Butitwillperhapsbesaidthatthoughthepowerofdeclaringwardescendsintheheritageoftheconquest,itisheldincheckbytherightofParliamenttowithholdthesupplies。Itwillalwayshappenwhenathingisoriginallywrongthatamendmentsdonotmakeitright,anditoftenhappensthattheydoasmuchmischiefonewayasgoodtheother,andsuchisthecasehere,foriftheonerashlydeclareswarasamatterofright,andtheotherperemptorilywithholdsthesuppliesasamatterofright,theremedybecomesasbad,orworse,thanthedisease。Theoneforcesthenationtoacombat,andtheothertiesitshands;butthemoreprobableissueisthatthecontestwillendinacollusionbetweentheparties,andbemadeascreentoboth。
Onthisquestionofwar,threethingsaretobeconsidered。First,therightofdeclaringit:secondly,therightofdeclaringit:secondly,theexpenseofsupportingit:thirdly,themodeofconductingitafteritisdeclared。TheFrenchConstitutionplacestherightwheretheexpensemustfall,andthisunioncanonlybeinthenation。Themodeofconductingitafteritisdeclared,itconsignstotheexecutivedepartment。Werethisthecaseinallcountries,weshouldhearbutlittlemoreofwars。
BeforeIproceedtoconsiderotherpartsoftheFrenchConstitution,andbywayofrelievingthefatigueofargument,IwillintroduceananecdotewhichIhadfromDr。Franklin。
WhiletheDoctorresidedinFranceasMinisterfromAmerica,duringthewar,hehadnumerousproposalsmadetohimbyprojectorsofeverycountryandofeverykind,whowishedtogotothelandthatflowethwithmilkandhoney,America;andamongtherest,therewasonewhoofferedhimselftobeking。HeintroducedhisproposaltotheDoctorbyletter,whichisnowinthehandsofM。Beaumarchais,ofParis—stating,first,thatastheAmericanshaddismissedorsentaway*[6]theirKing,thattheywouldwantanother。Secondly,thathimselfwasaNorman。Thirdly,thathewasofamoreancientfamilythantheDukesofNormandy,andofamorehonorabledescent,hislinehavingneverbeenbastardised。Fourthly,thattherewasalreadyaprecedentinEnglandofkingscomingoutofNormandy,andonthesegroundsherestedhisoffer,enjoiningthattheDoctorwouldforwardittoAmerica。ButastheDoctorneitherdidthis,noryetsenthimananswer,theprojectorwroteasecondletter,inwhichhedidnot,itistrue,threatentogooverandconquerAmerica,butonlywithgreatdignityproposedthatifhisofferwasnotaccepted,anacknowledgmentofaboutL30,000mightbemadetohimforhisgenerosity！Now,asallargumentsrespectingsuccessionmustnecessarilyconnectthatsuccessionwithsomebeginning,Mr。Burke'sargumentsonthissubjectgotoshowthatthereisnoEnglishoriginofkings,andthattheyaredescendantsoftheNormanlineinrightoftheConquest。Itmay,therefore,beofservicetohisdoctrinetomakethisstoryknown,andtoinformhim,thatincaseofthatnaturalextinctiontowhichallmortalityissubject,KingsmayagainbehadfromNormandy,onmorereasonabletermsthanWilliamtheConqueror;
andconsequently,thatthegoodpeopleofEngland,attherevolutionof1688,mighthavedonemuchbetter,hadsuchagenerousNormanasthisknowntheirwants,andtheyhadknownhis。ThechivalriccharacterwhichMr。
Burkesomuchadmires,iscertainlymucheasiertomakeabargainwiththanaharddealingDutchman。Buttoreturntothemattersoftheconstitution—
TheFrenchConstitutionsays,Thereshallbenotitles;and,ofconsequence,allthatclassofequivocalgenerationwhichinsomecountriesiscalled"aristocracy"andinothers"nobility,"isdoneaway,andthepeerisexaltedintotheMAN。
Titlesarebutnicknames,andeverynicknameisatitle。Thethingisperfectlyharmlessinitself,butitmarksasortoffopperyinthehumancharacter,whichdegradesit。Itreducesmanintothediminutiveofmaninthingswhicharegreat,andthecounterfeitofwomeninthingswhicharelittle。Ittalksaboutitsfineblueribbonlikeagirl,andshowsitsnewgarterlikeachild。Acertainwriter,ofsomeantiquity,says:
"WhenIwasachild,Ithoughtasachild;butwhenIbecameaman,Iputawaychildishthings。"
Itis,properly,fromtheelevatedmindofFrancethatthefollyoftitleshasfallen。IthasoutgrownthebabyclothesofCountandDuke,andbreecheditselfinmanhood。Francehasnotlevelled,ithasexalted。
Ithasputdownthedwarf,tosetuptheman。ThepunyismofasenselesswordlikeDuke,CountorEarlhasceasedtoplease。Eventhosewhopossessedthemhavedisownedthegibberish,andastheyoutgrewtherickets,havedespisedtherattle。Thegenuinemindofman,thirstingforitsnativehome,society,contemnsthegewgawsthatseparatehimfromit。Titlesarelikecirclesdrawnbythemagician'swand,tocontractthesphereofman'sfelicity。HelivesimmuredwithintheBastilleofaword,andsurveysatadistancetheenviedlifeofman。
Isit,then,anywonderthattitlesshouldfallinFrance？Isitnotagreaterwonderthattheyshouldbekeptupanywhere？Whatarethey？Whatistheirworth,and"whatistheiramount？"WhenwethinkorspeakofaJudgeoraGeneral,weassociatewithittheideasofofficeandcharacter;
wethinkofgravityinoneandbraveryintheother;butwhenweusethewordmerelyasatitle,noideasassociatewithit。ThroughallthevocabularyofAdamthereisnotsuchananimalasaDukeoraCount;neithercanweconnectanycertainideaswiththewords。Whethertheymeanstrengthorweakness,wisdomorfolly,achildoraman,ortheriderorthehorse,isallequivocal。Whatrespectthencanbepaidtothatwhichdescribesnothing,andwhichmeansnothing？Imaginationhasgivenfigureandcharactertocentaurs,satyrs,anddowntoallthefairytribe;buttitlesbaffleeventhepowersoffancy,andareachimericalnondescript。
Butthisisnotall。Ifawholecountryisdisposedtoholdthemincontempt,alltheirvalueisgone,andnonewillownthem。Itiscommonopiniononlythatmakesthemanything,ornothing,orworsethannothing。
Thereisnooccasiontotaketitlesaway,fortheytakethemselvesawaywhensocietyconcurstoridiculethem。ThisspeciesofimaginaryconsequencehasvisiblydeclinedineverypartofEurope,andithastenstoitsexitastheworldofreasoncontinuestorise。Therewasatimewhenthelowestclassofwhatarecallednobilitywasmorethoughtofthanthehighestisnow,andwhenamaninarmourridingthroughoutChristendominquestofadventureswasmorestaredatthanamodernDuke。Theworldhasseenthisfollyfall,andithasfallenbybeinglaughedat,andthefarceoftitleswillfollowitsfate。ThepatriotsofFrancehavediscoveredingoodtimethatrankanddignityinsocietymusttakeanewground。Theoldonehasfallenthrough。Itmustnowtakethesubstantialgroundofcharacter,insteadofthechimericalgroundoftitles;andtheyhavebroughttheirtitlestothealtar,andmadeofthemaburnt—offeringtoReason。
Ifnomischiefhadannexeditselftothefollyoftitlestheywouldnothavebeenworthaseriousandformaldestruction,suchastheNationalAssemblyhavedecreedthem;andthismakesitnecessarytoenquirefartherintothenatureandcharacterofaristocracy。
That,then,whichiscalledaristocracyinsomecountriesandnobilityinothersaroseoutofthegovernmentsfoundeduponconquest。Itwasoriginallyamilitaryorderforthepurposeofsupportingmilitarygovernment（forsuchwereallgovernmentsfoundedinconquest）;andtokeepupasuccessionofthisorderforthepurposeforwhichitwasestablished,alltheyoungerbranchesofthosefamiliesweredisinheritedandthelawofprimogenitureshipsetup。
Thenatureandcharacterofaristocracyshowsitselftousinthislaw。
Itisthelawagainsteveryotherlawofnature,andNatureherselfcallsforitsdestruction。Establishfamilyjustice,andaristocracyfalls。Bythearistocraticallawofprimogenitureship,inafamilyofsixchildrenfiveareexposed。Aristocracyhasnevermorethanonechild。Therestarebegottentobedevoured。Theyarethrowntothecannibalforprey,andthenaturalparentpreparestheunnaturalrepast。
Aseverythingwhichisoutofnatureinmanaffects,moreorless,theinterestofsociety,sodoesthis。Allthechildrenwhichthearistocracydisowns（whichareallexcepttheeldest）are,ingeneral,castlikeorphansonaparish,tobeprovidedforbythepublic,butatagreatercharge。
Unnecessaryofficesandplacesingovernmentsandcourtsarecreatedattheexpenseofthepublictomaintainthem。
Withwhatkindofparentalreflectionscanthefatherormothercontemplatetheiryoungeroffspring？Bynaturetheyarechildren,andbymarriagetheyareheirs;butbyaristocracytheyarebastardsandorphans。Theyarethefleshandbloodoftheirparentsintheoneline,andnothingakintothemintheother。Torestore,therefore,parentstotheirchildren,andchildrentotheirparents—relationstoeachother,andmantosociety—andtoexterminatethemonsteraristocracy,rootandbranch—theFrenchConstitutionhasdestroyedthelawofPrimogenitureship。Herethenliesthemonster;andMr。
Burke,ifhepleases,maywriteitsepitaph。
Hithertowehaveconsideredaristocracychieflyinonepointofview。
Wehavenowtoconsideritinanother。Butwhetherweviewitbeforeorbehind,orsideways,oranywayelse,domesticallyorpublicly,itisstillamonster。
InFrancearistocracyhadonefeaturelessinitscountenancethanwhatithasinsomeothercountries。Itdidnotcomposeabodyofhereditarylegislators。Itwasnot"'acorporationofaristocracy,forsuchIhaveheardM。delaFayettedescribeanEnglishHouseofPeers。LetusthenexaminethegroundsuponwhichtheFrenchConstitutionhasresolvedagainsthavingsuchaHouseinFrance。
Because,inthefirstplace,asisalreadymentioned,aristocracyiskeptupbyfamilytyrannyandinjustice。
Secondly。Becausethereisanunnaturalunfitnessinanaristocracytobelegislatorsforanation。Theirideasofdistributivejusticearecorruptedattheverysource。Theybeginlifebytramplingonalltheiryoungerbrothersandsisters,andrelationsofeverykind,andaretaughtandeducatedsotodo。Withwhatideasofjusticeorhonourcanthatmanenterahouseoflegislation,whoabsorbsinhisownpersontheinheritanceofawholefamilyofchildrenordolesouttothemsomepitifulportionwiththeinsolenceofagift？
Thirdly。Becausetheideaofhereditarylegislatorsisasinconsistentasthatofhereditaryjudges,orhereditaryjuries;andasabsurdasanhereditarymathematician,oranhereditarywiseman;andasridiculousasanhereditarypoetlaureate。
Fourthly。Becauseabodyofmen,holdingthemselvesaccountabletonobody,oughtnottobetrustedbyanybody。
Fifthly。Becauseitiscontinuingtheuncivilisedprincipleofgovernmentsfoundedinconquest,andthebaseideaofmanhavingpropertyinman,andgoverninghimbypersonalright。
Sixthly。Becausearistocracyhasatendencytodeterioratethehumanspecies。Bytheuniversaleconomyofnatureitisknown,andbytheinstanceoftheJewsitisproved,thatthehumanspecieshasatendencytodegenerate,inanysmallnumberofpersons,whenseparatedfromthegeneralstockofsociety,andinter—marryingconstantlywitheachother。Itdefeatsevenitspretendedend,andbecomesintimetheoppositeofwhatisnobleinman。Mr。Burketalksofnobility;lethimshowwhatitis。Thegreatestcharacterstheworldhaveknownhavearisenonthedemocraticfloor。Aristocracyhasnotbeenabletokeepaproportionatepacewithdemocracy。TheartificialNobleshrinksintoadwarfbeforetheNobleofNature;andinthefewinstancesofthose（fortherearesomeinallcountries）inwhomnature,asbyamiracle,hassurvivedinaristocracy,ThoseMenDespiseIt。—Butitistimetoproceedtoanewsubject。
TheFrenchConstitutionhasreformedtheconditionoftheclergy。Ithasraisedtheincomeofthelowerandmiddleclasses,andtakenfromthehigher。Nonearenowlessthantwelvehundredlivres（fiftypoundssterling）,noranyhigherthantwoorthreethousandpounds。WhatwillMr。Burkeplaceagainstthis？Hearwhathesays。
Hesays:"ThatthepeopleofEnglandcanseewithoutpainorgrudging,anarchbishopprecedeaduke;theycanseeaBishopofDurham,oraBishopofWinchesterinpossessionofL10,000a—year;andcannotseewhyitisinworsehandsthanestatestoalikeamount,inthehandsofthisearlorthatsquire。"AndMr。BurkeoffersthisasanexampletoFrance。
Astothefirstpart,whetherthearchbishopprecedestheduke,orthedukethebishop,itis,Ibelieve,tothepeopleingeneral,somewhatlikeSternholdandHopkins,orHopkinsandSternhold;youmayputwhichyoupleasefirst;andasIconfessthatIdonotunderstandthemeritsofthiscase,IwillnotcontestitwithMr。Burke。
Butwithrespecttothelatter,Ihavesomethingtosay。Mr。Burkehasnotputthecaseright。Thecomparisonisoutoforder,bybeingputbetweenthebishopandtheearlorthesquire。Itoughttobeputbetweenthebishopandthecurate,andthenitwillstandthus:—"ThepeopleofEnglandcanseewithoutpainorgrudging,aBishopofDurham,oraBishopofWinchester,inpossessionoftenthousandpoundsa—year,andacurateonthirtyorfortypoundsa—year,orless。"No,sir,theycertainlydonotseethosethingswithoutgreatpainorgrudging。Itisacasethatappliesitselftoeveryman'ssenseofjustice,andisoneamongmanythatcallsaloudforaconstitution。
InFrancethecryof"thechurch！thechurch！"wasrepeatedasoftenasinMr。Burke'sbook,andasloudlyaswhentheDissenters'BillwasbeforetheEnglishParliament;butthegeneralityoftheFrenchclergywerenottobedeceivedbythiscryanylonger。Theyknewthatwhateverthepretencemightbe,itwastheywhowereoneoftheprincipalobjectsofit。Itwasthecryofthehighbeneficedclergy,topreventanyregulationofincometakingplacebetweenthoseoftenthousandpoundsa—yearandtheparishpriest。Theythereforejoinedtheircasetothoseofeveryotheroppressedclassofmen,andbythisunionobtainedredress。
TheFrenchConstitutionhasabolishedtythes,thatsourceofperpetualdiscontentbetweenthetythe—holderandtheparishioner。Whenlandisheldontythe,itisintheconditionofanestateheldbetweentwoparties;
theonereceivingone—tenth,andtheothernine—tenthsoftheproduce:
andconsequently,onprinciplesofequity,iftheestatecanbeimproved,andmadetoproducebythatimprovementdoubleortreblewhatitdidbefore,orinanyotherratio,theexpenseofsuchimprovementoughttobeborneinlikeproportionbetweenthepartieswhoaretosharetheproduce。Butthisisnotthecaseintythes:thefarmerbearsthewholeexpense,andthetythe—holdertakesatenthoftheimprovement,inadditiontotheoriginaltenth,andbythismeansgetsthevalueoftwo—tenthsinsteadofone。Thisisanothercasethatcallsforaconstitution。
TheFrenchConstitutionhathabolishedorrenouncedTolerationandIntolerancealso,andhathestablishedUniversalRightOfConscience。
TolerationisnottheoppositeofIntolerance,butisthecounterfeitofit。Botharedespotisms。TheoneassumestoitselftherightofwithholdingLibertyofConscience,andtheotherofgrantingit。TheoneisthePopearmedwithfireandfaggot,andtheotheristhePopesellingorgrantingindulgences。Theformerischurchandstate,andthelatterischurchandtraffic。
ButTolerationmaybeviewedinamuchstrongerlight。Manworshipsnothimself,buthisMaker;andthelibertyofconsciencewhichheclaimsisnotfortheserviceofhimself,butofhisGod。Inthiscase,therefore,wemustnecessarilyhavetheassociatedideaoftwothings;themortalwhorenderstheworship,andtheImmortalBeingwhoisworshipped。
Toleration,therefore,placesitself,notbetweenmanandman,norbetweenchurchandchurch,norbetweenonedenominationofreligionandanother,butbetweenGodandman;betweenthebeingwhoworships,andtheBeingwhoisworshipped;andbythesameactofassumedauthoritywhichittoleratesmantopayhisworship,itpresumptuouslyandblasphemouslysetsitselfuptotoleratetheAlmightytoreceiveit。
WereabillbroughtintoanyParliament,entitled,"AnActtotolerateorgrantlibertytotheAlmightytoreceivetheworshipofaJeworTurk,"
or"toprohibittheAlmightyfromreceivingit,"allmenwouldstartleandcallitblasphemy。Therewouldbeanuproar。Thepresumptionoftolerationinreligiousmatterswouldthenpresentitselfunmasked;butthepresumptionisnotthelessbecausethenameof"Man"onlyappearstothoselaws,fortheassociatedideaoftheworshipperandtheworshippedcannotbeseparated。
Whothenartthou,vaindustandashes！bywhatevernamethouartcalled,whetheraKing,aBishop,aChurch,oraState,aParliament,oranythingelse,thatobtrudestthineinsignificancebetweenthesoulofmananditsMaker？Mindthineownconcerns。Ifhebelievesnotasthoubelievest,itisaproofthatthoubelievestnotashebelieves,andthereisnoearthlypowercandeterminebetweenyou。
Withrespecttowhatarecalleddenominationsofreligion,ifeveryoneislefttojudgeofitsownreligion,thereisnosuchthingasareligionthatiswrong;butiftheyaretojudgeofeachother'sreligion,thereisnosuchthingasareligionthatisright;andthereforealltheworldisright,oralltheworldiswrong。Butwithrespecttoreligionitself,withoutregardtonames,andasdirectingitselffromtheuniversalfamilyofmankindtotheDivineobjectofalladoration,itismanbringingtohisMakerthefruitsofhisheart;andthoughthosefruitsmaydifferfromeachotherlikethefruitsoftheearth,thegratefultributeofeveryoneisaccepted。
ABishopofDurham,oraBishopofWinchester,orthearchbishopwhoheadsthedukes,willnotrefuseatythe—sheafofwheatbecauseitisnotacockofhay,noracockofhaybecauseitisnotasheafofwheat;norapig,becauseitisneitheronenortheother;butthesesamepersons,underthefigureofanestablishedchurch,willnotpermittheirMakertoreceivethevariedtythesofman'sdevotion。
OneofthecontinualchorusesofMr。Burke'sbookis"ChurchandState。"
Hedoesnotmeansomeoneparticularchurch,orsomeoneparticularstate,butanychurchandstate;andheusesthetermasageneralfiguretoholdforththepoliticaldoctrineofalwaysunitingthechurchwiththestateineverycountry,andhecensurestheNationalAssemblyfornothavingdonethisinFrance。Letusbestowafewthoughtsonthissubject。
Allreligionsareintheirnaturekindandbenign,andunitedwithprinciplesofmorality。Theycouldnothavemadeproselytesatfirstbyprofessinganythingthatwasvicious,cruel,persecuting,orimmoral。Likeeverythingelse,theyhadtheirbeginning;andtheyproceededbypersuasion,exhortation,andexample。Howthenisitthattheylosetheirnativemildness,andbecomemoroseandintolerant？
ItproceedsfromtheconnectionwhichMr。Burkerecommends。Byengenderingthechurchwiththestate,asortofmule—animal,capableonlyofdestroying,andnotofbreedingup,isproduced,calledtheChurchestablishedbyLaw。
Itisastranger,evenfromitsbirth,toanyparentmother,onwhomitisbegotten,andwhomintimeitkicksoutanddestroys。
TheinquisitioninSpaindoesnotproceedfromthereligionoriginallyprofessed,butfromthismule—animal,engenderedbetweenthechurchandthestate。TheburningsinSmithfieldproceededfromthesameheterogeneousproduction;anditwastheregenerationofthisstrangeanimalinEnglandafterwards,thatrenewedrancourandirreligionamongtheinhabitants,andthatdrovethepeoplecalledQuakersandDissenterstoAmerica。Persecutionisnotanoriginalfeatureinanyreligion;butitisalwaythestrongly—markedfeatureofalllaw—religions,orreligionsestablishedbylaw。Takeawaythelaw—establishment,andeveryreligionre—assumesitsoriginalbenignity。
InAmerica,acatholicpriestisagoodcitizen,agoodcharacter,andagoodneighbour;anepiscopalianministerisofthesamedescription:
andthisproceedsindependentlyofthemen,fromtherebeingnolaw—establishmentinAmerica。
Ifalsoweviewthismatterinatemporalsense,weshallseetheilleffectsithashadontheprosperityofnations。TheunionofchurchandstatehasimpoverishedSpain。TherevokingtheedictofNantesdrovethesilkmanufacturefromthatcountryintoEngland;andchurchandstatearenowdrivingthecottonmanufacturefromEnglandtoAmericaandFrance。
LetthenMr。BurkecontinuetopreachhisantipoliticaldoctrineofChurchandState。Itwilldosomegood。TheNationalAssemblywillnotfollowhisadvice,butwillbenefitbyhisfolly。ItwasbyobservingtheilleffectsofitinEngland,thatAmericahasbeenwarnedagainstit;anditisbyexperiencingtheminFrance,thattheNationalAssemblyhaveabolishedit,and,likeAmerica,haveestablishedUniversalRightofConscience,andUniversalRightofCitizenship。*[7]
IwillhereceasethecomparisonwithrespecttotheprinciplesoftheFrenchConstitution,andconcludethispartofthesubjectwithafewobservationsontheorganisationoftheformalpartsoftheFrenchandEnglishgovernments。
TheexecutivepowerineachcountryisinthehandsofapersonstyledtheKing;buttheFrenchConstitutiondistinguishesbetweentheKingandtheSovereign:ItconsidersthestationofKingasofficial,andplacesSovereigntyinthenation。
Therepresentativesofthenation,whocomposetheNationalAssembly,andwhoarethelegislativepower,originateinandfromthepeoplebyelection,asaninherentrightinthepeople。—InEnglanditisotherwise;
andthisarisesfromtheoriginalestablishmentofwhatiscalleditsmonarchy;
for,asbytheconquestalltherightsofthepeopleorthenationwereabsorbedintothehandsoftheConqueror,andwhoaddedthetitleofKingtothatofConqueror,thosesamematterswhichinFrancearenowheldasrightsinthepeople,orinthenation,areheldinEnglandasgrantsfromwhatiscalledthecrown。TheParliamentinEngland,inbothitsbranches,waserectedbypatentsfromthedescendantsoftheConqueror。TheHouseofCommonsdidnotoriginateasamatterofrightinthepeopletodelegateorelect,butasagrantorboon。
BytheFrenchConstitutionthenationisalwaysnamedbeforetheking。
Thethirdarticleofthedeclarationofrightssays:"Thenationisessentiallythesource（orfountain）ofallsovereignty。"Mr。BurkearguesthatinEnglandakingisthefountain—thatheisthefountainofallhonour。
ButasthisideaisevidentlydescendedfromtheconquestIshallmakenootherremarkuponit,thanthatitisthenatureofconquesttoturneverythingupsidedown;andasMr。Burkewillnotberefusedtheprivilegeofspeakingtwice,andastherearebuttwopartsinthefigure,thefountainandthespout,hewillberightthesecondtime。
TheFrenchConstitutionputsthelegislativebeforetheexecutive,thelawbeforetheking;laloi,leroi。Thisalsoisinthenaturalorderofthings,becauselawsmusthaveexistencebeforetheycanhaveexecution。
AkinginFrancedoesnot,inaddressinghimselftotheNationalAssembly,say,"MyAssembly,"similartothephraseusedinEnglandofmy"Parliament";
neithercanheuseitconsistentlywiththeconstitution,norcoulditbeadmitted。TheremaybeproprietyintheuseofitinEngland,becauseasisbeforementioned,bothHousesofParliamentoriginatedfromwhatiscalledthecrownbypatentorboon—andnotfromtheinherentrightsofthepeople,astheNationalAssemblydoesinFrance,andwhosenamedesignatesitsorigin。