ChapterI
　　IntroductoryInthepresentconditionofPoliticalEconomy，theproductionofnewdogmatictreatisesonthesubjectdoesnotappeartobe
　　opportune。Therearemanyworks，accessibletoeveryone，inwhich，withmoreorlessofvariationindetails，whatisknown
　　asthe"orthodox"or"classical"systemisexpounded。ButthereexistsinEnglandandothercountrieswidespread
　　dissatisfactionwiththatsystem，andmuchdifferenceofopinionwithrespectbothtothemethodandthedoctrinesof
　　EconomicScience。Thereis，infact，goodreasontobelievethatthisdepartmentofsocialtheoryhasenteredonatransition
　　stage，andisdestinederelongtoundergoaconsiderabletransformation。Butthenewbodyofthoughtwhichwillreplace，or
　　atleastprofoundlymodify，theold，hasnotyetbeenfullyelaborated。Theattitudeofmindwhichthesecircumstancesseem
　　toprescribeisthatofpauseandretrospection。Itisthoughtthatourpositionwillberenderedclearerandourfurther
　　progressfacilitatedbytracinghistorically，andfromageneralpointofview，thecourseofspeculationregardingeconomic
　　phenomena，andcontemplatingthesuccessiveformsofopinionconcedingtheminrelationtotheperiodsatwhichtheywere
　　respectivelyevolved。Andthisisthetaskundertakeninthefollowingpages。
　　Suchastudyisinharmonywiththebestintellectualtendenciesofourage，whichis，morethananythingelse，characterised
　　bytheuniversalsupremacyofthehistoricalspirit。Tosuchadegreehasthisspiritpermeatedallourmodesofthinking，that
　　withrespecttoeverybranchofknowledge，nolessthanwithrespecttoeveryinstitutionandeveryformofhumanactivity，
　　wealmostinstinctivelyask，notmerelywhatisitsexistingcondition，butwhatwereitsearliestdiscoverablegerms，andwhat
　　hasbeenthecourseofitsdevelopment？TheassertionofJ。B。Say（1）thatthehistoryofPoliticalEconomyisoflittlevalue，
　　beingforthemostpartarecordofabsurdandjustlyexplodedopinions，belongstoasystemofideasalreadyobsolete，and
　　requiresatthepresenttimenoformalrefutation。（2）Itdeservesnoticeonlyasremindingusthatwemustdiscriminate
　　betweenhistoryandantiquarianism:whatfromthefirsthadnosignificanceitismerepedantrytostudynow。Weneed
　　concernourselvesonlywiththosemodesofthinkingwhichhaveprevailedlargelyandseriouslyinfluencedpracticeinthe
　　past，orinwhichwecandiscovertherootsofthepresentandthefuture。
　　Whenwethusplaceourselvesatthepointofviewofhistory，itbecomesunnecessarytodiscussthedefinitionofPolitical
　　Economy，ortoenlargeonitsmethod，attheoutset。Itwillsufficetoconceiveitasthetheoryofsocialwealth，ortoaccept
　　provisionallySay’sdefinition，whichmakesitthescienceoftheproduction，distribution，andconsumptionofwealth。Any
　　supplementaryideaswhichrequiretobetakenintoaccountwillbesuggestedintheprogressofoursurvey，andthe
　　determinationofthepropermethodofeconomicresearchwillbetreatedasoneoftheprincipalresultsofthehistorical
　　evolutionofthescience。
　　ThehistoryofPoliticalEconomymustofcoursebedistinguishedfromtheeconomichistoryofmankind，orofanyseparate
　　portionofourrace。Thestudyofthesuccessionofeconomicfactsthemselvesisonething;thestudyofthesuccessionof
　　theoreticideasconcerningthefactsisanother。Anditiswiththelatteralonethatweareheredirectlyconcerned。Butthese
　　twobranchesofresearch，thoughdistinct，yetstandintheclosestrelationtoeachother。Theriseandtheformofeconomic
　　doctrineshavebeenlargelyconditionedbythepracticalsituation，needs，andtendenciesofthecorrespondingepochs。With
　　eachimportantsocialchangeneweconomicquestionshavepresentedthemselves;andthetheoriesprevailingineachperiod
　　haveowedmuchoftheirinfluencetothefactthattheyseemedtooffersolutionsoftheurgentproblemsoftheage。Again，
　　everythinker，howeverinsomerespectshemaystandaboveorbeforehiscontemporaries，isyetachildofhistime，and
　　cannotbeisolatedfromthesocialmediuminwhichhelivesandmoves。Hewillnecessarilybeaffectedbythecircumstances
　　whichsurroundhim，andinparticularbythepracticalexigenciesofwhichhisfellowsfeelthestrain。Thisconnectionof
　　theorywithpracticehaSitsadvantagesanditsdangers。Ittendstogivearealandpositivecharactertotheoreticinquiry;but
　　itmayalsobeexpectedtoproduceexaggerationsin’doctrine，tolendundueprominencetoparticularsidesofthetruth，and
　　tocausetransitorysituationsortemporaryexpedientstoberegardedasuniversallynormalconditions。
　　Thereareotherrelationswhichwemustnotoverlookintracingtheprogressofeconomicopinion。Theseveralbranchesof
　　thescienceofsocietyaresocloselyconnectedthatthehistoryofnooneofthemcanwithperfectrationalitybetreated
　　apart，thoughsuchatreatmentisrecommended——indeednecessitated——bypracticalutility。Themovementofeconomic
　　thoughtisconstantlyandpowerfullyaffectedbytheprevalentmodeofthinking，andeventhehabitualtoneofsentiment，on
　　socialsubjectsgenerally。Alltheintellectualmanifestationsofaperiodinrelationtohumanquestionshaveakindred
　　character，andbearacertainstampofhomogeneity，whichisvaguelypresenttoourmindswhenwespeakofthespiritofthe
　　age，Socialspeculationagain，andeconomicresearchasonebranchofit，isboththroughitsphilosophicmethodandthrough
　　itsdoctrineundertheinfluenceofthescienceswhichintheorderofdevelopmentprecedethesocial，especiallyofthe
　　scienceoforganicnature。
　　Itisofthehighestimportancetobearinmindtheseseveralrelationsofeconomicresearchbothtoexternalcircumstanceand
　　tootherspheresofcontemporarythought，becausebykeepingtheminviewweshallbeledtoformlessabsoluteand
　　thereforejusterestimatesofthesuccessivephasesofopinion。Insteadofmerelypraisingorblamingtheseaccordingtothe
　　degreesoftheiraccordancewithapredeterminedstandardofdoctrine，weshallviewthemaselementsinanorderedseries，
　　tobestudiedmainlywithrespecttotheirfiliation，theiropportuneness，andtheirinfluences。Weshallnotregardeachnew
　　stepinthistheoreticdevelopmentasimplyinganunconditionalnegationofearlierviews，whichoftenhadarelative
　　justification，resting，astheydid，onareal，thoughnarrower，basisofexperience，orassumingtheexistenceofadifferent
　　socialorder。Norshallweconsiderallthetheoreticpositionsnowoccupiedasdefinitive;forthepracticalsystemoflife
　　whichtheytacitlyassumeisitselfsusceptibleofchange，anddestined，withoutdoubt，moreorlesstoundergoit。Withinthe
　　limitsofasketchlikethepresenttheseconsiderationscannotbefullyworkedout;butaneffortwillbemadetokeepthemin
　　view，andtomarktherelationshereindicatedwherevertheirinfluenceisspeciallyimportantorinteresting。
　　Theparticularsituationandtendenciesoftheseveralthinkerswhosenamesareassociatedwitheconomicdoctrineshave，of
　　course，modifiedinagreaterorlessdegreethespiritorformofthosedoctrines。Theirrelationtospecialpredecessors，their
　　nativetemperament，theirearlytraining，theirreligiousprepossessionsandpoliticalpartialities，haveallhadtheireffects。To
　　theseweshallinsomeremarkableinstancesdirectattention;but，inthemain，theyare，forourpresentpurpose，secondary
　　andsubordinate。Theensemblemustpreponderateovertheindividual;andtheconstructorsoftheoriesmustberegardedas
　　organsofacommonintellectualandsocialmovement。
　　Thehistoryofeconomicinquiryismostnaturallydividedintothethreegreatperiodsof（1）theancient，（2）themediaeval，
　　and（3）themodernworlds。Inthetwoformer，thisbranchofstudycouldexistonlyinarudimentarystate。Itisevidentthat
　　foranyconsiderabledevelopmentofsocialtheorytwoconditionsmustbefulfilled。First，thephenomenamusthaveexhibited
　　themselvesonasufficientlyextendedscaletosupplyadequatematterforobservation，andaffordasatisfactorybasisfor
　　scientificgeneralisations;andsecondly，whilstthespectacleisthusprovided，thespectatormusthavebeentrainedforhis
　　task，andarmedwiththeappropriateaidsandinstrumentsofresearch，thatistosay，theremusthavebeensuchaprevious
　　cultivationofthesimplersciencesaswillhavebothfurnishedthenecessarydataofdoctrineandpreparedtheproper
　　methodsofinvestigation。Sociologyrequirestouseforitspurposestheoremswhichbelongtothedomainsofphysicsand
　　biology，andwhichitmustborrowfromtheirprofessors;and，onthelogicalside，themethodswhichithastoemploy——
　　deductive，observational，comparative——musthavebeenpreviouslyshapedinthecultivationofmathematicsandthestudy
　　oftheinorganicworldoroforganismslesscomplexthanthesocial。Henceitisplainthat，thoughsomelawsortendencies
　　ofsocietymusthavebeenforcedonmen’sattentionineveryagebypracticalexigencieswhichcouldnotbepostponed，and
　　thoughthequestionsthusraisedmusthavereceivedsomeempiricalsolution，areallyscientificsociologymustbethe
　　productofaveryadvancedstageofintellectualdevelopment。Andthisistrueoftheeconomic，asofotherbranchesofsocial
　　theory。Weshallthereforecontentourselveswithageneraloutlineofthecharacterofeconomicthoughtinantiquityandthe
　　MiddleAges，andoftheconditionswhichdeterminedthatcharacter。
　　NOTES:
　　1。"Quepourrions—nousgagneràrecueillirdesopinionsabsurdes，desdoctrinesdécriéesetquimeritentdel’être？Ilseraità
　　lafoisinutileetfastidieux。"Écon。Pol。Pratique，IXmePartie。The"cependant"whichfollowsdoesnotreallymodifythis
　　judgment。
　　2。SeeRoscher’sGeschichtederNational—oekoomikinDeutschland，Vorrede。
　　Chapter2
　　AncientTimesTheearliestsurvivingexpressionsofthoughtoneconomicsubjectshavecomedowntousfromtheOrientaltheocracies。
　　Thegeneralspiritofthecorrespondingtypeofsociallifeconsistedintakingimitationforthefundamentalprincipleof
　　education，andconsolidatingnascentcivilisationbyheredityofthedifferentfunctionsandprofessions，orevenbyasystem
　　ofcastes，hierarchicallysubordinatedtoeachotheraccordingtothenatureoftheirrespectiveoffices，underthecommon
　　supremedirectionofthesacerdotalcaste。Thislastwaschargedwiththetraditionalstockofconceptions，andtheir
　　applicationforpurposesofdiscipline。Itsoughttorealiseacompleteregulationofhumanlifeinallitsdepartmentsonthe
　　basisofthistransmittedbodyofpracticalideas。Conservationistheprincipaltaskofthissocialorder，anditsmost
　　remarkablequalityisstability，whichtendstodegenerateintostagnation。Buttherecanbenodoubtthattheusefulartswere
　　long，thoughslowly，progressiveunderthisregime，fromwhichtheywereinheritedbythelatercivilisations——thesystemof
　　classesorcastesmaintainingthedegreeofdivisionoflabourwhichhadbeenreachedinthoseearlyperiods。Theleading
　　membersofthecorporationswhichpresidedoverthetheocracieswithoutdoubtgavemuchearnestthoughttotheconduct
　　ofindustry，which，unlikewar，didnotimperiltheirpoliticalpre—eminencebydevelopingarivalclass。But，conceivinglifeas
　　awhole，andmakingitsregulationtheirprimaryaim，theynaturallyconsideredmostthesocialreactionswhichindustryis
　　fittedtoexercise。Themoralsideofeconomicsistheonetheyhabituallycontemplate，or（whatisnotthesame）the
　　economicsideofmorals。Theyaboundinthosewarningsagainstgreedandthehastetoberichwhichreligionand
　　philosophyhaveinallagesseentobenecessary。Theyinsistonhonestyinmutualdealings，onjustweightsandmeasures，on
　　thefaithfulobservanceofcontracts。Theyadmonishagainsttheprideandarroganceapttobegeneratedbyriches，against
　　undueprodigalityandself—indulgence，andenforcethedutiesofjusticeandbeneficencetowardsservantsandinferiors。
　　Whilst，inaccordancewiththetheologicalspirit，thepersonalacquisitionofwealthisingeneralthesisrepresentedas
　　determinedbydivinewills，itsdependenceonindividualdiligenceandthriftisemphaticallytaught。Thereisindeedinthe
　　fullydevelopedtheocraticsystemsatendencytocarryprecept，whichtheredifferslittlefromcommand，toanexcessive
　　degreeofminuteness——toprescribeindetailthetime，themode，andtheaccompanimentsofalmosteveryactofevery
　　memberofthecommunity。Thissystemofexaggeratedsurveillanceisconnectedwiththeunion，orratherconfusion，ofthe
　　spiritualandtemporalpowers，whenceitresultsthatmanypartsofthegovernmentofsocietyareconductedbydirect
　　injunctionorrestraint，whichatalaterstageareintrustedtogeneralintellectualandmoralinfluences。
　　ThepracticaleconomicenterprisesofGreekandRomanantiquitycouldnot，evenindependentlyofanyspecialadverse
　　influences，havecompetedinmagnitudeofscaleorvarietyofresourcewiththoseofmoderntimes。Theunadvanced
　　conditionofphysicalsciencepreventedalargeapplicationofthelessobviousnaturalpowerstoproduction，ortheextensive
　　useofmachinery，whichhasacquiredsuchanimmensedevelopmentasafactorinmodernindustry。Theimperfectionof
　　geographicalknowledgeandofthemeansofcommunicationandtransportwereimpedimentstothegrowthofforeign
　　commerce。Theseobstaclesarosenecessarilyoutofthemereimmaturityoftheindustriallifeoftheperiodsinquestion。But
　　moredeeplyrootedimpedimentstoavigorousandexpansiveeconomicpracticalsystemexistedinthecharacteristic
　　principlesofthecivilisationofantiquity。Somewritershaveattemptedtosetasidethedistinctionbetweentheancientand
　　modernworldsasimaginaryorunimportant，and，whilstadmittingthebroadseparationbetweenourselvesandthetheocratic
　　peoplesoftheEast，torepresenttheGreeksandRomansasstandingonasubstantiallysimilargroundofthought，feeling，
　　andactionwiththeWesternpopulationsofourowntime。Butthisisaseriouserror，arisingfromthesametooexclusive
　　pre—occupationwiththecultivatedclassesandwiththemerespeculativeintellectwhichhasoftenledtoanundue
　　disparagementoftheMiddleAges。Thereisthisessentialdifferencebetweenthespiritandlifeofancientandofmodern
　　communities，thattheformerwereorganisedforwar，thelatterduringtheirwholehistoryhaveincreasinglytendedtobe
　　organisedforindustry，astheirpracticalendandaim。Theprofoundinfluenceofthesedifferingconditionsoneveryformof
　　humanactivitymustneverbeoverlookedorforgotten。Withthemilitaryconstitutionofancientsocietiestheinstitutionof
　　slaverywasessentiallyconnected。Farfrombeinganexcrescenceonthecontemporarysystemoflife，asitwasinthemodern
　　WestIndiesortheUnitedStatesofAmerica，itwassoentirelyinharmonywiththatlifethatthemosteminentthinkers
　　regardeditasnolessindispensablethaninevitable。Itdoes，indeed，seemtohavebeenatemporarynecessity，andonthe
　　whole，regardbeinghadtowhatmighthavetakenitsplace，arelativegood。Butitwasattendedwithmanifoldevils。Itledto
　　theprevalenceamongstthecitizenclassofacontemptforindustrialoccupations;everyformofproduction，withapartial
　　exceptioninfavourofagriculture，wasbrandedasunworthyofafreeman——theonlynobleformsofactivitybeingthose
　　directlyconnectedwithpubliclife，whethermilitaryoradministrative。Labourwasdegradedbytherelegationofmost
　　departmentsofittotheservileclass，abovewhomthefreeartisanswerebutlittleelevatedingeneralesteem。Theproducers
　　beingthusforthemostpartdestituteofintellectualcultivationandexcludedfromanyshareincivicideas，interests，or
　　efforts，wereunfittedincharacteraswellasbypositionforthehabitsofskilfulcombinationandvigorousinitiationwhich
　　theprogressofindustrydemands。Tothismustbeaddedthatthecomparativeinsecurityoflifeandpropertyarisingoutof
　　militaryhabits，andtheconsequentriskswhichattendedaccumulation，weregraveobstructionstotheformationoflarge
　　capitals，andtotheestablishmentofaneffectivesystemofcredit。Thesecausesconspiredwiththeundevelopedstateof
　　knowledgeandofsocialrelationsingivingtotheeconomiclifeoftheancientsthelimitationandmonotonywhichcontrast
　　sostronglywiththeinexhaustibleresource，theceaselessexpansion，andthethousandfoldvarietyofthesameactivitiesin
　　themodernworld。Itis，ofcourse，absurdtoexpectincompatiblequalitiesinanysocialsystem;eachsystemmustbe
　　estimatedaccordingtotheworkithastodo。Nowthehistoricalvocationoftheancientcivilisationwastobeaccomplished，
　　notthroughindustry，butthroughwar，whichwasintheendtocreateaconditionofthingsadmittingofitsownelimination
　　andofthefoundationofaregimebasedonpacificactivity。
　　THEGREEKS
　　Thisofficewas，however，reservedforRome，asthefinalresultofhersystemofconquest;themilitaryactivityofGreece，
　　thoughcontinuous，wasincoherentandsterile，exceptinthedefenceagainstPersia，anddidnotissueintheaccomplishment
　　ofanysuchsocialmission。Itwas，doubtless，theinadequacyofthewarriorlife，undertheseconditions，toabsorbthe
　　facultiesoftherace，thatthrewtheenergiesofitsmosteminentmembersintothechannelofintellectualactivity，and
　　producedasingularlyrapidevolutionoftheaesthetic，philosophic，andscientificgermstransmittedbythetheocratic
　　societies。
　　IntheWorksandDaysofHesiod，wefindanorderofthinkingintheeconomicsphereverysimilartothatofthe
　　theocracies。Witharecognitionofthedivinedisposingpower，andtraditionalrulesofsacerdotalorigin，iscombined
　　practicalsagacityembodiedinpreceptorproverbialsaying。Butthedevelopmentofabstractthought，beginningfromthe
　　timeofThales，soongivestoGreekcultureitscharacteristicform，andmarksanewepochintheintellectualhistoryof
　　mankind。
　　Themovementwasnowbegun，destinedtomouldthewholefutureofhumanity，which，graduallysappingtheoldhereditary
　　structureoftheologicalconvictions，tendedtothesubstitutionofrationaltheoriesineverydepartmentofspeculation。The
　　eminentGreekthinkers，whiletakingadeepinterestintheriseofpositivescience，andmostofthemstudyingtheonly
　　science——thatofgeometry——thenassumingitsdefinitivecharacter，wereledbythesocialexigencieswhichalways
　　powerfullyaffectgreatmindstostudywithspecialcarethenatureofmanandtheconditionsofhisexistenceinsociety。
　　Thesestudieswereindeedessentiallypremature;alongdevelopmentoftheinorganicandvitalscienceswasnecessary
　　beforesociologyormoralscouldattaintheirnormalconstitution。ButbytheirprosecutionamongsttheGreeksanoble
　　intellectualactivitywaskeptalive，andmanyofthosepartiallightsobtainedforwhichmankindcannotaffordtowait。
　　Economicinquiries，alongwithothers，tendedtowardsrationality;Plutuswasdethroned，andterrestrialsubstitutedfor
　　supernaturalagencies。Butsuchinquiries，restingonnosufficientlylargebasisofpracticallife，couldnotattainany
　　considerableresults。Themilitaryconstitutionofsociety，andtheexistenceofslavery，whichwasrelatedtoit，leading，aswe
　　haveseen，toalowestimateofproductiveindustry，turnedawaythehabitualattentionofthinkersfromthatdomain。Onthe
　　otherhand，theabsorptionofcitizensinthelifeofthestate，andtheirpre—occupationwithpartystruggles，broughtquestions
　　relatingtopolitics，properlysocalled，intospecialprominence。Theprincipalwritersonsocialsubjectsarethereforealmost
　　exclusivelyoccupiedwiththeexaminationandcomparisonofpoliticalconstitutions，andwiththesearchaftertheeducation
　　bestadaptedtotrainthecitizenforpublicfunctions。Andwefind，accordingly，inthemnosystematicoradequatehandling
　　ofeconomicquestionsonlysomehappyideasandstrikingpartialanticipationsoflaterresearch。
　　Intheirthinkingonsuchquestions，asonallsociologicalsubjects，thefollowinggeneralfeaturesareobservable。
　　1。Theindividualisconceivedassubordinatedtothestate，throughwhichalonehisnaturecanbedevelopedandcompleted，
　　andtothemaintenanceandserviceofwhichallhiseffortsmustbedirected。Thegreataimofallpoliticalthoughtisthe
　　formationofgoodcitizens;everysocialquestionisstudiedprimarilyfromtheethicalandeducationalpointofview。The
　　citizenisnotregardedasaproducer，butonlyasapossessor，ofmaterialwealth;andthiswealthisnotesteemedforitsown
　　sakeorfortheenjoymentsitprocures，butforthehighermoralandpublicaimstowhichitmaybemadesubservient。
　　2。Thestate，therefore，claimsandexercisesacontrollingandregulatingauthorityovereverysphereofsociallife，including
　　theeconomic，inordertobringindividualactionintoharmonywiththegoodofthewhole。
　　3。Withthesefundamentalnotionsiscombinedatendencytoattributetoinstitutionsandtolegislationanunlimitedefficacy，
　　asifsocietyhadnospontaneoustendencies，butwouldobeyanyexternalimpulse，ifimpresseduponitwithsufficientforce
　　andcontinuity。
　　Everyeminentsocialspeculatorhadhisidealstate，whichapproximatedtoordivergedfromtheactualorpossible，
　　accordingtothedegreeinwhichasenseofrealityandapositivehabitofthinkingcharacterisedtheauthor。
　　ThemostcelebratedoftheseidealsystemsisthatofPlato。Inittheideaofthesubordinationoftheindividualtothestate
　　appearsinitsmostextremeform。Withinthatclassofthecitizensofhisrepublicwhorepresentthehighesttypeoflife，
　　communityofpropertyandofwivesisestablished，asthemosteffectivemeansofsuppressingthesenseofprivateinterest，
　　andconsecratingtheindividualentirelytothepublicservice。Itcannotperhapsbetrulysaidthathisschemewasincapableof
　　realisationinanancientcommunityfavourablysituatedforthepurpose。Butitwouldsoonbebrokentopiecesbytheforces
　　whichwouldbedevelopedinanindustrialsociety。Ithas，however，beenthefruitfulparentofmodernUtopias，specially
　　attractiveasitistomindsinwhichtheliteraryinstinctisstrongerthanthescientificjudgment，inconsequenceofthe
　　freshnessandbrilliancyofPlato’sexpositionandtheunrivalledcharmofhisstyle。Mixedwithwhatweshouldcallthe
　　chimericalideasofhiswork，therearemanystrikingandelevatedmoralconceptions，and，whatismoretoourpresent
　　purpose，somejusteconomicanalyses。Inparticular，hegivesacorrectaccountofthedivisionandcombinationof
　　employments，astheynaturallyariseinsociety。Thefoundationofthesocialorganizationhetraces，perhaps，tooexclusively
　　toeconomicgrounds，notgivingsufficientweighttothedisinterestedsocialimpulsesinmenwhichtendtodrawandbind
　　themtogether。Butheexplainsclearlyhowthedifferentwantsandcapacitiesofindividualsdemandandgiverisetomutual
　　services，andhow，bytherestrictionofeachtothesortofoccupationtowhich，byhisposition，abilities，andtraining，heis
　　bestadapted，everythingneedfulforthewholeismoreeasilyandbetterproducedoreffected。Inthespiritofalltheancient
　　legislatorshedesiresaself—sufficingstate，protectedfromunnecessarycontactswithforeignpopulations，whichmighttend
　　tobreakdownitsinternalorganisationortodeterioratethenationalcharacter。Hencehediscountenancesforeigntrade，and
　　withthisviewremoveshisidealcitytosomedistancefromthesea。Thelimitsofitsterritoryarerigidlyfixed，andthe
　　populationisrestrictedbytheprohibitionofearlymarriages，bytheexposureofinfants，andbythemaintenanceofa
　　determinatenumberofindividuallotsoflandinthehandsofthecitizenswhocultivatethesoil。Theseprecautionsare
　　inspiredmorebypoliticalandmoralmotivesthanbythe%Malthusianfearoffailureofsubsistence。Platoaims，asfaras
　　possible，atequalityofpropertyamongstthefamiliesofthecommunitywhichareengagedintheimmediateprosecutionof
　　industry。Thislastclass，asdistinguishedfromthegoverningandmilitaryclasses，heholds，accordingtothespiritofhisage，
　　inbutlittleesteem;heregardstheirhabitualoccupationsastendingtothedegradationofthemindandtheenfeeblementof
　　thebody，andrenderingthosewhofollowthemunfitforthehigherdutiesofmenandcitizens。Thelowestformsoflabour
　　hewouldcommittoforeignersandslaves。Again，inthespiritofancienttheory，hewishes（Legg。，v。12）tobanishthe
　　preciousmetals，asfaraspracticable，fromuseininternalcommerce，andforbidsthelendingofmoneyoninterest，leaving
　　indeedtothefreewillofthedebtoreventherepaymentofthecapitaloftheloan。Alleconomicdealingshesubjectstoactive
　　controlonthepartoftheGovernment，notmerelytopreventviolenceandfraud，buttocheckthegrowthofluxurious
　　habits，andsecuretothepopulationofthestateaduesupplyofthenecessariesandcomfortsoflife。
　　ContrastedwiththeexaggeratedidealismofPlatoisthesomewhatlimitedbuteminentlypracticalgeniusofXenophon。In
　　himthemanofactionpredominates，buthehasalsoalargeelementofthespeculativetendencyandtalentoftheGreek。His
　　treatiseentitledOeconomicusiswellworthreadingfortheinterestingandanimatedpictureitpresentsofsomeaspectsof
　　contemporarylife，andisjustlypraisedbySismondiforthespiritofmildphilanthropyandtenderpietywhichbreathes
　　throughit。Butitscarcelypassesbeyondtheboundsofdomesticeconomy，thoughwithinthatlimititsauthorexhibitsmuch
　　soundsenseandsagacity。Hispreceptsforthejudiciousconductofprivatepropertydonotconcernushere，norhiswise
　　suggestionsforthegovernmentofthefamilyanditsdependents。Yetitisinthisnarrowersphereandingeneralinthe
　　concretedomainthathischiefexcellencelies;toeconomicsintheirwideraspectshedoesnotcontributemuch。Heshares
　　theordinarypreferenceofhisfellow—countrymenforagricultureoverotheremployments，andis，indeed，enthusiasticinhis
　　praisesofitaspromotingpatrioticandreligiousfeelingandarespectforproperty，asfurnishingthebestpreparationfor
　　militarylife，andasleavingsufficienttimeandthoughtdisposabletoadmitofconsiderableintellectualandpoliticalactivity。
　　YethispracticalsenseleadshimtoattributegreaterimportancethanmostotherGreekwriterstomanufactures，andstill
　　moretotrade，toentermorelargelyonquestionsrelatingtotheirconditionsanddevelopment，andtobespeakforthemthe
　　countenanceandprotectionofthestate。Thoughhisviewsonthenatureofmoneyarevague，andinsomerespects
　　erroneous，heseesthatitsexportinexchangeforcommoditieswillnotimpoverishthecommunity。Healsoinsistsonthe
　　necessity，withaviewtoaflourishingcommercewithothercountries，ofpeace，ofacourteousandrespectfultreatmentof
　　foreigntraders，andofapromptandequitabledecisionoftheirlegalsuits。Theinstitutionofslaveryheofcourserecognises
　　anddoesnotdisapprove;heevenrecommends，fortheincreaseoftheAtticrevenues，thehiringoutofslavesbythestatefor
　　labourinthemines，afterbrandingthemtopreventtheirescape，thenumberofslavesbeingconstantlyincreasedbyfresh
　　purchasesoutofthegainsoftheenterprise。（DeVect。，3，4。）