oftheschoolmastercouldapply，totheconditionsofproductionandpopulationofthenineteenthcentury，thestandardofthe14th，thisnaïveté，intothebargain，overlookedthefactthatwhilst，aftertheplagueandthedecimationthataccompaniedit，followedonthissideoftheChannel，inEngland，enfranchisementandenrichmentoftheagriculturalpopulation，onthatside，inFrance，followedgreaterservitudeandmoremisery。[124]
　　TheIrishfamineof1846killedmorethan1，000，000people，butitkilledpoordevilsonly。Tothewealthofthecountryitdidnottheslightestdamage。Theexodusofthenext20years，anexodusstillconstantlyincreasing，didnot，as，e。g。，theThirtyYears’War，decimate，alongwiththehumanbeings，theirmeansofproduction。Irishgeniusdiscoveredanaltogethernewwayofspiritingapoorpeoplethousandsofmilesawayfromthesceneofitsmisery。TheexilestransplantedtotheUnitedStates，sendhomesumsofmoneyeveryyearastravellingexpensesforthoseleftbehind。
　　Everytroopthatemigratesoneyear，drawsanotherafteritthenext。Thus，insteadofcostingIrelandanything，emigrationformsoneofthemostlucrativebranchesofitsexporttrade。Finally，itisasystematicprocess，whichdoesnotsimplymakeapassinggapinthepopulation，butsucksoutofiteveryyearmorepeoplethanarereplacedbythebirths，sothattheabsolutelevelofthepopulationfallsyearbyyear。[125]
　　WhatweretheconsequencesfortheIrishlabourersleftbehindandfreedfromthesurplus—population？Thattherelativesurplus—populationisto—dayasgreatasbefore1846;thatwagesarejustaslow，thattheoppressionofthelabourershasincreased，thatmiseryisforcingthecountrytowardsanewcrisis。Thefactsaresimple。Therevolutioninagriculturehaskeptpacewithemigration。Theproductionofrelativesurplus—populationhasmorethankeptpacewiththeabsolutedepopulation。
　　AglanceattableC。showsthatthechangeofarabletopasturelandmustworkyetmoreacutelyinIrelandthaninEngland。InEnglandthecultivationofgreencropsincreaseswiththebreedingofcattle;inIreland，itdecreases。
　　Whilstalargenumberofacres，thatwereformerlytilled，lieidleorareturnedpermanentlyintograss—land，agreatpartofthewastelandandpeatbogsthatwereunusedformerly，becomeofservicefortheextensionofcattle—breeding。Thesmallerandmediumfarmers？Ireckonamongtheseallwhodonotcultivatemorethan100acres？stillmakeupabout8/10thsofthewholenumbep;[126]Theyareoneaftertheother，andwithadegreeofforceunknownbefore，crushedbythecompetitionofanagriculturemanagedbycapital，andthereforetheycontinuallyfurnishnewrecruitstotheclassofwage—labourers。TheonegreatindustryofIreland，linen—manufacture，requiresrelativelyfewadultmenandonlyemploysaltogether，inspiteofitsexpansionsincethepriceofcottonrosein1861—1866，acomparativelyinsignificantpartofthepopulation。Likeallothergreatmodemindustries，itconstantlyproduces，byincessantfluctuations，arelativesurplus—populationwithinitsownsphere，evenwithanabsoluteincreaseinthemassofhumanbeingsabsorbedbyit。Themiseryoftheagriculturalpopulationformsthepedestalforgiganticshirt—factories，whosearmiesoflabourersare，forthemostpart，scatteredoverthecountry。Here，weencounteragainthesystemdescribedaboveofdomesticindustry，whichinunderpaymentandover—work，possessesitsownsystematicmeansforcreatingsupernumerarylabourers。Finally，althoughthedepopulationhasnotsuchdestructiveconsequencesaswouldresultinacountrywithfullydevelopedcapitalisticproduction，itdoesnotgoonwithoutconstantreactionuponthehome—market。
　　Thegapwhichemigrationcauseshere，limitsnotonlythelocaldemandforlabour，butalsotheincomesofsmallshopkeepers，artisans，tradespeoplegenerally。Hencethediminutioninincomesbetween£60and£100
　　inTableE。
　　AclearstatementoftheconditionoftheagriculturallabourersinIrelandistobefoundintheReportsoftheIrishPoorLawInspectors（1870）。[127]Officialsofagovernmentwhichismaintainedonlybybayonetsandbyastateofsiege，nowopen，nowdisguised，theyhavetoobservealltheprecautionsoflanguagethattheircolleaguesinEnglanddisdain。Inspiteofthis，however，theydonotlettheirgovernmentcradleitselfinillusions。Accordingtothemtherateofwagesinthecountry，stillverylow，haswithinthelast20yearsrisen50—60percent。，andstandsnow，ontheaverage，at6s。to9s。perweek。Butbehindthisapparentrise，ishiddenanactualfallinwages，foritdoesnotcorrespondatalltotheriseinpriceofthenecessarymeansofsubsistencethathastakenplaceinthemeantime。
　　Forproof，thefollowingextractfromtheofficialaccountsofanIrishworkhouse。
　　AVERAGEWEEKLYCOSTPERHEAD
　　YearendedProvisionsandNecessaries。Clothing。TOTAL。
　　29thSept。，1849。1s。31/4d。3d。1s。61/4d。
　　29thSept。，1869。2s。71/4d。6d。3s。11/4d。Thepriceofthenecessarymeansofsubsistenceisthereforefullytwice，andthatofclothingexactlytwice，asmuchastheywere20yearsbefore。
　　Evenapartfromthisdisproportion，themerecomparisonoftherateofwagesexpressedingoldwouldgivearesultfarfromaccurate。Beforethefamine，thegreatmassofagriculturalwageswerepaidinkind，onlythesmallestpartinmoney;to—day，paymentinmoneyistherule。Fromthisitfollowsthat，whatevertheamountoftherealwage，itsmoneyratemustrise。"Previoustothefamine，thelabourerenjoyedhiscabin……
　　witharood，orhalf—acreoracreofland，andfacilitiesfor……acropofpotatoes。Hewasabletorearhispigandkeepfowl……Buttheynowhavetobuybread，andtheyhavenorefuseuponwhichtheycanfeedapigorfowl，andtheyhaveconsequentlynobenefitfromthesaleofapig，fowl，oreggs。"[128]Infact，formerly，theagriculturallabourerswerebutthesmallestofthesmallfarmers，andformedforthemostpartakindofrear—guardofthemediumandlargefarmsonwhichtheyfoundemployment。Onlysincethecatastropheof1846havetheybeguntoformafractionoftheclassofpurelywage—labourers，aspecialclass，connectedwithitswage—mastersonlybymonetaryrelations。
　　Weknowwhatweretheconditionsoftheirdwellingsin1846。Sincethentheyhavegrownyetworse。Apartoftheagriculturallabourers，which，however，growslessdaybyday，dwellsstillontheholdingsofthefarmersinover—crowdedhuts，whosehideousnessfarsurpassestheworstthattheEnglishagriculturallabourersofferedusinthisway。AndthisholdsgenerallywiththeexceptionofcertaintractsofUlster;inthesouth，inthecountiesofCork，Limerick，Kilkenny，&c。;intheeast，inWicklow，Wexford，&c。;inthecentreofIreland，inKing’sandQueen’sCounty，，Dublin，&c。;inthewest，inSligo，Roscommon，Mayo，Galway，&c。"Theagriculturallabourers’huts，"aninspectorcriesout，"areadisgracetotheChristianityandtothecivilisationofthiscountry。"[129]Inordertoincreasetheattractionsoftheseholesforthelabourers，thepiecesoflandbelongingtheretofromtimeimmemorial，aresystematicallyconfiscated。"Themeresensethattheyexistsubjecttothisspeciesofban，onthepartofthelandlordsandtheiragents，has……givenbirthinthemindsofthelabourerstocorrespondingsentimentsofantagonismanddissatisfactiontowardsthosebywhomtheyarethusledtoregardthemselvesasbeingtreatedas……aproscribedrace。"[130]
　　Thefirstactoftheagriculturalrevolutionwastosweepawaythehutssituatedonthefieldoflabour。Thiswasdoneonthelargestscale，andasifinobediencetoacommandfromonhigh。Thusmanylabourerswerecompelledtoseekshelterinvillagesandtowns。Theretheywerethrownlikerefuseintogarrets，holes，cellarsandcomers，intheworstbackslums。ThousandsofIrishfamilies，whoaccordingtothetestimonyoftheEnglish，eatenupasthesearewithnationalprejudice，arenotablefortheirrareattachmenttothedomestichearth，fortheirgaietyandthepurityoftheirhome—life，foundthemselvessuddenlytransplantedintohotbedsofvice。Themenarenowobligedtoseekworkoftheneighbouringfarmersandareonlyhiredbytheday，andthereforeunderthemostprecariousformofwage。Hence"theysometimeshavelongdistancestogotoandfromwork，oftengetwet，andsuffermuchhardship，notunfrequentlyendinginsickness，diseaseandwant。"[131]
　　"Thetownshavehadtoreceivefromyeartoyearwhatwasdeemedtobethesurplus—labouroftheruraldivision;"[132]andthenpeoplestillwonder"thereisstillasurplusoflabourinthetownsandvillages，andeitherascarcityorathreatenedscarcityinsomeofthecountrydivisions。"[133]Thetruthisthatthiswantonlybecomesperceptible"inharvest—time，orduringspring，oratsuchtimesasagriculturaloperationsarecarriedonwithactivity;atotherperiodsoftheyearmanyhandsareidle;"[134]that"fromthediggingoutofthemaincropofpotatoesinOctoberuntiltheearlyspringfollowing……thereisnoemploymentforthem;"[135]andfurther，thatduringtheactivetimesthey"aresubjecttobrokendaysandtoallkindsofinterruptions。"[136]
　　Theseresultsoftheagriculturalrevolution？i。e。，thechangeofarableintopastureland，theuseofmachinery，themostrigorouseconomyoflabour，&c。，arestillfurtheraggravatedbythemodellandlords，who，insteadofspendingtheirrentsinothercountries，condescendtoliveinIrelandontheirdemesnes。Inorderthatthelawofsupplyanddemandmaynotbebroken，thesegentlemendrawtheir"labour—supply……
　　chieflyfromtheirsmalltenants，whoareobligedtoattendwhenrequiredtodothelandlord’swork，atratesofwages，inmanyinstances，considerablyunderthecurrentratespaidtoordinarylabourers，andwithoutregardtotheinconvenienceorlosstothetenantofbeingobligedtoneglecthisownbusinessatcriticalperiodsofsowingorreaping。"[137]
　　Theuncertaintyandirregularityofemployment，theconstantreturnandlongdurationofglutsoflabour，allthesesymptomsofarelativesurplus—population，figurethereforeinthereportsofthePoorLawadministration，assomanyhardshipsoftheagriculturalproletariat。Itwillberememberedthatwemet，intheEnglishagriculturalproletariat，withasimilarspectacle。
　　ButthedifferenceisthatinEngland，anindustrialcountry，theindustrialreserverecruitsitselffromthecountrydistricts，whilstinIreland，anagriculturalcountry，theagriculturalreserverecruitsitselffromthetowns，thecitiesofrefugeoftheexpelledagricultural，labourers。
　　Intheformer，thesupernumerariesofagriculturearetransformedintofactoryoperatives;inthelatter，thoseforcedintothetowns，whilstatthesametimetheypressonthewagesintowns，remainagriculturallabourers，andareconstantlysentbacktothecountrydistrictsinsearchofwork。
　　Theofficialinspectorssumupthematerialconditionoftheagriculturallabourerasfollows:"Thoughlivingwiththestrictestfrugality，hisownwagesarebarelysufficienttoprovidefoodforanordinaryfamilyandpayhisrent"andhedependsuponothersourcesforthemeansofclothinghimself，hiswife，andchildren……Theatmosphereofthesecabins，combinedwiththe。otherprivationstheyaresubjectedto，hasmadethisclassparticularlysusceptibletolowfeverandpulmonaryconsumption。"[138]Afterthis，itisnowonderthat，accordingtotheunanimoustestimonyoftheinspectors，asombrediscontentrunsthroughtheranksofthisclass，thattheylongforthereturnofthepast，loathethepresent，despairofthefuture，givethemselvesup"totheevilinfluenceofagitators，"
　　andhaveonlyonefixedidea，toemigratetoAmerica。ThisisthelandofCockaigne，intowhichthegreatMalthusianpanacea，depopulation，hastransformedgreenErin。
　　WhatahappylifetheIrishfactoryoperativeleadsoneexamplewillshow:"OnmyrecentvisittotheNorthofIreland，"saystheEnglishFactoryInspector，RobertBaker，"ImetwiththefollowingevidenceofeffortinanIrishskilledworkmantoaffordeducationtohischildren;andIgivehisevidenceverbatim，asItookitfromhismouth。Thathewasaskilledfactoryhand，maybeunderstoodwhenIsaythathewasemployedongoodsfortheManchestermarket。’Johnson。？Iamabeetlerandworkfrom6inthemorningtill11atnight，fromMondaytoFriday。Saturdayweleaveoffat6p。m。，andgetthreehoursofit（formealsandrest）。Ihavefivechildreninall。ForthisworkIget10s。6d。aweek，;mywifeworksherealso，andgets5s。aweek。Theoldestgirlwhois12，mindsthehouse。
　　Sheisalsocook，andalltheservantwehave。Shegetstheyoungonesreadyforschool。Agirlgoingpastthehousewakesmeathalfpastfiveinthemorning。Mywifegetsupandgoesalongwithme。Wegetnothing（toeat）beforewecometowork。Thechildof12takesdareofthelittlechildrenalltheday，andwegetnothingtillbreakfastateight。Ateightwegohome;Wegetteaonceaweek;atothertimeswegetstirabout，sometimesofoat—meal，sometimesofIndianmeal，asweareabletogetit。InthewinterwegetalittlesugarandwatertoourIndianmeal。Inthesummerwegetafewpotatoes，plantingasmallpatchourselves;。andwhentheyaredonewegetbacktostirabout。Sometimeswegetalittlemilkasitmaybe。Sowegoonfromdaytoday，Sundayandweekday，alwaysthesametheyearround。IamalwaysverymuchtiredwhenIhavedoneatnight。Wemayseeabitoffleshmeatsometimes，butveryseldom。Threeofourchildrenattendschool，forwhomwepay1d。
　　aweekahead。Ourrentis9d。aweek。Peatforfiringcosts1s。6d。afortnightattheverylowest。’"[139]SuchareIrishwages，suchisIrishlife！
　　InfactthemiseryofIrelandisagainthetopicofthedayinEngland。
　　Attheendof1866andthebeginningof1867，oneoftheIrishlandmagnates，LordDufferin，setaboutitssolutioninTheTimes。"WiemenschlichvonsolchgrossemHerrn！"
　　FromTableE。wesawthat，during1864，of£4，368，610oftotalprofits，threesurplus—valuemakerspocketedonly£262，819;thatin1865，however，outof£4，669，979totalprofits，thesamethreevirtuosiof"abstinence"pocketed£274，528;in1864，26surplus—valuemakersreachedto£646，377;in1865，28surplus—valuemakersreachedto£736，448;in1864，121surplus—valuemakers，£1，076，912;
　　in1865，150surplus—valuemakers，£1，320，906;in1864，1，131surplus—valuemakers£2，150，818，nearlyhalfofthetotalannualprofit;in1865，1，194surplus—valuemakers，£2，418，833，morethanhalfofthetotalannualprofit。Butthelion’sshare，whichaninconceivablysmallnumberoflandmagnatesinEngland，ScotlandandIrelandswallowupoftheyearlynationalrental，issomonstrousthatthewisdomoftheEnglishStatedoesnotthinkfittoaffordthesamestatisticalmaterialsaboutthedistributionofrentsasaboutthedistributionofprofits。LordDufferinisoneofthoselandmagnates。Thatrent—rollsandprofitscaneverbe"excessive，"
　　orthattheirplethoraisinanywayconnectedwithplethoraofthepeople’smiseryis，ofcourse，anideaas"disreputable"as"unsound。"Hekeepstofacts。Thefactisthat，astheIrishpopulationdiminishes，theIrishrent—rollsswell;thatdepopulationbenefitsthelandlords，thereforealsobenefitsthesoil，and，therefore，thepeople，thatmereaccessoryofthesoil。Hedeclares，therefore，thatIrelandisstillover—populated，andthestreamofemigrationstillflowstoolazily。Tobeperfectlyhappy，Irelandmustgetridofatleastone—thirdofamillionoflabouringmen。
　　Letnomanimaginethatthislord，poeticintothebargain，isaphysicianoftheschoolofSangrado，whoasoftenashedidnotfindhispatientbetter，orderedphlebotomyandagainphlebotomy，untilthepatientlosthissicknessatthesametimeashisblood。LordDufferindemandsanewblood—lettingofone—thirdofamilliononly，insteadofabouttwomillions;
　　infact，withoutthegettingridof。these，themillenniuminErinisnottobe。Theproofiseasilygiven。
　　NUMBERANDEXTENTOFFARMSINIRELANDIN1864[140]
　　No。Acres（1）Farmsnotover1acre。48，65325，394
　　（2）Farmsover1，notover5acres。82，037288，916
　　（3）Farmsover5，notover15acres。176，3681，836，310
　　（4）Farmsover15，notover30acres。136，5783，051，343
　　（5）Farmsover30，notover50acres。71，9612，906，274
　　（6）Farmsover50，notover100acres。54，2473，983，880
　　（7）Farmsover100acres。31，9278，227，807
　　（8）TOTALAREA。？nbsp;26，319，924
　　Centralisationhasfrom1851to1861destroyedprincipallyfarmsofthefirstthreecategories，under1andnotover15acres。Theseaboveallmustdisappear。Thisgives307，058"supernumerary"farmers，andreckoningthefamiliesthelowaverageof4persons，1，228，232persons。Ontheextravagantsuppositionthat，aftertheagriculturalrevolutioniscompleteone—fourthoftheseareagainabsorbable，thereremainforemigration921，174persons。
　　Categories4，5，6，ofover15andnotover100acres，are，aswasknownlongsinceinEngland，toosmallforcapitalisticcultivationofcorn，andforsheep—breedingarealmostvanishingquantities。Onthesamesuppositionasbefore，therefore，therearefurther788，761personstoemigrate;total，1，709，532。AndasI’appétitvientenmangeant，Rentroll’seyeswillsoondiscoverthatIreland，with31/2millions，isstillalwaysmiserable，andmiserablebecausesheisover—populated。Thereforeherdepopulationmustgoyetfurther，thatthusshemayfulfilhertruedestiny，thatofanEnglishsheep—walkandcattle—pasture。"[141]
　　Likeallgoodthingsinthisbadworld，thisprofitablemethodhasitsdrawbacks。WiththeaccumulationofrentsinIreland，theaccumulationoftheIrishinAmericakeepspace。TheIrishman，banishedbysheepandox，re—appearsontheothersideoftheoceanasaFenian，andfacetofacewiththeoldqueenoftheseasrises，threateningandmorethreatening，theyounggiantRepublic:
　　AcerbafataRomanosaguntScelusquefraternaenecis。
　　Footnotes[1]KarlMarx，l。c。，"Aégalitéd’oppressiondesmasses，plusunpaysadeprolétairesetplusilestriche。"（Colins，"L’EconomiePolitique。SourcedesRévolutionsetdesUtopies，prétenduesSocialistes。"Paris，1857，t。III。，p。331。）Our"prolétarian"iseconomicallynoneotherthanthewage—labourer，whoproducesandincreasescapital，andisthrownoutonthestreets，assoonasheissuperfluousfortheneedsofaggrandigementof"Monsieurcapital，"asPecqueurcallsthisperson。"Thesicklyproletarianoftheprimitiveforest"，isaprettyRoscherianfancy。Theprimitiveforesterisowneroftheprimitiveforest，andusestheprimitiveforestashispropertywiththefreedomofanorang—outang。
　　Heisnot，therefore，aproletarian。Thiswouldonlybethecase，iftheprimitiveforestexploitedhim，insteadofbeingexploitedbyhim。Asfarashishealthisconcerned，suchamanwouldwellbearcomparison，notonlywiththemodernproletarian，butalsowiththesyphiliticandscrofulousupperclasses。But，nodoubt，HerrWilhelmRoscher，by"primitiveforest"
　　meanshisnativeheathofLüneburg。
　　[2]JohnBellers，l。c。，p。2。
　　[3]BernarddeMandeville:"TheFableoftheBees，"5thedition，London，1728。
　　Remarks，pp。212，213，328。"Temperatelivingandconstantemploymentisthedirectroad，forthepoor，torationalhappiness"[bywhichhemostprobablymeanslongworking—daysandlittlemeansofsubsistence]，"andtorichesandstrengthforthestate"（viz。，forthelandlords，capitalists，andtheirpoliticaldignitariesandagents）。（"AnEssayonTradeandCommerce，"London，1770，p。54。）
　　[4]Edenshouldhaveasked，whosecreaturesthenare"thecivilinstitutions"？
　　Fromhisstandpointofjuridicalillusion，hedoesnotregardthelawasaproductofthematerialrelationsofproduction，butconverselytherelationsofproductionasproductsofthelaw。LinguetoverthrewMontesquieu’sillusory"Espritdeslois"withoneword:"L’espritdeslois，c’estlapropriété。"
　　[5]Eden，l。c。，Vol。1，bookI。，chapter1，pp。1，2，andpreface，p。xx。
　　[6]IfthereaderremindsmeofMalthus，whose"EssayonPopulation"appearedin1798，Iremindhimthatthisworkinitsfirstformisnothingmorethanaschoolboyish，superficialplagiaryofDePoe，SirJamesSteuart，Townsend，Franklin，Wallace，&c。，anddoesnotcontainasinglesentencethoughtoutbyhimself。Thegreatsensationthispamphletcaused，wasduesolelytopartyinterest。TheFrenchRevolutionhadfoundpassionatedefendersintheUnitedKingdom;the"principleofpopulation，"slowlyworkedoutintheeighteenthcentury，andthen，inthemidstofagreatsocialcrisis，proclaimedwithdrumsandtrumpetsastheinfallibleantidotetotheteachingsofCondorcet，&c。，wasgreetedwithjubilancebytheEnglisholigarchyasthegreatdestroyerofallhankeringsafterhumandevelopment。Malthus，hugelyastonishedathissuccess，gavehimselftostuffingintohisbookmaterialssuperficiallycompiled，andaddingtoitnewmatter，notdiscoveredbutannexedbyhim。Notefurther:AlthoughMalthuswasaparsonoftheEnglishStateChurch，hehadtakenthemonasticvowofcelibacy？oneoftheconditionsofholdingaFellowshipinProtestantCambridgeUniversity:
　　"Socioscollegiorummaritosessenonpermittimus，sedstatimpostquamquisuxoremduxeritsociuscollegiidesinatesse。"（"ReportsofCambridgeUniversityCommission，"p。172。）ThiscircumstancefavourablydistinguishesMalthusfromtheotherProtestantparsons，whohaveshuffledoffthecommandenjoiningcelibacyofthepriesthoodandhavetaken，"Befruitfulandmultiply，"
　　astheirspecialBiblicalmissioninsuchadegreethattheygenerallycontributetotheincreaseofpopulationtoareallyunbecomingextent，whilsttheypreachatthesametimetothelabourersthe"principleofpopulation。"Itischaracteristicthattheeconomicfallofman，theAdam’sapple，theurgentappetite，"thecheckswhichtendtoblunttheshaftsofCupid，"asParsonTownsendwaggishlyputsit，thatthisdelicatequestionwasandismonopolisedbytheReverendsofProtestantTheology，orratheroftheProtestantChurch。WiththeexceptionoftheVenetianmonk，Ortes，anoriginalandcleverwriter，mostofthepopulation—theoryteachersareProtestantparsons。Forinstance，Bruckner，"ThéorieduSystèmeanimal，"Leyde，1767，inwhichthewholesubjectofthemodernpopulationtheoryisexhausted，andtowhichthepassingquarrelbetweenQuesnayandhispupil，theelderMirabeau，fumishedideasonthesametopic;thenParsonWallace，ParsonTownsend，ParsonMalthusandhispupil，thearch—ParsonThomasChalmers，tosaynothingoflesserreverendscribblersinthisline。
　　Originally，PoliticalEconomywasstudiedbyphilosopherslikeHobbes，Locke，Hume;bybusinessmenandstatesmen，likeThomasMore，Temple，Sully，DeWitt，North，Law，Vanderlint，Cantillon，Franklin;andespecially，andwiththegreatestsuccess，bymedicalmenlikePetty，Barbon，Mandeville，Quesnay。Eveninthemiddleoftheeighteenthcentury，theRev。Mr。Tucker，anotableeconomistofhistime，excusedhimselfformeddlingwiththethingsofMammon。Lateron，andintruthwiththisvery"Principleofpopulation，"
　　struckthehouroftheProtestantparsons。Petty，whoregardedthepopulationasthebasisofwealth，andwas，likeAdamSmith，anoutspokenfoetoparsons，says，asifhehadapresentimentoftheirbunglinginterference，"thatReligionbestflourisheswhenthePriestsaremostmortified，aswasbeforesaidoftheLaw，whichbestflourishethwhenlawyershaveleasttodo。"
　　HeadvisestheProtestantpriests，therefore，ifthey，onceforall，willnotfollowtheApostlePauland"mortify"themselvesbycelibacy，"nottobreedmoreChurchmenthantheBenefices，astheynowstandsharedout，willreceive，thatistosay，iftherebeplacesforabouttwelvethousandinEnglandandWales，itwillnotbesafetobreedup24，000ministers，forthenthetwelvethousandwhichareunprovidedfor，willseekwayshowtogetthemselvesalivelihood，whichtheycannotdomoreeasilythanbypersuadingthepeoplethatthetwelvethousandincumbentsdopoisonorstarvetheirsouls，andmisguidethemintheirwaytoHeaven。"（Petty:
　　"ATreatiseofTaxesandContributions，"London，1667，p。57。）AdamSmith’spositionwiththeProtestantpriesthoodofhistimeisshownbythefollowing。
　　In"ALettertoA。Smith，L。L。D。OntheLife，Death，andPhilosophyofhisFriend，DavidHume。ByoneofthePeoplecalledChristians，"4thEdition，Oxford，1784，Dr。Horne，BishopofNorwich，reprovesAdamSmith，becauseinapublishedlettertoMr。Strahan，he"embalmedhisfriendDavid"（sc。
　　Hume）;becausehetoldtheworldhow"HumeamusedhimselfonhisdeathbedwithLucianandWhist，"andbecauseheevenhadtheimpudencetowriteofHume:"Ihavealwaysconsideredhim，bothinhislife—timeandsincehisdeath，asapproachingasnearlytotheideaofaperfectlywiseandvirtuousman，as，perhaps，thenatureofhumanfrailtywillpermit。"Thebishopcriesout，inapassion:"Isitrightinyou，Sir，toholduptoourviewas’perfectlywiseandvirtuous，’thecharacterandconductofone，whoseemstohavebeenpossessedwithanincurableantipathytoallthatiscalledReligion;andwhostrainedeverynervetoexplode，suppressandextirpatethespiritofitamongmen，thatitsveryname，ifhecouldeffectit，mightnomorebehadinremembrance？"（l。c。，p。
　　8。）"Butletnottheloversoftruthbediscouraged。Atheismcannotbeoflongcontinuance。"（P。17。）AdamSmith，"hadtheatrociouswickednesstopropagateatheismthroughtheland（viz。，byhis"TheoryofMoralSentiments"）。
　　Uponthewhole，Doctor，yourmeaningisgood;butIthinkyouwillnotsucceedthistime。Youwouldpersuadeus，bytheexampleofDavidHume，Esq。，thatatheismistheonlycordialforlowspirits，andtheproperantidoteagainstthefearofdeath……YoumaysmileoverBabyloninruinsandcongratulatethehardenedPharaohonhisoverthrowintheRedSea。"（l。c。，pp。21，22。）Oneorthodoxindividual，amongstAdamSmith’scollegefriends，writesafterhisdeath:"Smith’swell—placedaffectionforHume……hinderedhimfrombeingaChristian……Whenhemetwithhonestmenwhomheliked……hewouldbelievealmostanythingtheysaid。HadhebeenafriendoftheworthyingeniousHorroxhewouidhavebelievedthatthemoonsometimesdisappearedinaclcarskywithouttheinterpositionofacloud……Heapproachedtorepublicanisminhispoliticalprinciples。"（"TheBee。"ByJamesAnderson，18Vols。，Vol。3，pp。166，165，Edinburgh，1791—93。）ParsonThomasChalmershashissuspicionsastoAdamSmithhavinginventedthecategoryof"unproductivelabourers，"
　　solelyfortheProtestantparsons，inspiteoftheirblessedworkinthevineyardoftheLord。
　　[7]"Thelimit，however，totheemploymentofboththeoperativeandthelaboureristhesame;namely，thepossibilityoftheemployerrealisingaprofitontheproduceoftheirindustry。Iftherateofwagesissuchastoreducethemaster’sgainsbelowtheaverageprofitofcapital，hewillceasetoemploythem，orhewillonlyemploythemonconditionofsubmissiontoareductionofwages。"（JohnWade，l。c。，p。241。）
　　[8]NotebytheInstituteofMarxism—LeninismtotheRussianedition:TheMS
　　inthefirstcasesays"little"andinthesecondcase"much";thecorrectionhasbeenintroducedaccordingtotheauthorisedFrenchtranslation。
　　[9]Cf。KarlMarx:"ZurKritikderPolitischenOekonomie，"pp。166，seq。
　　[10]"Ifwenowreturntoourfirstinquiry，whereinitwasshownthatcapitalitselfisonlytheresultofhumanlabour……itseemsquiteincomprehensiblethatmancanhavefallenunderthedominationofcapital，hisownproduct;
　　canbesubordinatedtoit;andasinrealitythisisbeyonddisputethecase，involuntarilythequestionarises:Howhasthelabourerbeenabletopassfrombeingmasterofcapital？asitscreator？tobeingitsslave？"
　　（VonThünen，"DerisolierteStaat"Partii。，Sectionii。，Rostock，1863，pp。5，6。）ItisThünen’smerittohaveaskedthisquestion。
　　Hisanswerissimplychildish。
　　[12]Noteinthe4thGermanedition。？ThelatestEnglishandAmerican"trusts"arealreadystrivingtoattainthisgoalbyattemptingtouniteatleastallthelarge—scaleconcernsinonebranchofindustryintoonegreatjoint—stockcompanywithapracticalmonopoly。F。E。
　　[13]Noteinthe3rdGermanedition。？InMarx’scopythereisherethemarginalnote:"Herenoteforworkingoutlater;iftheextensionisonlyquantitative，thenforagreaterandasmallercapitalinthesamebranchofbusinesstheprofitsareasthemagnitudesofthecapitalsadvanced。
　　Ifthequantitativeextensioninducesqualitativechange，thentherateofprofitonthelargercapitalrisessimultaneously。"F。E。
　　[14]ThecensusofEnglandandWalesshows:allpersonsemployedinagriculture（landlords，farmers，gardeners，shepherds，&c。，included）:1851，2，011，447;
　　1861，1，924，110。Fall，87，337。Worstedmanufacture:1851，102，714persons;
　　1861，79，242。Silkweaving:1851，111，940;1861，101，678。Calico—printing:
　　1851，12，098;1861，12，556。Asmallrisethat，inthefaceoftheenormousextensionofthisindustryandimplyingagreatfallproportionallyinthenumberoflabourersemployed。Hat—making:1851，15，957;1861，13，814。
　　Straw—hatandbonnet—making:1851，20，393;1861，18，176。Malting:1851，10，566;1861，10，677。Chandlery，1851，4，949;1861，4，686。Thisfallisdue，besidesothercauses，totheincreaseinlightingbygas。Comb—making？1851，2，038;1861，1，478。Sawyers:1851，30，552;1861，31，647？asmallriseinconsequenceoftheincreaseofsawing—machines。Nail—making:1851，26，940;1861，26，130？fallinconsequenceofthecompetitionofmachinery。
　　Tinandcopper—mining:1851，31，360;1861，32，041。Ontheotherhand:Cotton—spinningandweaving:1851，371，777;1861，456，646。Coal—mining:1851，183，389，1861，246，613，"Theincreaseoflabourersisgenerallygreatest，since1851，insuchbranchesofindustryinwhichmachineryhasnotuptothepresentbeenemployedwithsuccess。"（CensusofEnglandandWalesfor1861。
　　Vol。Ill。London，1863，p。36。）
　　[15]Addedinthe4thGermanedition。？Thelawofprogressivediminutionoftherelativemagnitudeofvariablecapitalanditseffectontheconditionoftheclassofwage—workersisconjecturedratherthanunderstoodbysomeoftheprominenteconomistsoftheclassicalschool。ThegreatestservicewasrenderedherebyJohnBarton，althoughhe，likealltherest，lumpstogetherconstantandfixedcapital，variableandcirculatingcapital。
　　Hesays:
　　"Thedemandforlabourdependsontheincreaseofcirculating，andnotoffixedcapital。Wereittruethattheproportionbetweenthesetwosortsofcapitalisthesameatalltimes，andinallcircumstances，then，indeed，itfollowsthatthenumberoflabourersemployedisinproportiontothewealthofthestate。Butsuchapropositionhasnotthesemblanceofprobability。
　　Asartsarecultivated，andcivilisationisextended，fixedcapitalbearsalargerandlargerproportiontocirculatingcapital。TheamountoffixedcapitalemployedintheproductionofapieceofBritishmuslinisatleastahundred，probablyathousandtimesgreaterthanthatemployedinasimilarpieceofIndianmuslin。Andtheproportionofcirculatingcapitalisahundredorthousandtimesless……thewholeoftheannualsavings，addedtothefixedcapital，wouldhavenoeffectinincreasingthedemandforlabour。"（JohnBarton，"ObscrvationsontheCircumstanceswhichInfluencetheConditionoftheLabouringClassesofSociety。"London，1817，pp。16，17。）"Thesamecausewhichmayincreasethenetrevenueofthecountrymayatthesametimerenderthepopulationredundant，anddeterioratetheconditionofthelabourer。"（Ricardo，l。c。，p。469。）Withincreaseofcapital，"thedemand[forlabour]willbeinadiminishingratio。"（Ibid。，p。480，Note。）"Theamountofcapitaldevotedtothemaintenanceoflabourmayvary，independentlyofanychangesinthewholeamountofcapital……
　　Greatfluctuationsintheamountofemployment，andgreatsufferingmaybecomemorefrequentascapitalitselfbecomesmoreplentiful。"（RichardJones，"AnIntroductoryLectureonPol。Econ。，"Lond。1833，p。13）"Demand[forlabour]willrise……notinproportiontotheaccumulationofthegeneralcapital……Everyaugmentation，therefore，inthenationalstockdestinedforreproduction，comes，intheprogressofsociety，tohavelessandlessinfluenceupontheconditionofthelabourer。"（Ramsay，l。c。，pp。90，91。）