wouldhavetobeturnedinto"productive"ones。
　　Takingthemasawhole，thegeneralmovementsofwagesareexclusivelyregulatedbytheexpansionandcontractionoftheindustrialreservearmy，andtheseagaincorrespondtotheperiodicchangesoftheindustrialcycle。
　　Theyare，therefore，notdeterminedbythevariationsoftheabsolutenumberoftheworkingpopulation，butbythevaryingproportionsinwhichtheworking—classisdividedintoactiveandreservearmy，bytheincreaseordiminutionintherelativeamountofthesurplus—population，bytheextenttowhichitisnowabsorbed，nowsetfree。ForModernIndustrywithitsdecennialcyclesandperiodicphases，which，moreover，asaccumulationadvances，arecomplicatedbyirregularoscillationsfollowingeachothermoreandmorequickly。thatwouldindeedbeabeautifullaw，whichpretendstomaketheactionofcapitaldependentontheabsolutevariationofthepopulation，insteadofregulatingthedemandandsupplyoflabourbythealternateexpansionandcontractionofcapital，thelabour—marketnowappearingrelativelyunder—full，becausecapitalisexpanding，nowagainover—full，becauseitiscontracting。Yetthisisthedogmaoftheeconomists。Accordingtothem，wagesriseinconsequenceofaccumulationofcapital。Thehigherwagesstimulatetheworkingpopulationtomorerapidmultiplication，andthisgoesonuntilthelabour—marketbecomestoofull，andthereforecapital，relativelytothesupplyoflabour，becomesinsufficient。
　　Wagesfall，andnowwehavethereverseofthemedal。Theworkingpopulationislittlebylittledecimatedastheresultofthefallinwages，sothatcapitalisagaininexcessrelativelytothem，or，asothersexplainit，fallingwagesandthecorrespondingincreaseintheexploitationofthelaboureragainacceleratesaccumulation，whilst，atthesametime，thelowerwagesholdtheincreaseoftheworking—classincheck。Thencomesagainthetime，whenthesupplyoflabourislessthanthedemand，wagesrise，andsoon。Abeautifulmodeofmotionthisfordevelopedcapitalistproduction！Before，inconsequenceoftheriseofwages，anypositiveincreaseofthepopulationreallyfitforworkcouldoccur，thetimewouldhavebeenpassedagainandagain，duringwhichtheindustrialcampaignmusthavebeencarriedthrough，thebattlefoughtandwon。
　　Between1849and1859，ariseofwagespracticallyinsignificant，thoughaccompaniedbyfallingpricesofcorn，tookplaceintheEnglishagriculturaldistricts。InWiltshire，e。g。，theweeklywagesrosefrom7s。to8s。;inDorsetshirefrom7s。or8s。，to9s。，&c。Thiswastheresultofanunusualexodusoftheagriculturalsurplus—populationcausedbythedemandsofwar，thevastextensionofrailroads，factories，mines，&c。
　　Thelowerthewages，thehigheristheproportioninwhicheversoinsignificantariseofthemexpressesitself。Iftheweeklywage，e。g。，is20s。
　　anditrisesto22s。，thatisariseof10percent。;butifitisonly7s。anditrisesto9s。，thatisariseof284/7percent。，whichsoundsveryfine。Everywherethefarmerswerehowling，andtheLondonEconomist，withreferencetothesestarvation—wages，prattledquiteseriouslyof"ageneralandsubstantialadvance。"[20]Whatdidthefarmersdonow？Didtheywaituntil，inconsequenceofthisbrilliantremuneration，theagriculturallabourershadsoincreasedandmultipliedthattheirwagesmustfallagain，asprescribedbythedogmaticeconomicbrain？Theyintroducedmoremachinery，andinamomentthelabourerswereredundantagaininaproportionsatisfactoryeventothefarmers。Therewasnow"morecapital"laidoutinagriculturethanbefore，andinamoreproductiveform。Withthisthedemandforlabourfell，notonlyrelatively，butabsolutely。
　　Theaboveeconomicfictionconfusesthelawsthatregulatethegeneralmovementofwages，ortheratiobetweentheworking—class？i。e。，thetotallabour—power？andthetotalsocialcapital，withthelawsthatdistributetheworkingpopulationoverthedifferentspheresofproduction。
　　If，e。g。，inconsequenceoffavourablecircumstances，accumulationinaparticularsphereofproductionbecomesespeciallyactive，andprofitsinit，beinggreaterthantheaverageprofits，attractadditionalcapital，ofcoursethedemandforlabourrisesandwagesalsorise。Thehigherwagesdrawalargerpartoftheworkingpopulationintothemorefavouredsphere，untilitisgluttedwithlabour—power，andwagesatlengthfallagaintotheiraveragelevelorbelowit，ifthepressureistoogreat。Then，notonlydoestheimmigrationoflabourersintothebranchofindustryinquestioncease;itgivesplacetotheiremigration。Herethepoliticaleconomistthinksheseesthewhyandwhereforeofanabsoluteincreaseofworkersaccompanyinganincreaseofwages，andofadiminutionofwagesaccompanyinganabsoluteincreaseoflabourers。Butheseesreallyonlythelocaloscillationofthelabour—marketinaparticularsphereofproduction？heseesonlythephenomenaaccompanyingthedistributionoftheworkingpopulationintothedifferentspheresofoutlayofcapital，accordingtoitsvaryingneeds。
　　Theindustrialreservearmy，duringtheperiodsofstagnationandaverageprosperity，weighsdowntheactivelabour—army;duringtheperiodsofover—productionandparoxysm，itholdsitspretensionsincheck。Relativesurplus—populationisthereforethepivotuponwhichthelawofdemandandsupplyoflabourworks。Itconfinesthefieldofactionofthislawwithinthelimitsabsolutelyconvenienttotheactivityofexploitationandtothedominationofcapital。
　　Thisistheplacetoreturntooneofthegrandexploitsofeconomicapologetics。Itwillberememberedthatifthroughtheintroductionofnew，ortheextensionofold，machinery，aportionofvariablecapitalistransformedintoconstant，theeconomicapologistinterpretsthisoperationwhich"fixes"capitalandbythatveryactsetslabourers"free，"inexactlytheoppositeway，pretendingthatitsetsfreecapitalforthelabourers。
　　Onlynowcanonefullyunderstandtheeffronteryoftheseapologists。Whataresetfreearenotonlythelabourersimmediatelyturnedoutbythemachines，butalsotheirfuturesubstitutesintherisinggeneration，andtheadditionalcontingent，thatwiththeusualextensionoftradeontheoldbasiswouldberegularlyabsorbed。Theyarenowall"setfree，"andeverynewbitofcapitallookingoutforemploymentcandisposeofthem。Whetheritattractsthemorothers，theeffectonthegenerallabourdemandwillbenil，ifthiscapitalisjustsufficienttotakeoutofthemarketasmanylabourersasthemachinesthrewuponit。Ifitemploysasmallernumber，thatofthesupernumerariesincreases;ifitemploysagreater，thegeneraldemandforlabouronlyincreasestotheextentoftheexcessoftheemployedoverthose"setfree。"Theimpulsethatadditionalcapital，seekinganoutlet，wouldotherwisehavegiventothegeneraldemandforlabour，isthereforeineverycaseneutralisedtotheextentofthelabourersthrownoutofemploymentbythemachine。Thatistosay，themechanismofcapitalisticproductionsomanagesmattersthattheabsoluteincreaseofcapitalisaccompaniedbynocorrespondingriseinthegeneraldemandforlabour。Andthistheapologistcallsacompensationforthemisery，thesufferings，thepossibledeathofthedisplacedlabourersduringthetransitionperiodthatbanishesthemintotheindustrialreservearmy！
　　Thedemandforlabourisnotidenticalwithincreaseofcapital，norsupplyoflabourwithincreaseoftheworking—class。Itisnotacaseoftwoindependentforcesworkingononeanother。Lesdéssontpipés。Capitalworksonbothsidesatthesametime。Ifitsaccumulation，ontheonehand，increasesthedemandforlabour，itincreasesontheotherthesupplyoflabourersbythe"settingfree"ofthem，whilstatthesametimethepressureoftheunemployedcompelsthosethatareemployedtofurnishmorelabour，andthereforemakesthesupplyoflabour，toacertainextent，independentofthesupplyoflabourers。Theactionofthelawofsupplyanddemandoflabouronthisbasiscompletesthedespotismofcapital。Assoon，therefore，asthelabourerslearnthesecret，howitcomestopassthatinthesamemeasureastheyworkmore，astheyproducemorewealthforothers，andastheproductivepoweroftheirlabourincreases，sointhesamemeasureeventheirfunctionasameansoftheself—expansionofcapitalbecomesmoreandmoreprecariousforthem;assoonastheydiscoverthatthedegreeofintensityofthecompetitionamongthemselvesdependswhollyonthepressureoftherelativesurplus—population;assoonas，byTrades’Unions，&c。，theytrytoorganisearegularco—operationbetweenemployedandunemployedinordertodestroyortoweakentheruinouseffectsofthisnaturallawofcapitalisticproductionontheirclass，sosooncapitalanditssycophant，PoliticalEconomy，cryoutattheinfringementofthe"eternal"andsotosay"sacred"lawofsupplyanddemand。Everycombinationofemployedandunemployeddisturbsthe"harmonious"actionofthislaw。
　　But，ontheotherhand，assoonas（inthecolonies，e。g。）adversecircumstancespreventthecreationofanindustrialreservearmyand，withit，theabsolutedependenceoftheworking—classuponthecapitalistclass，capital，alongwithitscommonplaceSanchoPanza，rebelsagainstthe"sacred"lawofsupplyanddemand，andtriestocheckitsinconvenientactionbyforciblemeansandStateinterference。
　　SECTION4。DIFFERENTFORMSOFTHERELATIVESURPLUS—POPULATION。THEGENERALLAWOFCAPITALISTIC
　　ACCUMULATION
　　Therelativesurplus—populationexistsineverypossibleform。Everylabourerbelongstoitduringthetimewhenheisonlypartiallyemployedorwhollyunemployed。Nottakingintoaccountthegreatperiodicallyrecurringformsthatthechangingphasesoftheindustrialcycleimpressonit，nowanacuteformduringthecrisis，thenagainachronicformduringdulltimes？ithasalwaysthreeforms，thefloating，thelatent，thestagnant。
　　Inthecentresofmodernindustry？factories，manufactures，ironworks，mines，&c。？thelabourersaresometimesrepelled，sometimesattractedagainingreatermasses，thenumberofthoseemployedincreasingonthewhole，althoughinaconstantlydecreasingproportiontothescaleofproduction。
　　Herethesurplus—populationexistsinthefloatingforp;
　　Intheautomaticfactories，asinallthegreatworkshops，wheremachineryentersasafactor，orwhereonlythemoderndivisionoflabouriscarriedout，largenumbersofboysareemployeduptotheageofmaturity。Whenthistermisoncereached，onlyaverysmallnumbercontinuetofindemploymentinthesamebranchesofindustry，whilstthemajorityareregularlydischarged。
　　Thismajorityformsanelementofthefloatingsurplus—population，growingwiththeextensionofthosebranchesofindustry。Partofthememigrates，followinginfactcapitalthathasemigrated。Oneconsequenceisthatthefemalepopulationgrowsmorerapidlythanthemale，testeEngland。
　　Thatthenaturalincreaseofthenumberoflabourersdoesnotsatisfytherequirementsoftheaccumulationofcapital，andyetallthetimeisinexcessofthem，isacontradictioninherenttothemovementofcapitalitself。Itwantslargernumbersofyouthfullabourers，asmallernumberofadults。Thecontradictionisnotmoreglaringthanthatotheronethatthereisacomplaintofthewantofhands，whileatthesametimemanythousandsareoutofwork，becausethedivisionoflabourchainsthemtoaparticularbranchofindustry。[21]
　　Theconsumptionoflabour—powerbycapitalis，besides，sorapidthatthelabourer，half—waythroughhislife，hasalreadymoreorlesscompletelylivedhimselfout。Hefallsintotheranksofthesupernumeraries，oristhrustdownfromahighertoalowerstepinthescale。Itispreciselyamongthework—peopleofmodernindustrythatwemeetwiththeshortestdurationoflife。Dr。Lee，MedicalOfficerofHealthforManchester，stated"thattheaverageageatdeathoftheManchester……uppermiddleclasswas38years，whiletheaverageageatdeathofthelabouringclasswas17;whileatLiverpoolthosefigureswererepresentedas35against15。
　　Itthusappearedthatthewell—to—doclasseshadaleaseoflifewhichwasmorethandoublethevalueofthatwhichfelltothelotofthelessfavouredcitizens。"[22]Inordertoconformtothesecircumstances，theabsoluteincreaseofthissectionoftheproletariatmusttakeplaceunderconditionsthatshallswelltheirnumbers，althoughtheindividualelementsareuseduprapidly。
　　Hence，rapidrenewalofthegenerationsoflabourers（thislawdoesnotholdfortheotherclassesofthepopulation）。Thissocialneedismetbyearlymarriages，anecessaryconsequenceoftheconditionsinwhichthelabourersofmodernindustrylive，andbythepremiumthattheexploitationofchildrensetsontheirproduction。
　　Assoonascapitalistproductiontakespossessionofagriculture，andinproportiontotheextenttowhichitdoesso，thedemandforanagriculturallabouringpopulationfallsabsolutely，whiletheaccumulationofthecapitalemployedinagricultureadvances，withoutthisrepulsionbeing，asinnon—agriculturalindustries，compensatedbyagreaterattraction。Partoftheagriculturalpopulationisthereforeconstantlyonthepointofpassingoverintoanurbanormanufacturingproletariat。andonthelook—outforcircumstancesfavourabletothistransformation。（Manufactureisusedhereinthesenseofallnonagriculturalindustries。）[23]Thissourceofrelativesurplus—populationisthusconstantlyflowing。
　　Buttheconstantflowtowardsthetownspre—supposes，inthecountryitself，aconstantlatentsurplus—population，theextentofwhichbecomesevidentonlywhenitschannelsofoutletopentoexceptionalwidth。Theagriculturallaboureristhereforereducedtotheminimumofwages，andalwaysstandswithonefootalreadyintheswampofpauperism。
　　Thethirdcategoryoftherelativesurplus—population，thestagnant，formsapartoftheactivelabourarmy，butwithextremelyirregularemployment。
　　Henceitfurnishestocapitalaninexhaustiblereservoirofdisposablelabour—power。Itsconditionsoflifesinkbelowtheaveragenormalleveloftheworking—class;thismakesitatoncethebroadbasisofspecialbranchesofcapitalistexploitation。Itischaracterisedbymaximumofworking—time，andminimumofwages。Wehavelearnttoknowitschiefformundertherubricof"domesticindustry。"Itrecruitsitselfconstantlyfromthesupernumeraryforcesofmodernindustryandagriculture，andspeciallyfromthosedecayingbranchesofindustrywherehandicraftisyieldingtomanufacture，manufacturetomachinery。Itsextentgrows，aswiththeextentandenergyofaccumulation，thecreationofasurplus—populationadvances。Butitformsatthesametimeaself—reproducingandself—perpetuatingelementoftheworking—class，takingaproportionallygreaterpartinthegeneralincreaseofthatclassthantheotherelements。
　　Infact，notonlythenumberofbirthsanddeaths，buttheabsolutesizeofthefamiliesstandininverseproportiontotheheightofwages，andthereforetotheamountofmeansofsubsistenceofwhichthedifferentcategoriesoflabourersdispose。Thislawofcapitalisticsocietywouldsoundabsurdtosavages，orevencivilisedcolonists。Itcallstomindtheboundlessreproductionofanimalsindividuallyweakandconstantlyhunteddown。[24]
　　Thelowestsedimentoftherelativesurplus—populationfinallydwellsinthesphereofpauperism。Exclusiveofvagabonds，criminals，prostitutes，inaword，the"dangerous"classes，thislayerofsocietyconsistsofthreecategories。First，thoseabletowork。OneneedonlyglancesuperficiallyatthestatisticsofEnglishpauperismtofindthatthequantityofpaupersincreaseswitheverycrisis，anddiminisheswitheveryrevivaloftrade。
　　Second，orphansandpauperchildren。Thesearecandidatesfortheindustrialreservearmy，andare，intimesofgreatprosperity，as1860，e。g。，speedilyandinlargenumbersenrolledintheactivearmyoflabourers。Third，thedemoralisedandragged，andthoseunabletowork，chieflypeoplewhosuccumbtotheirincapacityforadaptation，duetothedivisionoflabour;peoplewhohavepassedthenormalageofthelabourer;thevictimsofindustry，whosenumberincreaseswiththeincreaseofdangerousmachinery，ofmines，chemicalworks，&c。，themutilated，thesickly，thewidows，&c。Pauperismisthehospitaloftheactivelabour—armyandthedeadweightoftheindustrialreservearmy。
　　Itsproductionisincludedinthatoftherelativesurplus—population，itsnecessityintheirs;alongwiththesurplus—population，pauperismformsaconditionofcapitalistproduction，andofthecapitalistdevelopmentofwealth。Itentersintothefauxfraisofcapitalistproduction;
　　butcapitalknowshowtothrowthese。forthemostpart，fromitsownshouldersontothoseoftheworking—classandthelowermiddleclass。
　　Thegreaterthesocialwealth，thefunctioningcapital，theextentandenergyofitsgrowth，and，therefore，alsotheabsolutemassoftheproletariatandtheproductivenessofitslabour，thegreateristheindustrialreservearmy。Thesamecauseswhichdeveloptheexpansivepowerofcapital，developalsothelabour—poweratitsdisposal。Therelativemassoftheindustrialreservearmyincreasesthereforewiththepotentialenergyofwealth。Butthegreaterthisreservearmyinproportiontotheactivelabour—army，thegreateristhemassofaconsolidatedsurplus—population，whosemiseryisininverseratiotoitstormentoflabour。Themoreextensive，finally，thelazarus—layersoftheworking—class，andtheindustrialreservearmy，thegreaterisofficialpauperism。Thisistheabsolutegenerallawofcapitalistaccumulation。Likeallotherlawsitismodifiedinitsworkingbymanycircumstances，theanalysisofwhichdoesnotconcernushere。
　　Thefollyisnowpatentoftheeconomicwisdomthatpreachestothelabourerstheaccommodationoftheirnumbertotherequirementsofcapital。
　　Themechanismofcapitalistproductionandaccumulationconstantlyeffectsthisadjustment。Thefirstwordofthisadaptationisthecreationofarelativesurplus—population，orindustrialreservearmy。Itslastwordisthemiseryofconstantlyextendingstrataoftheactivearmyoflabour，andthedeadweightofpauperism。
　　Thelawbywhichaconstantlyincreasingquantityofmeansofproduction，thankstotheadvanceintheproductivenessofsociallabour，maybesetinmovementbyaprogressivelydiminishingexpenditureofhumanpower，thislaw，inacapitalistsociety？wherethelabourerdoesnotemploythemeansofproduction，butthemeansofproductionemploythelabourer？undergoesacompleteinversionandisexpressedthus:thehighertheproductivenessoflabour，thegreateristhepressureofthelabourersonthemeansofemployment，themoreprecarious，therefore，becomestheirconditionofexistence，viz。，thesaleoftheirownlabour—powerfortheincreasingofanother’swealth，orfortheself—expansionofcapital。
　　Thefactthatthemeansofproduction，andtheproductivenessoflabour，increasemorerapidlythantheproductivepopulation，expressesitself，therefore，capitalisticallyintheinverseformthatthelabouringpopulationalwaysincreasesmorerapidlythantheconditionsunderwhichcapitalcanemploythisincreaseforitsownself—expansion。
　　WesawinPartIV。，whenanalysingtheproductionofrelativesurplus—value:
　　withinthecapitalistsystemallmethodsforraisingthesocialproductivenessoflabourarebroughtaboutatthecostoftheindividuallabourer;allmeansforthedevelopmentofproductiontransformthemselvesintomeansofdominationover，andexploitationof，theproducers;theymutilatethelabourerintoafragmentofaman，degradehimtothelevelofanappendageofamachine，destroyeveryremnantofcharminhisworkandturnitintoahatedtoil;theyestrangefromhimtheintellectualpotentialitiesofthelabour—processinthesameproportionasscienceisincorporatedinitasanindependentpower;theydistorttheconditionsunderwhichheworks，subjecthimduringthelabour—processtoadespotismthemorehatefulforitsmeanness;theytransformhislife—timeintoworking—time，anddraghiswifeandchildbeneaththewheelsoftheJuggernautofcapital。Butallmethodsfortheproductionofsurplus—valueareatthesametimemethodsofaccumulation;andeveryextensionofaccumulationbecomesagainameansforthedevelopmentofthosemethods。Itfollowsthereforethatinproportionascapitalaccumulates，thelotofthelabourer，behispaymenthighorlow，mustgrowworse。Thelaw，finally，thatalwaysequilibratestherelativesurplus—population，orindustrialreservearmy，totheextentandenergyofaccumulation，thislawrivetsthelabourertocapitalmorefirmlythanthewedgesofVulcandidPrometheustotherock。Itestablishesanaccumulationofmisery，correspondingwithaccumulationofcapital。Accumulationofwealthatonepoleis，therefore，atthesametimeaccumulationofmisery，agonyoftoilslavery，ignorance，brutality，mentaldegradation，attheoppositepole，i。e。，onthesideoftheclassthatproducesitsownproductintheformofcapital。[25]Thisantagonisticcharacterofcapitalisticaccumulationisenunciatedinvariousformsbypoliticaleconomists，althoughbythemitisconfoundedwithphenomena，certainlytosomeextentanalogous，butneverthelessessentiallydistinct，andbelongingtopre—capitalisticmodesofproduction。
　　TheVenetianmonkOrtes，oneofthegreateconomicwritersofthe18thcentury，regardstheantagonismofcapitalistproductionasageneralnaturallawofsocialwealth。"Intheeconomyofanation，advantagesandevilsalwaysbalanceoneanother（ilbeneedilmaleeconomicoinunanazionesempreall，istessamisura）:theabundanceofwealthwithsomepeople，isalwaysequaltothewantofitwithothers（lacopiadeibeniinalcunisempreegualealiamancanzadiessiinaltri）:thegreatrichesofasmallnumberarealwaysaccompaniedbytheabsoluteprivationofthefirstnecessariesoflifeformanyothers。Thewealthofanationcorrespondswithitspopulation，anditsmiserycorrespondswithitswealth。Diligenceinsomecompelsidlenessinothers。Thepoorandidleareanecessaryconsequenceoftherichandactive，"&c。[26]Inathoroughlybrutalwayabout10yearsafterOrtes，theChurchofEnglandparson，Townsend，glorifiedmiseryasanecessaryconditionofwealth。
　　"Legalconstraint（tolabour）isattendedwithtoomuchtrouble，violence，andnoise，whereashungerisnotonlyapeaceable，silent，unremittedpressure，butasthemostnaturalmotivetoindustryandlabour，itcallsforththemostpowerfulexertions。"Everythingtherefor’edependsuponmakinghungerpermanentamongtheworking—class，andforthis，accordingtoTownsend，theprincipleofpopulation，especiallyactiveamongthepoor，provides。
　　"ItseemstobealawofNaturethatthepoorshouldbetoacertaindegreeimprovident"[i。e。，soimprovidentastobebornwithoutasilverspooninthemouth]，"thattheremayalwaysbesometofulfilthemostservile，themostsordid，andthemostignobleofficesinthecommunity。Thestockofhumanhappinessistherebymuchincreased，whilstthemoredelicatearenotonlyrelievedfromdrudgery……butareleftatlibertywithoutinterruptiontopursuethosecallingswhicharesuitedtotheirvariousdispositions……it[thePoorLaw]tendstodestroytheharmonyandbeauty，thesymmetryandorderofthatsystemwhichGodandNaturehaveestablishedintheworld。[27]IftheVenetianmonkfoundinthefataldestinythatmakesmiseryeternal，theraisond’êtreofChristiancharity，celibacy，monasteriesandholyhouses，theProtestantprebendaryfindsinitapretextforcondemningthelawsinvirtueofwhichthepoorpossessedarighttoamiserablepublicrelief。
　　"Theprogressofsocialwealth，"saysStorch，"begetsthisusefulclassofsociety……whichperformsthemostwearisome，thevilest，themostdisgustingfunctions，whichtakes，inaword，onitsshouldersallthatisdisagreeableandservileinlife，andprocuresthusforotherclassesleisure，serenityofmindandconventional[c’estbon！]dignityofcharacter。"[28]Storchaskshimselfinwhatthenreallyconsiststheprogressofthiscapitalisticcivilisationwithitsmiseryanditsdegradationofthemasses，ascomparedwithbarbarism。Hefindsbutoneanswer:security！
　　"Thankstotheadvanceofindustryandscience，"saysSismondi，"everylabourercanproduceeverydaymuchmorethanhisconsumptionrequires。
　　Butatthesametime，whilsthislabourproduceswealth，thatwealthwould，werehecalledontoconsumeithimself，makehimlessfitforlabour。"
　　Accordingtohim，"men"[i。e。，non—workers]"wouldprobablyprefertodowithoutallartisticperfection，andalltheenjoymentsthatmanufacturersprocureforus，ifitwerenecessarythatallshouldbuythembyconstanttoillikethatofthelabourer……Exertionto—dayisseparatedfromitsrecompense;itisnotthesamemanthatfirstworks，andthenreposes;
　　butitisbecausetheoneworksthattheotherrests……Theindefinitemultiplicationoftheproductivepowersoflabourcanthenonlyhaveforresulttheincreaseofluxuryandenjoymentoftheidlerich。"[29]
　　FinallyDestuttdeTracy，thefish—bloodedbourgeoisdoctrinaire，blurtsoutbrutally:"Inpoornationsthepeoplearecomfortable，inrichnationstheyaregenerallypoor。"[30]
　　SECTION5。ILLUSTRATIONSOFTHEGENERALLAWOFCAPITALISTACCUMULATION
　　A。Englandfrom1846—1866Noperiodofmodernsocietyissofavourableforthestudyofcapitalistaccumulationastheperiodofthelast20years。ItisasifthisperiodhadfoundFortunatus’purse。ButofallcountriesEnglandagainfurnishestheclassicalexample，becauseitholdstheforemostplaceintheworld—market，becausecapitalistproductionisherealonecompletelydeveloped，andlastly，becausetheintroductionoftheFree—trademillenniumsince1846hascutoffthelastretreatofvulgareconomy。Thetitanicadvanceofproduction？thelatterhalfofthe20years’periodagainfarsurpassingtheformer？hasbeenalreadypointedoutsufficientlyinPartIV。
　　AlthoughtheabsoluteincreaseoftheEnglishpopulationinthelasthalfcenturywasverygreat，therelativeincreaseorrateofgrowthfellconstantly，asthefollowingtableborrowedfromthecensusshows。
　　Annualincreasepercent。ofthepopulationofEnglandandWalesindecimalnumbers:
　　1811—18211。533percent。
　　1821—18311。446percent。
　　1831—18411。326percent。
　　1841—18511。216percent。
　　1851—18611。141percent。
　　Letusnow，ontheotherhand，considertheincreaseofwealth。Herethemovementofprofit，rentofland，&c。，thatcomeundertheincometax。furnishesthesurestbasis。Theincreaseofprofitsliabletoincometax（farmersandsomeothercategoriesnotincluded）inGreatBritainfrom1853to1864amountedto50。47%or4。58%astheannualaverage，[31]thatofthepopulationduringthesameperiodtoabout12%。Theaugmentationoftherentoflandsubjecttotaxation（includinghouses，railways，mines，fisheries，&c。），amountedfor1853to1864to38%or35/12%annually。
　　Underthisheadthefollowingcategoriesshowthegreatestincrease:
　　Excessofannualincomeof1864overthatof1853IncreaseperyearHouses38。60%3。50%
　　Quarries84。76%7。70%
　　Mines68。85%6。26%
　　Ironworks39。92%3。63%
　　Fisheries57。37%5。21%
　　Gasworks126。02%11。45%
　　Railways83。29%7。57%
　　Ifwecomparetheyearsfrom1853to1864inthreesetsoffourconsecutiveyearseach，therateofaugmentationoftheincomeincreasesconstantly。[32]Itis，e。g。，forthatarisingfromprofitsbetween1853to1857，1。73%yearly;1857—1861，2。74%，andfor1861—64，9。30%yearly。ThesumoftheincomesoftheUnitedKingdomthatcomeundertheincometaxwasin1856，£307，068，898;in1859，£328，127，416;in1862。£351，745，241;
　　in1863，£359，142，897;in1864，£362，462，279;in1865，£385，530，020。[33]
　　Theaccumulationofcapitalwasattendedatthesametimebyitsconcentrationandcentralisation。AlthoughnoofficialstatisticsofagricultureexistedforEngland（theydidforIreland），theywerevoluntarilygivenin10counties。
　　Thesestatisticsgavetheresultthatfrom1851to1861thenumberoffarmsoflessthan100acreshadfallenfrom31，583to26，597，sothat5，016
　　hadbeenthrowntogetherintolargerfarms。[34]From1815to1825nopersonalestateofmorethan£1，000，000cameunderthesuccessionduty;from1825to1855，however，8did;and4from1856toJune，1859，i。e。，in41/2years。[35]Thecentralisationwill，however，bebestseenfromashortanalysisoftheIncomeTaxScheduleD（profits，exclusiveoffarms，&c。），intheyears1864and1865。Inotebeforehandthatincomesfromthissourcepayincometaxoneverythingover£60。TheseincomesliabletotaxationinEngland，WalesandScotland，amountedin1864to£95，844，222。
　　in1865to£105，435，579。[36]Thenumberofpersonstaxedwerein1864，308，416，outofapopulationof23，891，009;in1865，332，431outofapopulationof24，127，003。Thefollowingtableshowsthedistributionoftheseincomesinthetwoyears:
　　YearendingApril5th，1864。YearendingApril5th，1865。
　　IncomefromProfitsIncomefromPeopleIncomefromProfitsIncomefromPeopleTotalIncome£95，844，222308，416105，435，738332，431
　　ofthese57，028，28923，33464，554，29724，265
　　ofthese36，415，2253，61942，535，5764，021
　　ofthese22，809，78183227，555，313973
　　ofthese8，744，7629111，077，238107In1855therewereproducedintheUnitedKingdom61，453，079tonsofcoal，ofvalue£16，113，167;in1864，92，787，873tons，ofvalue£23，197，968;
　　in1855，3，218，154tonsofpig—iron，ofvalue£8，045，385;1864，4，767，951
　　tons，ofvalue£11，919，877。In1854thelengthoftherailroadsworkedintheUnitedKingdomwas8，054miles，withapaid—upcapitalof£286，068，794;
　　in1864thelengthwas12，789miles，withcapitalpaidupof£425，719，613。
　　In1854thetotalsumoftheexportsandimportsoftheUnitedKingdomwas£268，210，145;in1865，£489，923，285。Thefollowingtableshowsthemovementoftheexports:
　　1846£58，842，377
　　184963，596，052
　　1856115，826，948
　　1860135，842，817
　　1865165，862，402
　　1866188，917，563[37]
　　AfterthesefewexamplesoneunderstandsthecryoftriumphoftheRegistrar—GeneraloftheBritishpeople:"Rapidlyasthepopulationhasincreased，ithasnotkeptpacewiththeprogressofindustryandwealth。"[38]
　　Letusturnnowtothedirectagentsofthisindustry，ortheproducersofthiswealth，totheworking—class。"Itisoneofthemostmelancholyfeaturesinthesocialstateofthiscountry，"saysGladstone，"thatwhiletherewasadecreaseintheconsumingpowersofthepeople，andwhiletherewasanincreaseintheprivationsanddistressofthelabouringclassandoperatives，therewasatthesametimeaconstantaccumulationofwealthintheupperclasses，andaconstantincreaseofcapital。"[39]ThusspakethisunctuousministerintheHouseofCommonsofFebruary13th，1843。OnApril16th，1863，20yearslater，inthespeechinwhichheintroducedhisBudget:"From1842to1852thetaxableincomeofthecountryincreasedby6percent……Inthe8yearsfrom1853to1861ithadincreasedfromthebasistakenin1853by20percent。！Thefactissoastonishingastohealmostincredible……thisintoxicatingaugmentationofwealthandpower……entirelyconfinedtoclassesofproperty……mustbeofindirectbenefittothelabouringpopulation，becauseitcheapensthecommoditiesofgeneralconsumption。Whiletherichhavebeengrowingricher，thepoorhavebeengrowinglesspoor。Atanyrate，whethertheextremesofpovertyareless，Idonotpresumetosay。"[40]Howlameananti—climax！Iftheworking—classhasremained"poor，"only"lesspoor"inproportionasitproducesforthewealthyclass"anintoxicatingaugmentationofwealthandpower，"thenithasremainedrelativelyjustaspoor。Iftheextremesofpovertyhavenotlessened，theyhaveincreased，becausetheextremesofwealthhave。Astothecheapeningofthemeansofsubsistence，theofficialstatistics，e。g。，theaccountsoftheLondonOrphanAsylum，showanincreaseinpriceof20%fortheaverageofthethreeyears1860—1862，comparedwith1851—1853。Inthefollowingthreeyears，1863—1865，therewasaprogressiveriseinthepriceofmeat，butter，milk，sugar。