinterchangeoftheirthoughts。Iftheymeetbyaccident，theyneitherseeknoravoidintercourse;theirmanneristhereforenatural，frank，andopen:itiseasytoseethattheyhardlyexpectorapprehendanythingfromeachother，andthattheydonotcaretodisplay，anymorethantoconceal，theirpositionintheworld。Iftheirdemeanorisoftencoldandserious，itisneverhaughtyorconstrained;andiftheydonotconverse，itisbecausetheyarenotinahumortotalk，notbecausetheythinkittheirinteresttobesilent。InaforeigncountrytwoAmericansareatoncefriends，simplybecausetheyareAmericans。
　　Theyarerepulsedbynoprejudice;theyareattractedbytheircommoncountry。FortwoEnglishmenthesamebloodisnotenough;
　　theymustbebroughttogetherbythesamerank。TheAmericansremarkthisunsociablemoodoftheEnglishasmuchastheFrenchdo，andtheyarenotlessastonishedbyit。YettheAmericansareconnectedwithEnglandbytheirorigin，theirreligion，theirlanguage，andpartiallybytheirmanners;theyonlydifferintheirsocialcondition。ItmaythereforebeinferredthatthereserveoftheEnglishproceedsfromtheconstitutionoftheircountrymuchmorethanfromthatofitsinhabitants。
　　ChapterIII:WhyTheAmericansShowSoLittleSensitivenessInTheirOwnCountry，AndAreSoSensitiveInEuropeThetemperoftheAmericansisvindictive，likethatofallseriousandreflectingnations。Theyhardlyeverforgetanoffence，butitisnoteasytooffendthem;andtheirresentmentisasslowtokindleasitistoabate。Inaristocraticcommunitieswhereasmallnumberofpersonsmanageeverything，theoutwardintercourseofmenissubjecttosettledconventionalrules。Everyonethenthinksheknowsexactlywhatmarksofrespectorofcondescensionheoughttodisplay，andnonearepresumedtobeignorantofthescienceofetiquette。Theseusagesofthefirstclassinsocietyafterwardsserveasamodeltoalltheothers;besideswhicheachofthelatterlaysdownacodeofitsown，towhichallitsmembersareboundtoconform。
　　Thustherulesofpolitenessformacomplexsystemoflegislation，whichitisdifficulttobeperfectlymasterof，butfromwhichitisdangerousforanyonetodeviate;sothatmenareconstantlyexposedinvoluntarilytoinflictortoreceivebitteraffronts。Butasthedistinctionsofrankareobliterated，asmendifferingineducationandinbirthmeetandmingleinthesameplacesofresort，itisalmostimpossibletoagreeupontherulesofgoodbreeding。Asitslawsareuncertain，todisobeythemisnotacrime，evenintheeyesofthosewhoknowwhattheyare;menattachmoreimportancetointentionsthantoforms，andtheygrowlesscivil，butatthesametimelessquarrelsome。
　　TherearemanylittleattentionswhichanAmericandoesnotcareabout;hethinkstheyarenotduetohim，orhepresumesthattheyarenotknowntobedue:hethereforeeitherdoesnotperceivearudenessorheforgivesit;hismannersbecomelesscourteous，andhischaractermoreplainandmasculine。
　　ThemutualindulgencewhichtheAmericansdisplay，andthemanlyconfidencewithwhichtheytreateachother，alsoresultfromanotherdeeperandmoregeneralcause，whichIhavealreadyadvertedtointheprecedingchapter。IntheUnitedStatesthedistinctionsofrankincivilsocietyareslight，inpoliticalsocietytheyarenull;anAmerican，therefore，doesnotthinkhimselfboundtopayparticularattentionstoanyofhisfellow—
　　citizens，nordoesherequiresuchattentionsfromthemtowardshimself。Ashedoesnotseethatitishisinteresteagerlytoseekthecompanyofanyofhiscountrymen，heisslowtofancythathisowncompanyisdeclined:despisingnooneonaccountofhisstation，hedoesnotimaginethatanyonecandespisehimforthatcause;anduntilhehasclearlyperceivedaninsult，hedoesnotsupposethatanaffrontwasintended。ThesocialconditionoftheAmericansnaturallyaccustomsthemnottotakeoffenceinsmallmatters;and，ontheotherhand，thedemocraticfreedomwhichtheyenjoytransfusesthissamemildnessoftemperintothecharacterofthenation。ThepoliticalinstitutionsoftheUnitedStatesconstantlybringcitizensofallranksintocontact，andcompelthemtopursuegreatundertakingsinconcert。
　　Peoplethusengagedhavescarcelytimetoattendtothedetailsofetiquette，andtheyarebesidestoostronglyinterestedinlivingharmoniouslyforthemtostickatsuchthings。Theythereforesoonacquireahabitofconsideringthefeelingsandopinionsofthosewhomtheymeetmorethantheirmanners，andtheydonotallowthemselvestobeannoyedbytrifles。
　　IhaveoftenremarkedintheUnitedStatesthatitisnoteasytomakeamanunderstandthathispresencemaybedispensedwith;hintswillnotalwayssufficetoshakehimoff。I
　　contradictanAmericanateverywordhesays，toshowhimthathisconversationboresme;heinstantlylaborswithfreshpertinacitytoconvinceme;Ipreserveadoggedsilence，andhethinksIammeditatingdeeplyonthetruthswhichheisuttering;
　　atlastIrushfromhiscompany，andhesupposesthatsomeurgentbusinesshurriesmeelsewhere。ThismanwillneverunderstandthatheweariesmetoextinctionunlessItellhimso:andtheonlywaytogetridofhimistomakehimmyenemyforlife。
　　ItappearssurprisingatfirstsightthatthesamemantransportedtoEuropesuddenlybecomessosensitiveandcaptious，thatIoftenfinditasdifficulttoavoidoffendinghimhereasitwastoputhimoutofcountenance。Thesetwooppositeeffectsproceedfromthesamecause。Democraticinstitutionsgenerallygivemenaloftynotionoftheircountryandofthemselves。AnAmericanleaveshiscountrywithaheartswollenwithpride;onarrivinginEuropeheatoncefindsoutthatwearenotsoengrossedbytheUnitedStatesandthegreatpeoplewhichinhabitsthemashehadsupposed，andthisbeginstoannoyhim。
　　Hehasbeeninformedthattheconditionsofsocietyarenotequalinourpartoftheglobe，andheobservesthatamongthenationsofEuropethetracesofrankarenotwhollyobliterated;thatwealthandbirthstillretainsomeindeterminateprivileges，whichforcethemselvesuponhisnoticewhilsttheyeludedefinition。Heisthereforeprofoundlyignorantoftheplacewhichheoughttooccupyinthishalf—ruinedscaleofclasses，whicharesufficientlydistincttohateanddespiseeachother，yetsufficientlyalikeforhimtobealwaysconfoundingthem。Heisafraidofranginghimselftoohigh—stillmoreisheafraidofbeingrangedtoolow;thistwofoldperilkeepshismindconstantlyonthestretch，andembarrassesallhesaysanddoes。
　　HelearnsfromtraditionthatinEuropeceremonialobservanceswereinfinitelyvariedaccordingtodifferentranks;thisrecollectionofformertimescompleteshisperplexity，andheisthemoreafraidofnotobtainingthosemarksofrespectwhichareduetohim，ashedoesnotexactlyknowinwhattheyconsist。Heislikeamansurroundedbytraps:societyisnotarecreationforhim，butaserioustoil:heweighsyourleastactions，interrogatesyourlooks，andscrutinizesallyousay，lestthereshouldbesomehiddenallusiontoaffronthim。Idoubtwhethertherewaseveraprovincialmanofqualitysopunctiliousinbreedingasheis:heendeavorstoattendtotheslightestrulesofetiquette，anddoesnotallowoneofthemtobewaivedtowardshimself:heisfullofscruplesandatthesametimeofpretensions;hewishestodoenough，butfearstodotoomuch;
　　andashedoesnotverywellknowthelimitsoftheoneoroftheother，hekeepsupahaughtyandembarrassedairofreserve。
　　Butthisisnotall:hereisyetanotherdoubleofthehumanheart。AnAmericanisforevertalkingoftheadmirableequalitywhichprevailsintheUnitedStates;aloudhemakesittheboastofhiscountry，butinsecrethedeploresitforhimself;andheaspirestoshowthat，forhispart，heisanexceptiontothegeneralstateofthingswhichhevaunts。ThereishardlyanAmericantobemetwithwhodoesnotclaimsomeremotekindredwiththefirstfoundersofthecolonies;andasforthescionsofthenoblefamiliesofEngland，Americaseemedtometobecoveredwiththem。WhenanopulentAmericanarrivesinEurope，hisfirstcareistosurroundhimselfwithalltheluxuriesofwealth:heissoafraidofbeingtakenfortheplaincitizenofademocracy，thatheadoptsahundreddistortedwaysofbringingsomenewinstanceofhiswealthbeforeyoueveryday。Hishousewillbeinthemostfashionablepartofthetown:hewillalwaysbesurroundedbyahostofservants。IhaveheardanAmericancomplain，thatinthebesthousesofParisthesocietywasrathermixed;thetastewhichprevailstherewasnotpureenoughforhim;andheventuredtohintthat，inhisopinion，therewasawantofeleganceofmanner;hecouldnotaccustomhimselftoseewitconcealedundersuchunpretendingforms。
　　Thesecontrastsoughtnottosurpriseus。IfthevestigesofformeraristocraticdistinctionswerenotsocompletelyeffacedintheUnitedStates，theAmericanswouldbelesssimpleandlesstolerantintheirowncountry—theywouldrequireless，andbelessfondofborrowedmannersinours。
　　ChapterIV:ConsequencesOfTheThreePrecedingChaptersWhenmenfeelanaturalcompassionfortheirmutualsufferings—whentheyarebroughttogetherbyeasyandfrequentintercourse，andnosensitivefeelingskeepthemasunder—itmayreadilybesupposedthattheywilllendassistancetooneanotherwheneveritisneeded。WhenanAmericanasksfortheco—operationofhisfellow—citizensitisseldomrefused，andI
　　haveoftenseenitaffordedspontaneouslyandwithgreatgoodwill。Ifanaccidenthappensonthehighway，everybodyhastenstohelpthesufferer;ifsomegreatandsuddencalamitybefallsafamily，thepursesofathousandstrangersareatoncewillinglyopened，andsmallbutnumerousdonationspourintorelievetheirdistress。Itoftenhappensamongstthemostcivilizednationsoftheglobe，thatapoorwretchisasfriendlessinthemidstofacrowdasthesavageinhiswilds:
　　thisishardlyeverthecaseintheUnitedStates。TheAmericans，whoarealwayscoldandoftencoarseintheirmanners，seldomshowinsensibility;andiftheydonotprofferserviceseagerly，yettheydonotrefusetorenderthem。
　　AllthisisnotincontradictiontowhatIhavesaidbeforeonthesubjectofindividualism。Thetwothingsaresofarfromcombatingeachother，thatIcanseehowtheyagree。Equalityofconditions，whilstitmakesmenfeeltheirindependence，showsthemtheirownweakness:theyarefree，butexposedtoathousandaccidents;andexperiencesoonteachesthemthat，althoughtheydonothabituallyrequiretheassistanceofothers，atimealmostalwayscomeswhentheycannotdowithoutit。WeconstantlyseeinEuropethatmenofthesameprofessionareeverreadytoassisteachother;theyareallexposedtothesameills，andthatisenoughtoteachthemtoseekmutualpreservatives，howeverhard—heartedandselfishtheymayotherwisebe。Whenoneofthemfallsintodanger，fromwhichtheothersmaysavehimbyaslighttransientsacrificeorasuddeneffort，theydonotfailtomaketheattempt。Notthattheyaredeeplyinterestedinhisfate;forif，bychance，theirexertionsareunavailing，theyimmediatelyforgettheobjectofthem，andreturntotheirownbusiness;butasortoftacitandalmostinvoluntaryagreementhasbeenpassedbetweenthem，bywhicheachoneowestotheothersatemporarysupportwhichhemayclaimforhimselfinturn。Extendtoapeopletheremarkhereappliedtoaclass，andyouwillunderstandmymeaning。Asimilarcovenantexistsinfactbetweenallthecitizensofademocracy:theyallfeelthemselvessubjecttothesameweaknessandthesamedangers;andtheirinterest，aswellastheirsympathy，makesitarulewiththemtolendeachothermutualassistancewhenrequired。Themoreequalsocialconditionsbecome，themoredomendisplaythisreciprocaldispositiontoobligeeachother。Indemocraciesnogreatbenefitsareconferred，butgoodofficesareconstantlyrendered:amanseldomdisplaysself—devotion，butallmenarereadytobeofservicetooneanother。
　　BookThree—ChaptersV—VII
　　ChapterV:HowDemocracyAffectsnheRelationOfMastersAndServantsAnAmericanwhohadtravelledforalongtimeinEuropeoncesaidtome，"TheEnglishtreattheirservantswithastiffnessandimperiousnessofmannerwhichsurpriseus;butontheotherhandtheFrenchsometimestreattheirattendantswithadegreeoffamiliarityorofpolitenesswhichwecannotconceive。Itlooksasiftheywereafraidtogiveorders:thepostureofthesuperiorandtheinferiorisill—maintained。"Theremarkwasajustone，andIhaveoftenmadeitmyself。IhavealwaysconsideredEnglandasthecountryintheworldwhere，inourtime，thebondofdomesticserviceisdrawnmosttightly，andFranceasthecountrywhereitismostrelaxed。NowherehaveI
　　seenmastersstandsohighorsolowasinthesetwocountries。
　　BetweenthesetwoextremestheAmericansaretobeplaced。Suchisthefactasitappearsuponthesurfaceofthings:todiscoverthecausesofthatfact，itisnecessarytosearchthematterthoroughly。
　　Nocommunitieshaveeveryetexistedinwhichsocialconditionshavebeensoequalthattherewereneitherrichnorpoor，andconsequentlyneithermastersnorservants。Democracydoesnotpreventtheexistenceofthesetwoclasses，butitchangestheirdispositionsandmodifiestheirmutualrelations。
　　Amongstaristocraticnationsservantsformadistinctclass，notmorevariouslycomposedthanthatofmasters。Asettledorderissoonestablished;intheformeraswellasinthelatterclassascaleisformed，withnumerousdistinctionsormarkedgradationsofrank，andgenerationssucceedeachotherthuswithoutanychangeofposition。Thesetwocommunitiesaresuperposedoneabovetheother，alwaysdistinct，butregulatedbyanalogousprinciples。Thisaristocraticconstitutiondoesnotexertalesspowerfulinfluenceonthenotionsandmannersofservantsthanonthoseofmasters;and，althoughtheeffectsaredifferent，thesamecausemayeasilybetraced。Bothclassesconstitutesmallcommunitiesintheheartofthenation，andcertainpermanentnotionsofrightandwrongareultimatelyengenderedamongstthem。Thedifferentactsofhumanlifeareviewedbyoneparticularandunchanginglight。Inthesocietyofservants，asinthatofmasters，menexerciseagreatinfluenceovereachother:theyacknowledgesettledrules，andintheabsenceoflawtheyareguidedbyasortofpublicopinion:theirhabitsaresettled，andtheirconductisplacedunderacertaincontrol。
　　Thesemen，whosedestinyistoobey，certainlydonotunderstandfame，virtue，honesty，andhonorinthesamemannerastheirmasters;buttheyhaveapride，avirtue，andanhonestypertainingtotheircondition;andtheyhaveanotion，ifImayusetheexpression，ofasortofservilehonor。*aBecauseaclassismean，itmustnotbesupposedthatallwhobelongtoitaremean—hearted;tothinksowouldbeagreatmistake。Howeverlowlyitmaybe，hewhoisforemostthere，andwhohasnonotionofquittingit，occupiesanaristocraticpositionwhichinspireshimwithloftyfeelings，pride，andself—respect，thatfithimforthehighervirtuesandactionsabovethecommon。Amongstaristocraticnationsitwasbynomeansraretofindmenofnobleandvigorousmindsintheserviceofthegreat，whofeltnottheservitudetheybore，andwhosubmittedtothewilloftheirmasterswithoutanyfearoftheirdispleasure。Butthiswashardlyeverthecaseamongsttheinferiorranksofdomesticservants。Itmaybeimaginedthathewhooccupiestheloweststageoftheorderofmenialsstandsverylowindeed。TheFrenchcreatedawordonpurposetodesignatetheservantsofthearistocracy—theycalledthemlackeys。Thisword"lackey"
　　servedasthestrongestexpression，whenallotherswereexhausted，todesignatehumanmeanness。UndertheoldFrenchmonarchy，todenotebyasingleexpressionalow—spiritedcontemptiblefellow，itwasusualtosaythathehadthe"soulofalackey";thetermwasenoughtoconveyallthatwasintended。
　　[Footnotea:Iftheprincipalopinionsbywhichmenareguidedareexaminedcloselyandindetail，theanalogyappearsstillmorestriking，andoneissurprisedtofindamongstthem，justasmuchasamongstthehaughtiestscionsofafeudalrace，prideofbirth，respectfortheirancestryandtheirdescendants，disdainoftheirinferiors，adreadofcontact，atasteforetiquette，precedents，andantiquity。]
　　Thepermanentinequalityofconditionsnotonlygivesservantscertainpeculiarvirtuesandvices，butitplacestheminapeculiarrelationwithrespecttotheirmasters。Amongstaristocraticnationsthepoormanisfamiliarizedfromhischildhoodwiththenotionofbeingcommanded:towhicheversideheturnshiseyesthegraduatedstructureofsocietyandtheaspectofobediencemeethisview。Henceinthosecountriesthemasterreadilyobtainsprompt，complete，respectful，andeasyobediencefromhisservants，becausetheyrevereinhimnotonlytheirmasterbuttheclassofmasters。Heweighsdowntheirwillbythewholeweightofthearistocracy。Heorderstheiractions—
　　toacertainextentheevendirectstheirthoughts。Inaristocraciesthemasteroftenexercises，evenwithoutbeingawareofit，anamazingswayovertheopinions，thehabits，andthemannersofthosewhoobeyhim，andhisinfluenceextendsevenfurtherthanhisauthority。
　　Inaristocraticcommunitiestherearenotonlyhereditaryfamiliesofservantsaswellasofmasters，butthesamefamiliesofservantsadhereforseveralgenerationstothesamefamiliesofmasters（liketwoparallellineswhichneithermeetnorseparate）;andthisconsiderablymodifiesthemutualrelationsofthesetwoclassesofpersons。Thus，althoughinaristocraticsocietythemasterandservanthavenonaturalresemblance—
　　although，onthecontrary，theyareplacedatanimmensedistanceonthescaleofhumanbeingsbytheirfortune，education，andopinions—yettimeultimatelybindsthemtogether。Theyareconnectedbyalongseriesofcommonreminiscences，andhoweverdifferenttheymaybe，theygrowalike;whilstindemocracies，wheretheyarenaturallyalmostalike，theyalwaysremainstrangerstoeachother。Amongstanaristocraticpeoplethemastergetstolookuponhisservantsasaninferiorandsecondarypartofhimself，andheoftentakesaninterestintheirlotbyalaststretchofegotism。
　　Servants，ontheirpart，arenotaversetoregardthemselvesinthesamelight;andtheysometimesidentifythemselveswiththepersonofthemaster，sothattheybecomeanappendagetohimintheirowneyesaswellasinhis。Inaristocraciesaservantfillsasubordinatepositionwhichhecannotgetoutof;abovehimisanotherman，holdingasuperiorrankwhichhecannotlose。
　　Ononesideareobscurity，poverty，obedienceforlife;ontheother，andalsoforlife，fame，wealth，andcommand。Thetwoconditionsarealwaysdistinctandalwaysinpropinquity;thetiethatconnectsthemisaslastingastheyarethemselves。Inthispredicamenttheservantultimatelydetacheshisnotionofinterestfromhisownperson;hedesertshimself，asitwere，orratherhetransportshimselfintothecharacterofhismaster，andthusassumesanimaginarypersonality。Hecomplacentlyinvestshimselfwiththewealthofthosewhocommandhim;hesharestheirfame，exaltshimselfbytheirrank，andfeedshismindwithborrowedgreatness，towhichheattachesmoreimportancethanthosewhofullyandreallypossessit。Thereissomethingtouching，andatthesametimeridiculous，inthisstrangeconfusionoftwodifferentstatesofbeing。Thesepassionsofmasters，whentheypassintothesoulsofmenials，assumethenaturaldimensionsoftheplacetheyoccupy—theyarecontractedandlowered。Whatwasprideintheformerbecomespuerilevanityandpaltryostentationinthelatter。Theservantsofagreatmanarecommonlymostpunctiliousastothemarksofrespectduetohim，andtheyattachmoreimportancetohisslightestprivilegesthanhedoeshimself。InFranceafewoftheseoldservantsofthearistocracyarestilltobemetwithhereandthere;theyhavesurvivedtheirrace，whichwillsoondisappearwiththemaltogether。IntheUnitedStatesIneversawanyoneatalllikethem。TheAmericansarenotonlyunacquaintedwiththekindofman，butitishardlypossibletomakethemunderstandthatsucheverexisted。Itisscarcelylessdifficultforthemtoconceiveit，thanforustoformacorrectnotionofwhataslavewasamongsttheRomans，oraserfintheMiddleAges。Allthesemenwereinfact，thoughindifferentdegrees，resultsofthesamecause:theyareallretiringfromoursight，anddisappearingintheobscurityofthepast，togetherwiththesocialconditiontowhichtheyowedtheirorigin。
　　Equalityofconditionsturnsservantsandmastersintonewbeings，andplacestheminnewrelativepositions。Whensocialconditionsarenearlyequal，menareconstantlychangingtheirsituationsinlife:thereisstillaclassofmenialsandaclassofmasters，buttheseclassesarenotalwayscomposedofthesameindividuals，stilllessofthesamefamilies;andthosewhocommandarenotmoresecureofperpetuitythanthosewhoobey。