Withthedevelopmentofcapitalistproductionduringthemanufacturingperiod，thepublicopinionofEuropehadlostthelastremnantofshameandconscience。Thenationsbraggedcynicallyofeveryinfamythatservedthemasameanstocapitalisticaccumulation。Read，e。g。，thenaïveAnnalsofCommerceoftheworthyA。Anderson。HereitistrumpetedforthasatriumphofEnglishstatecraftthatatthePeaceofUtrecht，EnglandextortedfromtheSpaniardsbytheAsientoTreatytheprivilegeofbeingallowedtoplythenegro—trade，untilthenonlycarriedonbetweenAfricaandtheEnglishWestIndies，betweenAfricaandSpanishAmericaaswell。
　　EnglandtherebyacquiredtherightofsupplyingSpanishAmericauntil1743
　　with4，800negroesyearly。Thisthrew，atthesametime，anofficialcloakoverBritishsmuggling。Liverpoolwaxedfatontheslave—trade。Thiswasitsmethodofprimitiveaccumulation。And，eventothepresentday，Liverpool"respectability"isthePindaroftheslave—tradewhich？comparetheworkofAikin[1795]alreadyquoted？"hascoincidedwiththatspiritofboldadventurewhichhascharacterisedthetradeofLiverpoolandrapidlycarriedittoitspresentstateofprosperity;hasoccasionedvastemploymentforshippingandsailors，andgreatlyaugmentedthedemandforthemanufacturesofthecountry"（p。339）。Liverpoolemployedintheslave—trade，in1730，15ships;in1751，53;in1760，74;in1770，96;andin1792，132。
　　Whilstthecottonindustryintroducedchild—slaveryinEngland，itgaveintheUnitedStatesastimulustothetransformationoftheearlier，moreorlesspatriarchalslavery，intoasystemofcommercialexploitation。
　　Infact，theveiledslaveryofthewage—workersinEuropeneeded，foritspedestal，slaverypureandsimpleinthenewworld。’
　　Tantaemoliserat，toestablishthe"eternallawsofNature"ofthecapitalistmodeofproduction，tocompletetheprocessofseparationbetweenlabourersandconditionsoflabour，totransform，atonepole，thesocialmeansofproductionandsubsistenceintocapital，attheoppositepole，themassofthepopulationintowage—labourers，into"freelabouringpoor，"
　　thatartificialproductofmodernsociety。[13]Ifmoney，AccordingtoAugier，[14]"comesintotheworldwithacongenitalblood—stainononecheek，"capitalcomesdrippingfromheadtofoot，fromeverypore，withbloodanddirt。[15]
　　Footnotes[1]Industrialhereincontradistinctiontoagricultural。Inthe"categoric"
　　sensethefarmerisanindustrialcapitalistasmuchasthemanufacturer。
　　[2]"TheNaturalandArtificialRightsofPropertyContrasted。"Lond。，1832，pp。98—99。Authoroftheanonymouswork:"Th。Hodgskin。"
　　[3]Evenaslateas1794，thesmallcloth—makersofLeedssentadeputationtoParliament，withapetitionforalawtoforbidanymerchantfrombecomingamanufacturer。（Dr。Aikin，l。c。）
　　[4]WilliamHowitt:"ColonisationandChristianity:APopularHistoryoftheTreatmentoftheNativesbytheEuropeansinalltheirColonies。"London，1838，p。9。OnthetreatmentoftheslavesthereisagoodcompilationinCharlesComte，"TraitédelaLégislation。"3meéd。
　　Bruxelles，1837。Thissubjectonemuststudyindetail，toseewhatthebourgeoisiemakesofitselfandofthelabourer，whereveritcan，withoutrestraint，modeltheworldafteritsownimage。
　　[5]ThomasStamfordRaffles，lateLieut—Gov。ofthatisland:"TheHistoryofJava，"Lond。，1817。
　　[6]Intheyear1866morethanamillionHindusdiedofhungerintheprovinceofOrissaalone。Nevertheless，theattemptwasmadetoenrichtheIndiantreasurybythepriceatwhichthenecessariesoflifeweresoldtothestarvingpeople。
　　[7]WilliamCobbettremarksthatinEnglandallpublicinstitutionsaredesignated"royal";ascompensationforthis，however，thereisthe"national"debt。
　　[8]"SilesTartaresinondaientI’Europeaujourd’hui，ilfaudraitbiendesaffairespourleurfaireentendrecequec’estqu’unfinancierparminous。"
　　Montesquieu，"Espritdeslois，"t。iv。，p。33，ed。Londres，1769。
　　[9]Mirabeau，l。c。，t。vi。，p。101。
　　[10]Eden，l。c。，Vol。I。，BookII。，Ch。1。，p。421。
　　[11]JohnFielden，l。c。，pp。5，6。Ontheearlierinfamiesofthefactorysystem，cf。Dr。Aikin（I795），l。c。，p。219。andGisbome:"EnquiryintotheDutiesofMen，"1795Vol。II。Whenthesteam—enginetransplantedthefactoriesfromthecountrywaterfallstothemiddleoftowns，the"abstemious"surplus—valuemakerfoundthechild—materialreadytohishand，withoutbeingforcedtoseekslavesfromtheworkhouses。WhenSirR。Peel（fatherofthe"ministerofplausibility"），broughtinhisbillfortheprotectionofchildren，in1815，FrancisHomer，lumenoftheBillionCommitteeandintimatefriendofRicardo，saidintheHouseofCommons:"Itisnotorious，thatwithabankrupt’seffects，agang，ifhemightusetheword，ofthesechildrenhadbeenputuptosale，andwereadvertisedpubliclyaspartoftheproperty。
　　AmostatrociousinstancehadbeenbroughtbeforetheCourtofKing’sBenchtwoyearsbefore，inwhichanumberoftheseboys，apprenticedbyaparishinLondontoonemanufacturer，hadbeentransferredtoanother，andhadbeenfoundbysomebenevolentpersonsinastateofabsolutefamine。Anothercasemorehorriblehadcometohisknowledgewhileona[Parliamentary]
　　Committee……thatnotmanyyearsago，anagreementhadbeenmadebetweenaLondonparishandaLancashiremanufacturer，bywhichitwasstipulated，thatwithevery20soundchildrenoneidiotshouldbetaken。"
　　[12]In1790，therewereintheEnglishWestIndiestenslavesforonefreeman，intheFrenchfourteenforone，intheDutchtwenty—threeforone。
　　（HenryBrougham:"AnInquiryintotheColonialPolicyoftheEuropeanPowers。"
　　Edin。1803，vol。II。，p。74。）
　　[13]Thephrase，"labouringpoor，"isfoundinEnglishlegislationfromthemomentwhentheclassofwage—labourersbecomesnoticeable。Thistermisusedinopposition，ontheonehand，tothe"idlepoor，"beggars，etc。，ontheothertothoselabourers，who，pigeonsnotyetplucked，arestillpossessorsoftheirownmeansoflabour。FromtheStatuteBookitpassedintoPoliticalEconomy，andwashandeddownbyCulpeper，J。Child，etc。，toAdamSmithandEden。Afterthis，onecanjudgeofthegoodfaithofthe"execrablepoliticalcant—monger，"EdmundBurke，whenhecalledtheexpression，"labouringpoor，"？"execrablepoliticalcant。"Thissycophantwho，inthepayoftheEnglisholigarchy，playedtheromanticlaudatortemporisactiagainsttheFrenchRevolution，justas，inthepayoftheNorthAmericanColonies，atthebeginningoftheAmericantroubles，hehadplayedtheLiberalagainsttheEnglisholigarchy，wasanoutandoutvulgarbourgeois。"ThelawsofcommercearethelawsofNature，andthereforethelawsofGod。"（E。Burke，l。c。，pp。31，32。）Nowonderthat，truetothelawsofGodandofNature，healwayssoldhimselfinthebestmarket。
　　AverygoodportraitofthisEdmundBurke，duringhisliberaltime，istobefoundinthewritingsoftheRev。Mr。Tucker。TuckerwasaparsonandaTory，but，fortherest，anhonourablemanandacompetentpoliticaleconomist。Infaceoftheinfamouscowardiceofcharacterthatreignsto—day，andbelievesmostdevoutlyin"thelawsofcommerce，"itisourboundendutyagainandagaintobrandtheBurkes，whoonlydifferfromtheirsuccessorsinonething？talent。
　　[14]MarieAngier:"DuCréditPublic。"Paris，1842。
　　[15]"CapitalissaidbyaQuarterlyReviewertoflyturbulenceandstrife，andtobetimid，whichisverytrue;butthisisveryincompletelystatingthequestion。Capitaleschewsnoprofit，orverysmallprofit，justasNaturewasformerlysaidtoabhoravacuum。Withadequateprofit，capitalisverybold。Acertain10percent。willensureitsemploymentanywhere;
　　20percent。certainwillproduceeagerness;50percent。，positiveaudacity;
　　100percent。willmakeitreadytotrampleonallhumanlaws;300percent。，andthereisnotacrimeatwhichitwillscruple，norariskitwillnotrun，eventothechanceofitsownerbeinghanged。Ifturbulenceandstrifewillbringaprofit，itwillfreelyencourageboth。Smugglingandtheslave—tradehaveamplyprovedallthatisherestated。"（T。J。
　　Dunning，l。c。，pp。35，36。）
　　ChapterThirtyTwoKarlMarxCapitalVolumeOnePartVIII:
　　PrimativeAccumulationCHAPTERTHIRTY—TWO:
　　HISTORICALTENDENCYOFCAPITALISTACCUMULATION
　　Whatdoestheprimitiveaccumulationofcapital，i。e。，itshistoricalgenesis，resolveitselfinto？Insofarasitisnotimmediatetransformationofslavesandserfsintowage—laborers，andthereforeamerechangeofform，itonlymeanstheexpropriationoftheimmediateproducers，i。e。，thedissolutionofprivatepropertybasedonthelaborofitsowner。Privateproperty，astheantithesistosocial，collectiveproperty，existsonlywherethemeansoflaborandtheexternalconditionsoflaborbelongtoprivateindividuals。Butaccordingastheseprivateindividualsarelaborersornotlaborers，privatepropertyhasadifferentcharacter。Thenumberlessshades，thatitatfirstsightpresents，correspondtotheintermediatestageslyingbetweenthesetwoextremes。Theprivatepropertyofthelaborerinhismeansofproductionisthefoundationofpettyindustry，whetheragricultural，manufacturing，orboth;pettyindustry，again，isanessentialconditionforthedevelopmentofsocialproductionandofthefreeindividualityofthelaborerhimself。Ofcourse，thispettymodeofproductionexistsalsounderslavery，serfdom，andotherstatesofdependence。Butitflourishes，itletslooseitswholeenergy，itattainsitsadequateclassicalform，onlywherethelaboreristheprivateownerofhisownmeansoflaborsetinactionbyhimself:thepeasantofthelandwhichhecultivates，theartisanofthetoolwhichhehandlesasavirtuoso。Thismodeofproductionpre—supposesparcellingofthesoilandscatteringoftheothermeansofproduction。Asitexcludestheconcentrationofthesemeansofproduction，soalsoitexcludesco—operation，divisionoflaborwithineachseparateprocessofproduction，thecontrolover，andtheproductiveapplicationoftheforcesofNaturebysociety，andthefreedevelopmentofthesocialproductivepowers。Itiscompatibleonlywithasystemofproduction，andasociety，movingwithinnarrowandmoreorlessprimitivebounds。Toperpetuateitwouldbe，asPecqueurrightlysays，"todecreeuniversalmediocrity"。
　　Atacertainstageofdevelopment，itbringsforththematerialagenciesforitsowndissolution。Fromthatmomentnewforcesandnewpassionsspringupinthebosomofsociety;buttheoldsocialorganizationfettersthemandkeepsthemdown。Itmustbeannihilated;itisannihilated。Itsannihilation，thetransformationoftheindividualizedandscatteredmeansofproductionintosociallyconcentratedones，ofthepigmypropertyofthemanyintothehugepropertyofthefew，theexpropriationofthegreatmassofthepeoplefromthesoil，fromthemeansofsubsistence，andfromthemeansoflabor，thisfearfulandpainfulexpropriationofthemassofthepeopleformsthepreludetothehistoryofcapital。Itcomprisesaseriesofforciblemethods，ofwhichwehavepassedinreviewonlythosethathavebeenepoch—makingasmethodsoftheprimitiveaccumulationofcapital。TheexpropriationoftheimmediateproducerswasaccomplishedwithmercilessVandalism，andunderthestimulusofpassionsthemostinfamous，themostsordid，thepettiest，themostmeanlyodious。Self—earnedprivateproperty，thatisbased，sotosay，onthefusingtogetheroftheisolated，independentlaboring—individualwiththeconditionsofhislabor，issupplantedbycapitalisticprivateproperty，whichrestsonexploitationofthenominallyfreelaborofothers，i。e。，onwage—labor。[1]
　　Assoonasthisprocessoftransformationhassufficientlydecomposedtheoldsocietyfromtoptobottom，assoonasthelaborersareturnedintoproletarians，theirmeansoflaborintocapital，assoonasthecapitalistmodeofproductionstandsonitsownfeet，thenthefurthersocializationoflaborandfurthertransformationofthelandandothermeansofproductionintosociallyexploitedand，therefore，commonmeansofproduction，aswellasthefurtherexpropriationofprivateproprietors，takesanewform。
　　Thatwhichisnowtobeexpropriatedisnolongerthelaborerworkingforhimself，butthecapitalistexploitingmanylaborers。Thisexpropriationisaccomplishedbytheactionoftheimmanentlawsofcapitalisticproductionitself，bythecentralizationofcapital。Onecapitalistalwayskillsmany。
　　Handinhandwiththiscentralization，orthisexpropriationofmanycapitalistsbyfew，develop，onanever—extendingscale，theco—operativeformofthelabor—process，theconscioustechnicalapplicationofscience，themethodicalcultivationofthesoil，thetransformationoftheinstrumentsoflaborintoinstrumentsoflaboronlyusableincommon，theeconomizingofallmeansofproductionbytheiruseasmeansofproductionofcombined，socializedlabor，theentanglementofallpeoplesinthenetoftheworld—market，andwiththis，theinternationalcharacterofthecapitalisticregime。
　　Alongwiththeconstantlydiminishingnumberofthemagnatesofcapital，whousurpandmonopolizealladvantagesofthisprocessoftransformation，growsthemassofmisery，oppression，slavery，degradation，exploitation;
　　butwiththistoogrowstherevoltoftheworking—class，aclassalwaysincreasinginnumbers，anddisciplined，united，organizedbytheverymechanismoftheprocessofcapitalistproductionitself。Themonopolyofcapitalbecomesafetteruponthemodeofproduction，whichhassprungupandflourishedalongwith，andunderit。Centralizationofthemeansofproductionandsocializationoflaboratlastreachapointwheretheybecomeincompatiblewiththeircapitalistintegument。Thusintegumentisburstasunder。Theknellofcapitalistprivatepropertysounds。Theexpropriatorsareexpropriated。
　　Thecapitalistmodeofappropriation，theresultofthecapitalistmodeofproduction，producescapitalistprivateproperty。Thisisthefirstnegationofindividualprivateproperty，asfoundedonthelaboroftheproprietor。Butcapitalistproductionbegets，withtheinexorabilityofalawofNature，itsownnegation。Itisthenegationofnegation。Thisdoesnotre—establishprivatepropertyfortheproducer，butgiveshimindividualpropertybasedontheacquisitionofthecapitalistera:i。e。，onco—operationandthepossessionincommonofthelandandofthemeansofproduction。
　　Thetransformationofscatteredprivateproperty，arisingfromindividuallabor，intocapitalistprivatepropertyis，naturally，aprocess，incomparablymoreprotracted，violent，anddifficult，thanthetransformationofcapitalisticprivateproperty，alreadypracticallyrestingonsocializedproduction，intosocializedproperty。Intheformercase，wehadtheexpropriationofthemassofthepeoplebyafewusurpers;inthelatter，wehavetheexpropriationofafewusurpersbythemassofthepeople。[2]
　　Footnotes[1]"Noussommesdansuneconditiontout—à—faitnouvelledelasocieté……
　　noustendonsaseparertouteespecedeproprieted’avectouteespècedetravail。"（Sismondi:"NouveauxPrincipesd’Econ。Polit。"t。II，p。434。）
　　[2]Theadvanceofindustry，whoseinvoluntarypromoteristhebourgeoisie，replacestheisolationofthelaborers，duetocompetition，bytheirrevolutionarycombination，duetoassociation。ThedevelopmentofModernIndustry，therefore，cutsfromunderitsfeettheveryfoundationonwhichthebourgeoisieproducesandappropriatesproducts。Whatthebourgeoisie，therefore，produces，aboveall，areitsowngrave—diggers。Itsfallandthevictoryoftheproletariatareequallyinevitable……Ofalltheclassesthatstandface—to—facewiththebourgeoisietoday，theproletariataloneisareallyrevolutionaryclass。TheotherclassesperishanddisappearinthefaceofModernIndustry，theproletariatisitsspecialandessentialproduct……Thelowermiddle—classes，thesmallmanufacturers，theshopkeepers，theartisan，thepeasant，allthesefightagainstthebourgeoisie，tosavefromextinctiontheirexistenceasfractionsofthemiddle—class……theyarereactionary，fortheytrytorollbackthewheelofhistory。KarlMarxandFriedrichEngels，"ManifestderKommunistischenPartei"，London，1848，pp。9，11。
　　ChapterThirty—ThreeKarlMarxCapitalVolumeOnePartVIII:
　　PrimativeAccumulationCHAPTERTHIRTY—THREE:
　　THEMODERNTHEORYOFCOLONISATION[1]
　　Politicaleconomyconfusesonprincipletwoverydifferentkindsofprivateproperty，ofwhichonerestsontheproducers’ownlabor，theotherontheemploymentofthelaborofothers。Itforgetsthatthelatternotonlyisthedirectantithesisoftheformer，butabsolutelygrowsonitstombonly。InWesternEurope，thehomeofPoliticalEconomy，theprocessofprimitiveaccumulationismoreoflessaccomplished。Herethecapitalistregimehaseitherdirectlyconqueredthewholedomainofnationalproduction，or，whereeconomicconditionsarelessdeveloped，it，atleast，indirectlycontrolsthosestrataofsocietywhich，thoughbelongingtotheantiquatedmodeofproduction，continuetoexistsidebysidewithitingradualdecay。
　　Tothisready—madeworldofcapital，thepoliticaleconomistappliesthenotionsoflawandofpropertyinheritedfromapre—capitalisticworldwithallthemoreanxiouszealandallthegreaterunction，themoreloudlythefactscryoutinthefaceofhisideology。Itisotherwiseinthecolonies。
　　Therethecapitalistregimeeverywherecomesintocollisionwiththeresistanceoftheproducer，who，asownerofhisownconditionsoflabor，employsthatlabortoenrichhimself，insteadofthecapitalist。Thecontradictionofthesetwodiametricallyopposedeconomicsystems，manifestitselfherepracticallyinastrugglebetweenthem。Wherethecapitalisthasathisbackthepowerofthemother—country，hetriestoclearoutofhiswaybyforcethemodesofproductionandappropriationbasedontheindependentlaboroftheproducer。Thesameinterest，whichcompelsthesycophantofcapital，thepoliticaleconomist，inthemother—country，toproclaimthetheoreticalidentityofthecapitalistmodeofproductionwithitscontrary，thatsameinterestcompelshiminthecoloniestomakeacleanbreastofit，andtoproclaimaloudtheantagonismofthetwomodesofproduction。
　　Tothisend，heproveshowthedevelopmentofthesocialproductivepoweroflabor，co—operation，divisionoflabor，useofmachineryonalargescale，&c。，areimpossiblewithouttheexpropriationofthelaborers，andthecorrespondingtransformationoftheirmeansofproductionintocapital。Intheinterestoftheso—callednationalwealth，heseeksforartificialmeanstoensurethepovertyofthepeople。Herehisapologeticarmorcrumblesoff，bitbybit，likerottentouchwood。ItisthegreatmeritofE。G。Wakefieldtohavediscovered，notanythingnewabouttheColonies[2]，buttohavediscoveredintheColoniesthetruthastotheconditionsofcapitalistproductioninthemothercountry。Asthesystemofprotectionatitsorigin[3]attemptedtomanufacturecapitalistsartificiallyinthemother—country，soWakefield’scolonizationtheory，whichEnglandtriedforatimetoenforcebyActsofParliament，attemptedtoeffectthemanufactureofwage—workersintheColonies。Thishecalls"systematiccolonization"。
　　Firstofall，WakefielddiscoveredthatintheColonies，propermeansofsubsistence，machines，andothermeansofproduction，doesnotasyetstampamanasacapitalistiftherebewantingthecorrelative？thewage—worker，theothermanwhoiscompelledtosellhimselfofhisownfree—will。Hediscoveredthatcapitalisnotathing，butasocialrelationbetweenpersons，establishedbytheinstrumentalityofthings;[4]Mr。Peel，hemoans，tookhimfromEnglandtoSwanRiver，WestAustralia，meansofsubsistenceandofproductiontotheamountof£50，000。
　　Mr。Peelhadtheforesighttobringwithhim，besides，3，000personsoftheworking—class，men，women，andchildren。Oncearrivedathisdestination，"Mr。Peelwasleftwithoutaservanttomakehisbedorfetchhimwaterfromtheriver。"[5]UnhappyMr。PeelwhoprovidedforeverythingexcepttheexportofEnglishmodesofproductiontoSwanRiver！
　　FortheunderstandingofthefollowingdiscoveriesofWakefield，twopreliminaryremarks:Weknowthatthemeansofproductionandsubsistence，whiletheyremainthepropertyoftheimmediateproducer，arenotcapital。
　　Theybecomecapitalonlyundercircumstancesinwhichtheyserveatthesametimeasmeansofexploitationandsubjectionofthelaborer。Butthiscapitalistsouloftheirsissointimatelywedded，intheheadofthepoliticaleconomist，totheirmaterialsubstance，thathechristensthemcapitalunderallcircumstances，evenwhentheyareitsexactopposite。ThusisitwithWakefield。Further:thesplittingupofthemeansofproductionintotheindividualpropertyofmanyindependentlaborers，workingontheirownaccount，hecallsequaldivisionofcapital。Itiswiththepoliticaleconomistaswiththefeudaljurist。Thelatterstuckontopuremonetaryrelationsthelabelssuppliedbyfeudallaw。
　　"If，"saysWakefield，"allmembersofthesocietyaresupposedtopossessequalportionsofcapital……nomanwouldhaveamotiveforaccumulatingmorecapitalthanhecouldusewithhisownhands。ThisistosomeextentthecaseinnewAmericansettlements，whereapassionforowninglandpreventstheexistenceofaclassoflaborersforhire。"[6]Solong，therefore，asthelaborercanaccumulateforhimself？andthishecandosolongasheremainspossessorofhismeansofproduction？
　　capitalistaccumulationandthecapitalisticmodeofproductionareimpossible。
　　Theclassofwage—laborers，essentialtothese，iswanting。How，then，inoldEurope，wastheexpropriationofthelaborerfromhisconditionsoflabor，i。e。，theco—existenceofcapitalandwage—labor，broughtabout？
　　Byasocialcontractofaquiteoriginalkind。"Mankindhaveadopteda……
　　simplecontrivanceforpromotingtheaccumulationofcapital，"which，ofcourse，sincethetimeofAdam，floatedintheirimagination，floatedintheirimaginationasthesoleandfinalendoftheirexistence:"theyhavedividedthemselvesintoownersofcapitalandownersoflabor……Thedivisionwastheresultofconcertandcombinationp;[7]Inoneword:themassofmankindexpropriateditselfinhonorofthe"accumulationofcapital"。Now，onewouldthinkthatthisinstinctofself—denyingfanaticismwouldgiveitselffullflingespeciallyintheColonies，wherealoneexistthemenandconditionsthatcouldturnasocialcontractfromadreamtoareality。Butwhy，then，should"systematiccolonization"becalledintoreplaceitsopposite，spontaneous，unregulatedcolonization？But—but—"IntheNorthernStatesoftheAmericanUnion;
　　itmaybedoubtedwhethersomanyasatenthofthepeoplewouldfallunderthedescriptionofhiredlaborers……InEngland……thelaboringclasscomposethebulkofthepeople。"[8]Nay，theimpulsetoself—expropriationonthepartoflaboringhumanityforthegloryofcapital，existssolittlethatslavery，accordingtoWakefieldhimself，isthesolenaturalbasisofColonialwealth。
　　Hissystematiccolonizationisamerepisaller，sinceheunfortunatelyhastodowithfreemen，notwithslaves。"ThefirstSpanishsettlersinSaintDomingodidnotobtainlaborersfromspain。But，withoutlaborers，theircapitalmusthaveperished，oratleast，mustsoonhavebeendiminishedtothatsmallamountwhicheachindividualcouldemploywithhisownhands。
　　ThishasactuallyoccurredinthelastColonyfoundedbyEngland？theSwanRiverSettlement？whereagreatmassofcapital，ofseeds，implements，andcattle，hasperishedforwantoflaborerstouseit，andwherenosettlerhaspreservedmuchmorecapitalthanhecanemploywithhisownhandsp;[9]
　　Wehaveseenthattheexpropriationofthemassofthepeoplefromthesoilformsthebasisofthecapitalistmodeofproduction。Theessenceofafreecolony，onthecontrary，consistsinthis？thatthebulkofthesoilisstillpublicproperty，andeverysettleronitthereforecanturnpartofitintohisprivatepropertyandindividualmeansofproduction，withouthinderingthelatersettlersinthesameoperation。[10]Thisisthesecretbothoftheprosperityofthecoloniesandoftheirinveteratevice？oppositiontotheestablishmentofcapital。"Wherelandisverycheapandallmenarefree，whereeveryonewhosopleasescaneasilyobtainapieceoflandforhimself，notonlyislaborverydear，asrespectsthelaborer’sshareoftheproduce，butthedifficultyistoobtaincombinedlaboratanyprice。;[11]
　　Asinthecoloniestheseparationofthelaborerfromtheconditionsoflaborandtheirroot，thesoil，doesnotexist，oronlysporadically，orontoolimitedascale，soneitherdoestheseparationofagriculturefromindustryexist，notthedestructionofthehouseholdindustryofthepeasantry。Whencethenistocometheinternalmarketforcapital？"NopartofthepopulationofAmericaisexclusivelyagricultural，exceptingslavesandtheiremployerswhocombinecapitalandlaborinparticularworks。FreeAmericans，whocultivatethesoil，followmanyotheroccupations。
　　Someportionofthefurnitureandtoolswhichtheyuseiscommonlymadebythemselves。Theyfrequentlybuildtheirownhouses，andcarrytomarket，atwhateverdistance，theproduceoftheirownindustry。Theyarespinnersandweavers;theymakesoapandcandles，aswellas，inmanycases，shoesandclothesfortheirownuse。InAmericathecultivationoflandisoftenthesecondarypursuitofablacksmith，amillerorashopkeeper。"[12]Withsuchqueerpeopleasthese，whereisthe"fieldofabstinence"forthecapitalists？
　　Thegreatbeautyofcapitalistproductionconsistsinthis？thatitnotonlyconstantlyreproducesthewage—workeraswage—worker，butproducesalways，inproductiontotheaccumulationofcapital，arelativesurplus—populationofwage—workers。Thusthelawofsupplyanddemandoflaboriskeptintherightrut，theoscillationofwagesispennedwithinlimitssatisfactorytocapitalistexploitation，andlastly，thesocialdependenceofthelaboreronthecapitalist，thatindispensablerequisite，issecured;anunmistakablerelationofdependence，whichthesmugpoliticaleconomist，athome，inthemother—country，cantransmogrifyintooneoffreecontractbetweenbuyerandseller，betweenequallyindependentownersofcommodities，theownerofthecommoditycapitalandtheownerofthecommoditylabor。Butinthecolonies，thisprettyfancyistornasunder。Theabsolutepopulationhereincreasesmuchmorequicklythaninthemother—country，becausemanylaborersenterthisworldasready—madeadults，andyetthelabor—marketisalwaysunderstocked。Thelawofsupplyanddemandoflaborfallstopieces。Ontheonehand，theoldworldconstantlythrowsincapital，thirstingafterexploitationand"abstinence";ontheother，theregularreproductionofthewage—laboreraswage—laborercomesintocollisionwithimpedimentsthemostimpertinentandinpartinvincible。Whatbecomesoftheproductionofwage—laborersintoindependentproducers，whoworkforthemselvesinsteadofforcapital，andenrichthemselvesinsteadofthecapitalistgentry，reactsinitsturnveryperverselyontheconditionsofthelabor—market。
　　Notonlydoesthedegreeofexploitationofthewage—laborerremainindecentlylow。Thewage—laborerlosesintothebargain，alongwiththerelationofdependence，alsothesentimen;ofdependenceontheabstemiouscapitalist。HencealltheinconveniencesthatourE。G。Wakefieldpicturessodoughtily，soeloquently，sopathetically。
　　Thesupplyofwage—labor，hecomplains，isneitherconstant，norregular，norsufficient。"Thesupplyoflaborisalwaysnotonlysmallbutuncertain。"[13]"Thoughtheproducedividedbetweenthecapitalistandthelaborerbelarge，thelaborertakessogreatasharethathesoonbecomesacapitalist……
　　Few，eventhosewhoselivesareunusuallylong，canaccumulategreatmassesofwealth。"[14]Thelaborersmostdistinctlydeclinetoallowthecapitalisttoabstainfromthepaymentofthegreaterpartoftheirlabor。Itavailshimnothing，isheissocunningastoimportfromEurope，withhisowncapital，hisownwage—workers。Theysoon"cease……
　　tobelaborersforhire;they……becomeindependentlandowners，ifnotcompetitorswiththeirformermastersinthelabor—market。"[15]Thinkofthehorror！TheexcellentcapitalisthasimportedbodilyfromEurope，withhisowngoodmoney，hisowncompetitors！Theendoftheworldhascome！NowonderWakefieldlamentstheabsenceofalldependenceandofallsentimentofdependenceonthepartofthewage—workersinthecolonies。
　　Onaccountofthehighwages，sayshisdisciple，Merivale，thereisinthecolonies"theurgentdesireforcheaperandmoresubservientlaborers？foraclasstowhomthecapitalistmightdictateterms，insteadofbeingdictatedtobythem……Inancientcivilizedcountriesthelaborer，thoughfree，isbyalawofNaturedependentoncapitalists;incoloniesthisdependencemustbecreatedbyartificialmeans。;[16]
　　Whatisnow，accordingtoWakefield，theconsequenceofthisunfortunatestateofthingsinthecolonies？A"barbarisingtendencyofdispersion"
　　ofproducersandnationalwealth。[17]Theparcelling—outofthemeansofproductionamonginnumerableowners，workingontheirownaccount，annihilates，alongwiththecentralizationofcapital，allthefoundationofcombinedlabor。Everylong—windedundertaking，extendingoverseveralyearsanddemandingoutlayoffixedcapital，ispreventedfrombeingcarriedout。InEurope，capitalinvestswithouthesitatingamoment，fortheworking—classconstitutesitslivingappurtennce，alwaysinexcess，alwaysatdisposal。Butinthecolonies！Wakefieldtellsandextremelydolefulanecdote。HewastalkingwithsomecapitalistsofCanadaandthestateofNewYork，wheretheimmigrantwaveoftenbecomesstagnantanddepositsasedimentof"supernumerary"laborers。"Ourcapital，"saysoneofthecharactersinthemelodrama，"wasreadyformanyoperationswhichrequireaconsiderableperiodoftimefortheircompletion;butwecouldnotbeginsuchoperationswithlaborwhich，weknew，wouldsoonleaveus。Ifwehadbeensureofretrainingthelaborofsuchemigrants，weshouldhavebeengladtohaveengageditatonce，andforahighprice:andweshouldhaveengagedit，eventhoughwehadbeensureitwouldleaveus，providedwehadbeensureofafreshsupplywheneverwemightneedit。"[18]
　　AfterWakefieldhasconstructedtheEnglishcapitalistagricultureandits"combined"laborwiththescatteredcultivationofAmericanpeasants，heunwittinglygivesusaglimpseatthereverseofthemedal。HedepictsthemassoftheAmericanpeopleaswell—to—do，independent，enterprising，andcomparativelycultured，whilst"theEnglishagriculturallaborerismiserablewretch，apauper……Inwhatcountry，exceptNorthAmericaandsomenewcolonies，dothewagesoffreelaboremployedinagriculturemuchexceedabaresubsistenceforthelaborer？……Undoubtedly，farm—horsesinEngland，beingavaluableproperty，arebetterfedthanEnglishpeasants。"[19]But，nevermind，nationalwealthis，onceagain，byitsverynature，identicalwithmiseryofthepeople。
　　How，then，tohealtheanti—capitalisticcancerofthecolonies？Ifmenwerewilling，atablow，toturnallthesoilfrompublicintoprivateproperty，theywoulddestroycertainlytherootoftheevil，butalso？
　　thecolonies。Thetrickishowtokilltwobirdswithonestone。LettheGovernmentputuponthevirginsoilanartificialprice，independentofthelawofsupplyanddemand，apricethatcompelstheimmigranttoworkalongtimeforwagesbeforehecanearnenoughmoneytobuyland，andturnhimselfintoanindependentpeasant。[20]Thefundresultingfromthesaleoflandatapricerelativelyprohibitoryforthewage—workers，thisfundofmoneyextortedfromthewagesoflaborbyviolationofthesacredlawofsupplyanddemand，theGovernmentistoemploy，ontheotherhand，inproportionasitgrows;toimporthave—nothingsfromEuropeintothecolonies，andthuskeepthewage—labormarketfullforthecapitalists。Underthesecircumstances，toutserapourlemieuxdanslemeilleurdesmondespossibles。Thisisthegreatsecretof"systematiccolonization"。Bythisplan，Wakefieldcriesintriumph，"thesupplyoflabormustbeconstantandregular，because，first，asnolaborerwouldbeabletoprocurelanduntilhehadworkedformoney，allimmigrantlaborers，workingforatimeforwagesandincombination，wouldproducecapitalfortheemploymentofmorelaborers;secondly，becauseeverylaborerwholeftoffworkingforwagesandbecamealandownerwould，bypurchasingland，provideafundforbringingfreshlabortothecolony。"[21]ThepriceofthesoilimposedbytheStatemust，ofcourse，bea"sufficientprice"？i。e。，sohigh"astopreventthelaborersfrombecomingindependentlandownersuntilothershadfollowedtotaketheirplace。"[22]This"sufficientpricefortheland"isnothingbutaeuphemisticcircumlocutionfortheransomwhichthelaborerpaystothecapitalistforleavetoretirefromthewage—labormarkettotheland。First，hemustcreateforthecapitalist"capital"，withwhichthelattermaybeabletoexploitmorelaborers;
　　thenhemustplace，athisownexpense，alocumtenensonthelabor—market，whomtheGovernmentforwardsacrosstheseaforthebenefitofhisoldmaster，thecapitalist。
　　ItisverycharacteristicthattheEnglishGovernmentforyearspractisedthismethodof"primitiveaccumulation"prescribedbyMr。Wakefieldexpresslyfortheuseofthecolonies。Thefiascowas，ofcourse，ascompleteasthatofSirRobertPeel’sBankAct。ThestreamofemigrationwasonlydivertedfromtheEnglishcoloniestotheUntiedStates。Meanwhile，theadvanceofcapitalisticproductioninEurope，accompaniedbyincreasingGovernmentpressure，hasrenderedWakefield’srecipesuperfluous。Ontheonehand，theenormousandceaselessstreamofmen，yearafteryeardrivenuponAmerica，leavesbehindastationarysedimentintheeastoftheUnitedStates，thewaveofimmigrationfromEuropethrowingmenonthelabor—markettheremorerapidlythanthewaveofemigrationwestwardscanwashthemaway。
　　Ontheotherhand，theAmericanCivilWarbroughtinitstrainacolossalnationaldebt，and，withit，pressureoftaxes，theriseofthevilestfinancialaristocracy，thesquanderingofahugepartofthepubliclandonspeculativecompaniesfortheexploitationofrailways，mines，&c。，inbrief，themostrapidcentralizationofcapital。Thegreatrepublichas，therefore，ceasedtobethepromisedlandforemigrantlaborers。Capitalisticproductionadvancestherewithgiantstrides，eventhoughtheloweringofwagesandthedependenceofthewage—workerareyetfarfrombeingbroughtdowntothenormalEuropeanlevel。TheshamelesslavishingofuncultivatedcoloniallandonaristocratsandcapitalistsbytheGovernment，soloudlydenouncedevenbyWakefield，hasproduced，especiallyinAustralia[23]，inconjunctionwiththestreamofmenthatthegold—diggingsattract，andwiththecompetitionthattheimportationofEnglish—commoditiescauseseventothesmallestartisan，anample"relativesurpluslaboringpopulation"，sothatalmosteverymailbringstheJob’snewsofa"glutoftheAustralialabor—market"，andtheprostitutioninsomeplacesflourishesaswantonlyasintheLondonHeymarket。
　　However，wearenotconcernedherewiththeconditionsofthecolonies。
　　TheonlythingthatinterestsusisthesecretdiscoveredinthenewworldbythePoliticalEconomyoftheoldworld，andproclaimedonthehousetops:
　　thatthecapitalistmodeofproductionandaccumulation，andthereforecapitalistprivateproperty，havefortheirfundamentalconditiontheannihilationofself—earnedprivateproperty;inotherwords，theexpropriationofthelaborer。
　　Footnotes[1]WetreathereofrealColonies，virginssoils，colonizedbyfreeimmigrants。
　　TheUnitedStatesare，speakingeconomically，stillonlyaColonyofEurope。
　　Besides，tothiscategorybelongsucholdplantationsasthoseinwhichtheabolitionofslaveryhascompletelyalteredtheearlierconditions。
　　[2]Wakefield’sfewglimpsesonthesubjectofModernColonizationarefullyanticipatedbyMirabeauPere，thephysiocrat，andevenmuchearlierbyEnglisheconomists。
　　[3]Later，itbecameatemporarynecessityintheinternationalcompetititvestruggle。But，whateveritsmotive，theconsequencesremainthesame。
　　[4]"Anegroisanegro。Incertaincircumstanceshebecomesaslave。Amuleisamachineforspinningcotton。Onlyundercertaincircumstancesdoesitbecomecapital。Outsidethesecircumstances，itisnomorecapitalthangoldisintrinsicallymoney，orsugaristhepriceofsugar……Capitalisasocialrelationofproduction。Itisahistoricalrelationofproduction。"
　　（KarlMarx，"LohnarbeitundKapital"，N。Rh。Z。，No。266，April7，1849。）
　　[5]E。G。Wakefield:"EnglandandAmerica"，vol。ii。p。33。
　　[6]l。c。，p。17。
　　[7]l。c。，vol。i，p。18。
　　[8]l。c。，pp。42，43，44。
　　[9]l。c。，vol。ii，p。5。
　　[10]"Land，tobeanelementofcolonization，mustnotonlybewaste，butitmustbepublicproperty，liabletobeconvertedintoprivateproperty。"
　　（l。c。，Vol。II，p。125。）
　　[11]l。c。，Vol。I，p。247。
　　[12]l。c。，pp。21，22。
　　[13]l。c。，Vol。II，p。116。
　　[14]l。c。，Vol。I，p。131。
　　[15]l。c。，Vol。II，p。5。
　　[16]Merivale，l。c。，Vol。II，pp。235—314passim。Eventhemild，Free—trade，vulgareconomist，Molinari，says:"Danslescoloniesoùl’esclavageaété
　　abolisansqueletravailforcésetrouvaitremplaceparunequantité
　　équivalentedetravaillibre，onavus’opérerlacontre—partiedufaitquiseréalisetouslesjourssousnosyeux。Onavulessimplestravailleursexploiteràleurtourlesentrepreneursd’industrie，exigerd’euxdessalaireshorsdetouteproportionaveclapartlégitimequileurrevenaitdansleproduit。Lesplanteurs，nepouvantobtenirdeleurssucresunprixsuffisantpourcouvrirlahaussedesalaire，ontété
　　obligésdefournirl’excédant，d’abordsurleursprofits，ensuitesurleurscapitauxmêmes。Unefouledeplanteursontété
　　ruinésdelasorte，d’autresontferméleursateliersouréchapperàuneruineimminente……Sansdoute，ilvautmieuxvoirpérirdesaccumulationsdecapitauxquedasgénérationsd’hommes[howgenerousMr。Molinari！]:maisnevaudrait—ilpasmieuxquenilesunsnilesautrespérissent？（Molinari，l。c。，pp。51，52。）
　　Mr。Molinari，Mr。Molinari！Whatthenbecomesofthetencommandments，ofMosesandtheprophets，ofthelawofsupplyanddemand，ifinEuropethe"entrepreneur"cancutdownthelaborer’slegitimatepart，andintheWestIndies，thelaborercancutdowntheentrepreneur’s？Andwhat，ifyouplease，isthis"legitimatepart"，whichonyourownshowingthecapitalistinEuropedailyneglectstopay？Overyonder，inthecolonieswherethelaborersareso"simple"asto"exploit"thecapitalist，Mr。Molinarifeelsastrongitchingtosetthelawofsupplyanddemand，thatworkselsewhereautomatically，ontherightroadbymeansofthepolice。
　　[17]Wakefield，l。c。，Vol。II，p。52。
　　[18]l。c。，pp。191，192。
　　[19]l。c。，Vol。I，p。47，246。
　　[20]"C’est，ajoutez—vous，grâceal’appropriationdusoletdescapitauxquel’homme，quin’aquesesbras，trouvedel’occupationetsefaitunrevenu……c’estaucontraire，grâceàl’appropriationindividuelledusolqu’ilsetrouvedeshommesn’ayantqueleursbras……Quandvousmettezunhommedanslevide，vousvousemparezdel’atmosphère。
　　Ainsifaites—vous，quandvousvousemparezdusol……C’estlemettredanslevidederichesses，pournelalaisservivrequ’àvotrevolonté。"
　　（Collins，l。c。t。III，pp。268—71，passim。）
　　[21]Wakefield，l。c。，Vol。II，p。192。
　　[22]l。c。，p。45。
　　[23]AssoonasAustraliabecameherownlaw—giver，shepassed，ofcourse，lawsfavorabletothesettlers，butthesquanderingoftheland，alreadyaccomplishedbytheEnglishGovernment，standsintheway。"ThefirstandmainobjectatwhichnewLandActof1862aimsistogiveincreasedfacilitiesforthesettlementofthepeople。"（"TheLandLawofVictoria"，bytheHon。
　　C。G。Duffy，MinisterofPublicLands，Lond。，1862。）