Theworking—dayforallartificersandfieldlabourersfromMarchtoSeptemberought，accordingtothisstatute（which，however，couldnotbeenforced），tolastfrom5inthemorningtobetween7and8intheevening。Butthemeal—timesconsistof1hourforbreakfast，11/2hoursfordinner，and1/2anhourfor"noon—meate，"i。e。，exactlytwiceasmuchasunderthefactoryactsnowinforce。[86]Inwinter，workwastolastfrom5inthemorninguntildark，withthesameintervals。AstatuteofElizabethof1562leavesthelengthoftheworking—dayforalllabourers"hiredfordailyorweeklywage"untouched，butaimsatlimitingtheintervalsto21/2hoursinthesummer，orto2inthewinter。Dinnerisonlytolast1hour，andthe"afternoon—sleepofhalfanhour"isonlyallowedbetweenthemiddleofMayandthemiddleofAugust。Foreveryhourofabsence1d。istobesubtractedfromthewage。
　　Inpractice，however，theconditionsweremuchmorefavourabletothelabourersthaninthestatute—book。WilliamPetty，thefatherofPoliticalEconomy，andtosomeextentthefounderofStatistics，saysinaworkthathepublishedinthelastthirdofthe17thcentury:"Labouring—men（thenmeaningfield—labourers）
　　work10hoursperdiem，andmake20mealsperweek，viz。，3adayforworking—days，and2onSundays;wherebyitisplain，thatiftheycouldfastonFridaynights，anddineinonehourandanhalf，whereastheytaketwo，fromeleventoone;therebythusworking1/20more，andspending1/20less，theabove—mentioned（tax）mightberaised。"[87]WasnotDr。AndrewUrerightincryingdownthe12hours’billof1833
　　asaretrogressiontothetimesofthedarkages？ItistruetheseregulationscontainedinthestatutementionedbyPetty，applyalsotoapprentices。
　　Buttheconditionofchild—labour，evenattheendofthe17thcentury，isseenfromthefollowingcomplaint:"’Tisnottheirpractice（inGermany）
　　aswithusinthiskingdom，tobindanapprenticeforsevenyears;threeorfouristheircommonstandard:andthereasonis，becausetheyareeducatedfromtheircradletosomethingofemployment，whichrendersthemthemoreaptanddocile，andconsequentlythemorecapableofattainingtoaripenessandquickerproficiencyinbusiness。Whereasouryouth，hereinEngland，beingbredtonothingbeforetheycometobeapprentices，makeaveryslowprogressandrequiremuchlongertimewhereintoreachtheperfectionofaccomplishedartists。"[88]
　　Still，duringthegreaterpartofthe18thcentury，uptotheepochofModernIndustryandmachinism，capitalinEnglandhadnotsucceededinseizingforitself，bythepaymentoftheweeklyvalueoflabour—power，thewholeweekofthelabourer，withtheexception，however，oftheagriculturallabourers。Thefactthattheycouldliveforawholeweekonthewageoffourdays，didnotappeartothelabourersasufficientreasonthattheyshouldworktheothertwodaysforthecapitalist。OnepartyofEnglisheconomists，intheinterestofcapital，denouncesthisobstinacyinthemostviolentmanner，anotherpartydefendsthelabourers。Letuslisten，e。g。，tothecontestbetweenPostlethwaytwhoseDictionaryofTradethenhadthesamereputationasthekindredworksofMacCullochandMacGregorto—day，andtheauthor（alreadyquoted）ofthe"EssayonTradeandCommerce。"[89]
　　Postlethwaytsaysamongotherthings:"Wecannotputanendtothosefewobservations，withoutnoticingthattriteremarkinthemouthoftoomany;thatiftheindustriouspoorcanobtainenoughtomaintainthemselvesinfivedays，theywillnotworkthewholesix。
　　Whencetheyinferthenecessityofeventhenecessariesoflifebeingmadedearbytaxes，oranyothermeans，tocompeltheworkingartisanandmanufacturertolabourthewholesixdaysintheweek，withoutceasing。Imustbegleavetodifferinsentimentfromthosegreatpoliticians，whocontendfortheperpetualslaveryoftheworkingpeopleofthiskingdom;theyforgetthevulgaradage，allworkandnoplay。HavenottheEnglishboastedoftheingenuityanddexterityofherworkingartistsandmanufacturerswhichhaveheretoforegivencreditandreputationtoBritishwaresingeneral？
　　Whathasthisbeenowingto？Tonothingmoreprobablythantherelaxationoftheworkingpeopleintheirownway。Weretheyobligedtotoiltheyearround，thewholesixdaysintheweek，inarepetitionofthesamework，mightitnotblunttheiringenuity，andrenderthemstupidinsteadofalertanddexterous;andmightnotourworkmenlosetheirreputationinsteadofmaintainingitbysucheternalslavery？……Andwhatsortofworkmanshipcouldweexpectfromsuchhard—drivenanimals？……ManyofthemwillexecuteasmuchworkinfourdaysasaFrenchmanwillinfiveorsix。ButifEnglishmenaretobeeternaldrudges，’tistobefearedtheywilldegeneratebelowtheFrenchmen。Asourpeoplearefamedforbraveryinwar，dowenotsaythatitisowingtogoodEnglishroestbeefandpuddingintheirbellies，aswellastheirconstitutionalspiritofliberty？
　　Andwhymaynotthesuperioringenuityanddexterityof，ourartistsandmanufacturers，beowingtothatfreedomandlibertytodirectthemselvesintheirownway，andIhopeweshallneverhavethemdeprivedofsuchprivilegesandthatgoodlivingfromwhencetheiringenuitynolessthantheircouragemayproceed。"[90]Thereupontheauthorofthe"EssayonTradeandCommerce"replies:"Ifthemakingofeveryseventhdayanholidayissupposedtobeofdivineinstitution，asitimpliestheappropriatingtheothersixdaystolabour"（hemeanscapitalasweshallsoonsee）"surelyitwillnotbethoughtcrueltoenforceit……Thatmankindingeneral，arenaturallyinclinedtoeaseandindolence，wefatallyexperiencetobetrue，fromtheconductofourmanufacturingpopulace，whodonotlabour，uponanaverage，abovefourdaysinaweek，unlessprovisionshappentobeverydear……Putallthenecessariesofthepoorunderonedenomination;
　　forinstance，callthemallwheat，orsupposethat……thebushelofwheatshallcostfiveshillingsandthathe（amanufacturer）earnsashillingbyhislabour，hethenwouldbeobligedtoworkfivedaysonlyinaweek。
　　Ifthebushelofwheatshouldcostbutfourshillings，hewouldbeobligedtoworkbutfourdays;butaswagesinthiskingdomaremuchhigherinproportiontothepriceofnecessaries……themanufacturer，wholaboursfourdays，hasasurplusofmoneytoliveidlewiththerestoftheweek……IhopeIhavesaidenoughtomakeitappearthatthemoderatelabourofsixdaysinaweekisnoslavery。Ourlabouringpeopledothis，andtoallappearancearethehappiestofallourlabouringpoor，[91]buttheDutchdothisinmanufactures，andappeartobeaveryhappypeople。
　　TheFrenchdoso，whenholidaysdonotintervene。[92]Butourpopulacehaveadoptedanotion，thatasEnglishmentheyenjoyabirthrightprivilegeofbeingmorefreeandindependentthaninanycountryinEurope。Nowthisidea，asfarasitmayaffectthebraveryofourtroops，maybeofsomeuse;nutthelessthemanufacturingpoorhaveofit，certainlythebetterforthemselvesandfortheState。Thelabouringpeopleshouldnever）thinkthemselvesindependentoftheirsuperiors……Itisextremelydangeroustoencouragemobsinacommercialstatelikeours，where，perhaps，sevenpartsoutofeightofthewhole，arepeoplewithlittleornoproperty。Thecurewillnotbeperfect，tillourmanufacturingpoorarecontentedtolaboursixdaysforthesamesumwhichtheynowearninfourdays。"[93]Tothisend，andfor"extirpatingidlenessdebaucheryandexcess，"promotingaspiritofindustry，"loweringthepriceoflabourinourmanufactories，andeasingthelandsoftheheavyburdenofpoor’srates，"our"faithfulEckart"ofcapitalproposesthisapproveddevice:toshutupsuchlabourersasbecomedependentonpublicsupport，inaword，paupers，in"anidealworkhouse。"Suchidealworkhousemustbemadea"HouseofTerror，"andnotanasylumforthepoor，"wheretheyaretobeplentifullyfed，warmlyanddecentlyclothed，andwheretheydobutlittlework。’’[94]Inthis"HouseofTerror，"this"idealworkhouse，thepoorshallwork14
　　hoursinaday，allowingpropertimeformeals，insuchmannerthatthereshallremain12hoursofneat—labour。"[95]
　　Twelveworking—hoursdailyintheIdealWorkhouse，inthe"HouseofTerror"of1770！63yearslater，in1833，whentheEnglishParliamentreducedtheworking—dayforchildrenof13to18，infourbranchesofindustryto12fullhours，thejudgmentdayofEnglishIndustryhaddawned！In1852，whenLouisBonapartesoughttosecurehispositionwiththebourgeoisiebytamperingwiththelegalworking—day，theFrenchworkingpeoplecriedoutwithonevoice"thelawthatlimitstheworking—dayto12hoursistheonegoodthathasremainedtousofthelegislationoftheRepublic！"[96]AtZürichtheworkofchildrenover10，islimitedto12hours;inAargauin1862，theworkofchildrenbetween13and16，wasreducedfrom121/2to12hours;inAustriain1860，forchildrenbetween14and16，thesamereductionwasmade。[97]"Whataprogress，"since1770！Macaulaywouldshoutwithexultation！
　　The"HouseofTerror"forpaupersofwhichthecapitalisticsoulof1770onlydreamed，wasrealisedafewyearslaterintheshapeofagigantic"Workhouse"fortheindustrialworkerhimself。ItiscalledtheFactory。
　　Andtheidealthistimefadesbeforethereality。
　　SECTION6THESTRUGGLEFORTHENORMALWORKING—DAY。
　　COMPULSORYLIMITATIONBYLAWOFTHEWORKING—TIME。
　　THEENGLISHFACTORYACTS，1833TO1864
　　Aftercapitalhadtakencenturiesinextendingtheworking—daytoitsnormalmaximumlimit，andthenbeyondthistothelimitofthenaturaldayof12hours，[98]therefollowedonthebirthofmachinismandmodernindustryinthelastthirdofthe18thcentury，aviolentencroachmentlikethatofanavalancheinitsintensityandextent。Allboundsofmoralsandnature，ageandsex，dayandnight，werebrokendown。Eventheideasofdayandnight，ofrusticsimplicityintheoldstatutes，becamesoconfusedthatanEnglishjudge，aslateas1860，neededaquiteTalmudicsagacitytoexplain"judicially"
　　whatwasdayandwhatwasnight。[99]Capitalcelebrateditsorgies。
　　Assoonastheworking—class，stunnedatfirstbythenoiseandturmoilofthenewsystemofproduction，recovered，insomemeasure，itssenses，itsresistancebegan，andfirstinthenativelandofmachinism，inEngland。
　　For30years，however，theconcessionsconqueredbytheworkpeoplewerepurelynominal。Parliamentpassed5labourLawsbetween1802and1833，butwasshrewdenoughnottovoteapennyfortheircarryingout，fortherequisiteofficials，&c。[100]
　　Theyremainedadeadletter。"Thefactis，thatpriortotheActof1833，youngpersonsandchildrenwereworkedallnight，allday，orbothadlibitum。"[101]
　　Anormalworking—dayformodernindustryonlydatesfromtheFactoryActof1833，whichincludedcotton，wool，flax，andsilkfactories。NothingismorecharacteristicofthespiritofcapitalthanthehistoryoftheEnglishFactoryActsfrom1833to1864。
　　TheActof1833declarestheordinaryfactoryworking—daytobefromhalf—pastfiveinthemorningtohalf—pasteightintheeveningandwithintheselimits，aperiodof15hours，itislawfultoemployyoungpersons（i。e。，personsbetween13and18yearsofage），atanytimeoftheday，providednooneindividualyoungpersonshouldworkmorethan12hoursinanyoneday，exceptincertaincasesespeciallyprovidedfor。The6thsectionoftheActprovided。"Thatthereshallbeallowedinthecourseofeverydaynotlessthanoneandahalfhoursformealstoeverysuchpersonrestrictedashereinbeforeprovided。"Theemploymentofchildrenunder9，withexceptionsmentionedlaterwasforbidden;theworkofchildrenbetween9and13waslimitedto8hoursaday，night—work，i。e。，accordingtothisAct，workbetween8:30p。m。and5:30a。m。，wasforbiddenforallpersonsbetween9and18。
　　Thelaw—makersweresofarfromwishingtotrenchonthefreedomofcapitaltoexploitadultlabour—power，or，astheycalledit，"thefreedomoflabour，"thattheycreatedaspecialsysteminordertopreventtheFactoryActsfromhavingaconsequencesooutrageous。
　　"Thegreatevilofthefactorysystemasatpresentconducted，"saysthefirstreportoftheCentralBoardoftheCommissionofJune28th1833，"hasappearedtoustobethatitentailsthenecessityofcontinuingthelabourofchildrentotheutmostlengthofthatoftheadults。Theonlyremedyforthisevil，shortofthelimitationofthelabourofadultswhichwould，inouropinion，createanevilgreaterthanthatwhichissoughttoberemedied，appearstobetheplanofworkingdoublesetsofchildren。"……UnderthenameofSystemofRelays，this"plan"wasthereforecarriedout，sothat，e。g。，from5。30a。m。until1。30intheafternoon，onesetofchildrenbetween9and13，andfrom1。30p。m。to8。30intheeveninganothersetwere"putto，"&c。
　　Inordertorewardthemanufacturersforhaving，inthemostbarefacedway，ignoredalltheActsastochildren’slabourpassedduringthelasttwenty—twoyears，thepillwasyetfurthergildedforthem。ParliamentdecreedthatafterMarch1st，1834，nochildunder11，afterMarch1st1835，nochildunder12，andafterMarch1st，1836，nochildunder13wastoworkmorethaneighthoursinafactory。This"liberalism，"sofullofconsiderationfor"capital，"wasthemorenoteworthyas。Dr。Farre，SirA。Carlisle，SirB。Brodie，SirC。Bell，Mr。Guthrie，&c。，inaword，themostdistinguishedphysiciansandsurgeonsinLondon，haddeclaredintheirevidencebeforetheHouseofCommons，thattherewasdangerindelay。Dr。FarreexpressedhimselfstillmorecoarseIy。
　　"Legislationisnecessaryforthepreventionofdeath，inanyforminwhichitcanbeprematurelyinflicted，andcertainlythis（i。e。，thefactorymethod）mustbeviewedasamostcruelmodeofinflictingit。"
　　Thatsame"reformed"Parliament，whichinitsdelicateconsiderationforthemanufacturers，condemnedchildrenunder13，foryearstocome，to72hoursofworkperweekintheFactoryHell，ontheotherhand，intheEmancipationAct，whichalsoadministeredfreedomdropbydrop，forbadetheplanters，fromtheoutset，toworkanynegroslavemorethan45hoursaweek。
　　Butinnowiseconciliated，capitalnowbegananoisyagitationthatwentonforseveralyears。Itturnedchieflyontheageofthosewho，underthenameofchildren，werelimitedto8hours’work，andweresubjecttoacertainamountofcompulsoryeducation。Accordingtocapitalisticanthropology，theageofchildhoodendedat10，orattheoutside，at11。ThemorenearlythetimeapproachedforthecomingintofullforceoftheFactoryAct，thefatalyear1836，themorewildlyragedthemobofmanufacturers。Theymanaged，infact，tointimidatethegovernmenttosuchanextentthatin1835itproposedtolowerthelimitoftheageofchildhoodfrom13to12。Inthemeantimethepressurefromwithoutgrewmorethreatening。CouragefailedtheHouseofCommons。Itrefusedtothrowchildrenof13undertheJuggernautCarofcapitalformorethan8hoursaday，andtheActof1833
　　cameintofulloperation。ItremainedunaltereduntilJune，1844。
　　Inthetenyearsduringwhichitregulatedfactorywork，firstinpart，andthenentirely，theofficialreportsofthefactoryinspectorsteemwithcomplaintsastotheimpossibilityofputtingtheActintoforce。
　　Asthelawof1833leftitoptionalwiththelordsofcapitalduringthe15hours，from5。30a。m。to8。30p。m。，tomakeevery"youngperson，"and"everychild"begin，breakoff，resume，orendhis12or8hoursatanymomenttheyliked，andalsopermittedthemtoassigntodifferentpersons，differenttimesformeals，thesegentlemensoondiscoveredanew"systemofrelays，"bywhichthelabour—horseswerenotchangedatfixedstations，butwereconstantlyre—harnessedatchangingstations。Wedonotpauselongeronthebeautyofthissystem，asweshallhavetoreturntoitlater。
　　Butthismuchisclearatthefirstglance:thatthissystemannulledthewholeFactoryAct，notonlyinthespirit，butintheletter。Howcouldfactoryinspectors，withthiscomplexbookkeepinginrespecttoeachindividualchildoryoungperson，enforcethelegallydeterminedwork—timeandthegrantingofthelegalmealtimes？Inagreatmanyofthefactories，theoldbrutalitiessoonblossomedoutagainunpunished。InaninterviewwiththeHomeSecretary（1844），thefactoryinspectorsdemonstratedtheimpossibilityofanycontrolunderthenewlyinventedrelaysystem。[102]Inthemeantime，however，circumstanceshadgreatlychanged。Thefactoryhands，especiallysince1838，hadmadetheTenHours’Billtheireconomic，astheyhadmadetheChartertheirpolitical，election—cry。Someofthemanufacturers，even，whohadmanagedtheirfactoriesinconformitywiththeActof1833，overwhelmedParliamentwithmemorialsontheimmoralcompetitionoftheirfalsebrethrenwhomgreaterimpudence，ormorefortunatelocalcircumstances，enabledtobreakthelaw。Moreover，howevermuchtheindividualmanufacturermightgivethereintohisoldlustforgain，thespokesmenandpoliticalleadersofthemanufacturingclassorderedachangeoffrontandofspeechtowardstheworkpeople。TheyhadentereduponthecontestfortherepealoftheCornLaws，andneededtheworkerstohelpthemtovictory。Theypromisedtherefore，notonlyadouble—sizedloafofbread，buttheenactmentoftheTenHours’BillintheFree—trademillennium。[103]Thustheystilllessdaredtoopposeameasureintendedonlytomakethelawof1833areality。Threatenedintheirholiestinterest，therentofland，theToriesthunderedwithphilanthropicindignationagainstthe"nefariouspractices"[104]oftheirfoes。
　　ThiswastheoriginoftheadditionalFactoryActofJune7th，1844。
　　ItcameintoeffectonSeptember10th，1844。Itplacesunderprotectionanewcategoryofworkers，viz。，thewomenover18。Theywereplacedineveryrespectonthesamefootingastheyoungpersons，theirworktimelimitedtotwelvehours，theirnight—labourforbidden，&c。Forthefirsttime，legislationsawitselfcompelledtocontroldirectlyandofficiallythelabourofadults。IntheFactoryReportof1844—1845，itissaidwithirony:"Noinstanceshavecometomyknowledgeofadultwomenhavingexpressedanyregretattheirrightsbeingthusfarinterferedwith。"[105]Theworking—timeofchildrenunder13wasreducedto61，andincertaincircumstancesto7hoursa—day。[106]
　　Togetridoftheabusesofthe"spuriousrelaysystem，"thelawestablishedbesidesothersthefollowingimportantregulations:？"Thatthehoursofworkofchildrenandyoungpersonsshallbereckonedfromthetimewhenanychildoryoungpersonshallbegintoworkinthemorning。"SothatifA，e。g。，beginsworkat8inthemorning，andBat10，B’swork—daymustneverthelessendatthesamehourasA’s。"Thetimeshallberegulatedbyapublicclock，"forexample，thenearestrailwayclock，bywhichthefactoryclockistobeset。Theoccupieristohangupa"legible"printednoticestatingthehoursforthebeginningandendingofworkandthetimesallowedfortheseveralmeals。Childrenbeginningworkbefore12noonmaynotbeagainemployedafterIp。m。Theafternoonshiftmustthereforeconsistofotherchildrenthanthoseemployedinthemorning。Ofthehourandahalfformeal—times，"onehourthereofattheleastshallbegivenbeforethreeoftheclockintheafternoon……andatthesameperiodoftheday。NochildoryoungpersonshallbeemployedmorethanfivehoursbeforeIp。m。withoutanintervalformeal—timeofatleast30minutes。Nochildoryoungperson[orfemale]shallbeemployedorallowedtoremaininanyroominwhichanymanufacturingprocessisthen[i。e。，atmealtimes]carriedon，"&c。
　　Ithasbeenseenthattheseminutiae，which，withmilitaryuniformity，regulatebystrokeoftheclockthetimes，limits，pausesoftheworkwerenotatalltheproductsofParliamentaryfancy。Theydevelopedgraduallyoutofcircumstancesasnaturallawsofthemodernmodeofproduction。
　　Theirformulation，officialrecognition，andproclamationbytheState，weretheresultofalongstruggleofclasses。Oneoftheirfirstconsequenceswasthatinpracticetheworking—dayoftheadultmalesinfactoriesbecamesubjecttothesamelimitations，sinceinmostprocessesofproductiontheco—operationofthechildren。youngpersons，andwomenisindispensable。
　　Onthewhole，therefore，duringtheperiodfrom1844to1847，the12hours’
　　working—daybecamegeneralanduniforminallbranchesofindustryundertheFactoryAct。
　　Themanufacturers，however，didnotallowthis"progress"withoutacompensating"retrogression。"AttheirinstigationtheHouseofCommonsreducedtheminimumageforexploitablechildrenfrom9to8，inordertoassurethatadditionalsupplyoffactorychildrenwhichisduetocapitalists，accordingtodivineandhumanlaw。[107]
　　Theyears1846—47areepoch—makingintheeconomichistoryofEngland。
　　TheRepealoftheCornLaws，andofthedutiesoncottonandotherrawmaterial;Free—tradeproclaimedastheguidingstaroflegislation;inaword，thearrivalofthemillennium。Ontheotherhand，inthesameyears，theChartistmovementandthe10hours’agitationreachedtheirhighestpoint。TheyfoundalliesintheToriespantingforrevenge。
　　DespitethefanaticaloppositionofthearmyofperjuredFree—traders，withBrightandCobdenattheirhead，theTenHours’Bill，struggledforsolong，wentthroughParliament。
　　ThenewFactoryActofJune8th，1847，enactedthatonJuly1st，1847，thereshouldbeapreliminaryshorteningoftheworking—dayfor"youngpersons"（from13to18），andallfemalesto11hours，butthatonMay1st，1848，thereshouldbeadefinitelimitationoftheworking—dayto10hours。Inotherrespects，theActonlyamendedandcompletedtheActsof1833and1844。
　　CapitalnowentereduponapreliminarycampaigninordertohindertheActfromcomingintofullforceonMay1st，1848。Andtheworkersthemselves，underthepresencethattheyhadbeentaughtbyexperience，weretohelpinthedestructionoftheirownwork。Themomentwascleverlychosen。"Itmustberemembered，too，thattherehasbeenmorethantwoyearsofgreatsuffering（inconsequenceoftheterriblecrisisof1846—47）amongthefactoryoperatives，frommanymillshavingworkedshorttime，andmanybeingaltogetherclosed。Aconsiderablenumberoftheoperativesmustthereforebeinverynarrowcircumstancesmany，itistobefeared，indebt;sothatitmightfairlyhavebeenpresumedthatatthepresenttimetheywouldpreferworkingthelongertime，inordertomakeupforpastlosses，perhapstopayoffdebts，orgettheirfurnitureoutofpawn，orreplacethatsold，ortogetanewsupplyofclothesforthemselvesandtheirfamilies。"[108]
　　Themanufacturerstriedtoaggravatethenaturaleffectofthesecircumstancesbyageneralreductionofwagesby10%。Thiswasdonesotosay，tocelebratetheinaugurationofthenewFree—tradeera。Thenfollowedafurtherreductionof81/3%assoonastheworking—daywasshortenedto11，andareductionofdoublethatamountassoonasitwasfinallyshortenedto10hours。
　　Wherever，therefore，circumstancesallowedit，areductionofwagesofatleast25%tookplace。[109]UndersuchfavourablypreparedconditionstheagitationamongthefactoryworkersfortherepealoftheActof1847wasbegun。Neitherlies，bribery，northreatsweresparedinthisattempt。Butallwasinvain。Concerningthehalf—dozenpetitionsinwhichworkpeopleweremadetocomplainof"theiroppressionbytheAct，"thepetitionersthemselvesdeclaredunderoralexamination，thattheirsignatureshadbeenextortedfromthem。"Theyfeltthemselvesoppressed，butnotexactlybytheFactoryAct。’’[110]Butifthemanufacturersdidnotsucceedinmakingtheworkpeoplespeakastheywished，theythemselvesshriekedallthelouderinpressandParliamentinthenameoftheworkpeople。TheydenouncedtheFactoryInspectorsasakindofrevolutionarycommissionerslikethoseoftheFrenchNationalConventionruthlesslysacrificingtheunhappyfactoryworkerstotheirhumanitariancrotchet。Thismaneuvrealsofailed。FactoryInspectorLeonardHomerconductedinhisownperson，andthroughhissub—inspectors，manyexaminationsofwitnessesinthefactoriesofLancashire。About70%
　　oftheworkpeopleexamineddeclaredinfavourof10hours，amuchsmallerpercentageinfavourof11，andanaltogetherinsignificantminorityfortheold12hours。[111]
　　Another"friendly"dodgewastomaketheadultmaleswork12to15hours，andthentoblazonabroadthisfactasthebestproofofwhattheproletariatdesiredinitsheartofhearts。Butthe"ruthless"FactoryInspectorLeonardHomerwasagaintothefore。Themajorityofthe"over—times"declared:
　　"Theywouldmuchpreferworkingtenhoursforlesswages，butthattheyhadnochoice;thatsomanywereoutofemployment（somanyspinnersgettingverylowwagesbyhavingtoworkaspiecers，beingunabletodobetter），thatiftheyrefusedtoworkthelongertime，otherswouldimmediatelygettheirplaces，sothatitwasaquestionwiththemofagreeingtoworkthelongertime，orofbeingthrownoutofemploymentaltogether。"[112]
　　Thepreliminarycampaignofcapitalthuscametogrief，andtheTenHours’ActcameintoforceMay1st，1848。ButmeanwhilethefiascooftheChartistpartywhoseleaderswereimprisoned，andwhoseorganisationwasdismembered，hadshakentheconfidenceoftheEnglishworking—classinitsownstrength。SoonafterthistheJuneinsurrectioninParisanditsbloodysuppressionunited，inEnglandasontheContinent，allfractionsoftherulingclasses，landlordsandcapitalists，stock—exchangewolvesandshop—keepers，ProtectionistsandFreetraders，governmentandopposition，priestsandfreethinkers，youngwhoresandoldnuns，underthecommoncryforthesalvationofProperty，Religion，theFamilyandSociety。Theworking—classwaseverywhereproclaimed，placedunderaban，underavirtuallawofsuspects。Themanufacturershadnoneedanylongertorestrainthemselves。TheybrokeoutinopenrevoltnotonlyagainsttheTenHours’Act，butagainstthewholeofthelegislationthatsince1833hadaimedatrestrictinginsomemeasurethe"free"exploitationoflabour—power。Itwasapro—slaveryrebellioninminiature，carriedonforovertwoyearswithacynicalrecklessness，aterroristenergyallthecheaperbecausetherebelcapitalistriskednothingexcepttheskinofhis"hands。"
　　TounderstandthatwhichfollowswemustrememberthattheFactoryActsof1833，1844，and1847wereallthreeinforcesofarastheonedidnotamendtheother:thatnotoneoftheselimitedtheworking—dayofthemaleworkerover18，andthatsince1833the15hoursfrom5。30a。m。to8。30
　　p。m。hadremainedthelegal"day，"withinthelimitsofwhichatfirstthe12，andlaterthe10hours’labourofyoungpersonsandwomenhadtobeperformedundertheprescribedconditions。
　　Themanufacturersbeganbyhereandtheredischargingapartof，inmanycaseshalfoftheyoungpersonsandwomenemployedbythem，andthen，fortheadultmales，restoringthealmostobsoletenight—work。TheTenHours’Act，theycried，leavesnootheralternative。[113]
　　Theirsecondstepdealtwiththelegalpausesformeals。LetusheartheFactoryInspectors。"Sincetherestrictionofthehoursofworktoten，thefactoryoccupiersmaintain，althoughtheyhavenotyetpracticallygonethewholelength，thatsupposingthehoursofworktobefrom9a。m。
　　to7p。m。theyfulfiltheprovisionsofthestatutesbyallowinganhourbefore9a。m。andhalfanhourafter7p。m。[formeals]。Insomecasestheynowallowanhour，orhalfanhourfordinner，insistingatthesametime，thattheyarenotboundtoallowanypartofthehourandahalfinthecourseofthefactoryworking—day。"[114]ThemanufacturersmaintainedthereforethatthescrupulouslystrictprovisionsoftheActof1844withregardtomeal—timesonlygavetheoperativespermissiontoeatanddrinkbeforecominginto，andafterleavingthefactory？i。e。，athome。Andwhyshouldnottheworkpeopleeattheirdinnerbefore9inthemorning？Thecrownlawyers，however，decidedthattheprescribedmeal—times"mustbeintheintervalduringtheworking—hours，andthatitwillnotbelawfultoworkfor10hourscontinuously，from9a。m。to7p。m。，withoutanyinterval。;[115]
　　Afterthesepleasantdemonstrations，Capitalpreludeditsrevoltbyastepwhichagreedwiththeletterofthelawof1844，andwasthereforelegal。
　　TheActof1844certainlyprohibitedtheemploymentafter1p。m。ofsuchchildren，from8to13，ashadbeenemployedbeforenoon。Butitdidnotregulateinanywaythe61/2hours’workofthechildrenwhosework—timebeganat12middayorlater。Childrenof8might，iftheybeganworkatnoon，beemployedfrom12to1，1hour;from2to4intheafternoon，2
　　hours;from5to8。30intheevening，31/2hours;inall，thelegal6
　　1/2hours。Orbetterstill。Inordertomaketheirworkcoincidewiththatoftheadultmalelabourersupto8。30p。m。，themanufacturersonlyhadtogivethemnoworktill2intheafternoon，theycouldthenkeeptheminthefactorywithoutintermissiontill8。30intheevening。"AnditisnowexpresslyadmittedthatthepracticeexistsinEnglandfromthedesireofmill—ownerstohavetheirmachineryatworkformorethan10hoursa—day，tokeepthechildrenatworkwithmaleadultsafteralltheyoungpersonsandwomenhaveleft，anduntil8。30p。m。ifthefactory—ownerschoose。’’[116]Workmenandfactoryinspectorsprotestedonhygienicandmoralgrounds，butCapitalanswered:
　　"Mydeedsuponmyhead！Icravethelaw，Thepenaltyandforfeitofmybond。"
　　Infact，accordingtostatisticslaidbeforetheHouseofCommonsonJuly26th，1850，inspiteofallprotests，onJuly15th，1850，3，742childrenweresubjectedtothis"practice"in257factories。[117]Still，thiswasnotenough。TheLynxeyeofCapitaldiscoveredthattheActof1844didnotallow5hours’workbeforemid—daywithoutapauseofatleast30minutesforrefreshment，butprescribednothingofthekindforworkaftermid—day。Therefore，itclaimedandobtainedtheenjoymentnotonlyofmakingchildrenof8drudgewithoutintermissionfrom2to8。30p。m。，butalsoofmakingthemhungerduringthattime。
　　"Ay，hisheart。
　　Sosaysthebond。"
　　ThisShylock—clinging[118]totheletterofthelawof1844，sofarasitregulatedchildren’slabour，wasbuttoleaduptoanopenrevoltagainstthesamelaw，sofarasitregulatedthelabourof"youngpersonsandwomen。"Itwillberememberedthattheabolitionofthe"falserelaysystem"wasthechiefaimandobjectofthatlaw。ThemastersbegantheirrevoltwiththesimpledeclarationthatthesectionsoftheActof1844whichprohibitedtheadlibitumuseofyoungpersonsandwomeninsuchshortfractionsofthedayof15
　　hoursastheemployerchose，were"comparativelyharmless"solongasthework—timewasfixedat12hours。ButundertheTenHours’Acttheywerea"grievoushardship。"[119]Theyinformedtheinspectorsinthecoolestmannerthattheyshouldplacethemselvesabovetheletterofthelaw，andre—introducetheoldsystemontheirownaccount。[120]Theywereactingintheinterestsoftheill—advisedoperativesthemselves，"inordertobeabletopaythemhigherwages。""Thiswastheonlypossibleplanbywhichtomaintain，undertheTenHours’Act，theindustrialsupremacyofGreatBritain。""Perhapsitmaybealittledifficulttodetectirregularitiesundertherelaysystem;butwhatofthat？IsthegreatmanufacturinginterestofthiscountrytobetreatedasasecondarymatterinordertosavesomelittletroubletoInspectorsandSub—InspectorsofFactories？"[121]