Thefactthatthespecifickindoflabourisirrelevantpresupposesahighlydevelopedcomplexofactuallyexistingkindsoflabour,noneofwhichisanymoretheall—importantone。Themostgeneralabstractionsariseonthewholeonlywhenconcretedevelopmentismostprofuse,sothataspecificqualityisseentobecommontomanyphenomena,orcommontoall。Thenitisnolongerperceivedsolelyinaparticularform。Thisabstractionoflabouris,ontheotherhand,bynomeanssimplytheconceptualresultantofavarietyofconcretetypesoflabour。Thefactthattheparticularkindoflabouremployedisimmaterialisappropriatetoaformofsocietyinwhichindividualseasilypassfromonetypeoflabourtoanother,theparticulartypeoflabourbeingaccidentaltothemandthereforeirrelevant。Labour,notonlyasacategorybutinreality,hasbecomeameanstocreatewealthingeneral,andhasceasedtobetiedasanattributetoaparticularindividual。ThisstateofaffairsismostpronouncedintheUnitedStates,themostmodernformofbourgeoissociety。
　　Theabstractcategory"labour","labourassuch",laboursansphrase,thepointofdepartureofmoderneconomics,thusbecomesapracticalfactonlythere。Thesimplestabstraction,whichplaysadecisiveroleinmodempoliticaleconomy,anabstractionwhichexpressesanancientrelationexistinginallsocialformations,neverthelessappearstobeactuallytrueinthisabstractformonlyasacategoryofthemostmodernsociety。ItmightbesaidthatphenomenawhicharehistoricalproductsintheUnitedStates——e。g。,theirrelevanceoftheparticulartypeoflabour——appeartobeamongtheRussians,forinstance,naturallydevelopedpredispositions。
　　Butinthefirstplace,thereisanenormousdifferencebetweenbarbarianshavingapredispositionwhichmakesitpossibletoemploytheminvarioustasks,andcivilisedpeoplewhoapplythemselvestovarioustasks。AsregardstheRussians,moreover,theirindifferencetotheparticularkindoflabourperformedisinpracticematchedbytheirtraditionalhabitofclingingfasttoaverydefinitekindoflabourfromwhichtheyareextricatedonlybyexternalinfluences。
　　Theexampleoflabourstrikinglydemonstrateshoweventhemostabstractcategories,despitetheirvalidityinallepochs——preciselybecausetheyareabstractions——areequallyaproductofhistoricalconditionseveninthespecificformofabstractions,andtheyretaintheirfullvalidityonlyforandwithintheframeworkoftheseconditions。
　　Bourgeoissocietyisthemostadvancedandcomplexhistoricalorganisationofproduction。Thecategorieswhichexpressitsrelations,andanunderstandingofitsstructure,therefore,provideaninsightintothestructureandtherelationsofproductionofallformerlyexistingsocialformationstheruinsandcomponentelementsofwhichwereusedinthecreationofbourgeoissociety。Someoftheseunassimilatedremainsarestillcarriedonwithinbourgeoissociety,others,however,whichpreviouslyexisted。onlyinrudimentaryform,havebeenfurtherdevelopedandhaveattainedtheirfullsignificance,etc。Theanatomyofmanisakeytotheanatomyoftheape。Ontheotherhand,rudimentsofmoreadvancedformsinthelowerspeciesofanimalscanonlybeunderstoodwhenthemoreadvancedformsarealreadyknown。Bourgeoiseconomythusprovidesakeytotheeconomyofantiquity,etc。Butitisquiteimpossible（togainthisinsight）inthemannerofthoseeconomistswhoobliterateallhistoricaldifferencesandwhoseeinallsocialphenomenaonlybourgeoisphenomena。Ifoneknowsrent,itispossibletounderstandtribute,tithe,etc。,buttheydonothavetobetreatedasidentical。
　　Sincebourgeoissocietyis,moreover,onlyacontradictoryformofdevelopment,itcontainsrelationsofearliersocietiesoftenmerelyinverystuntedformorevenintheformoftravesties,e。g。,communalownership。Thus,althoughitistruethatthecategoriesofbourgeoiseconomyarevalidforallothersocialformations,thishastobetakencumgranosalis,fortheymaycontaintheminanadvanced,stunted,caricatured,etc。,form,thatisalwayswithsubstantialdifferences。Whatiscalledhistoricalevolutiondependsingeneralonthefactthatthelatestformregardsearlieronesasstagesinthedevelopmentofitselfandconceivesthemalwaysinaone—sidedmanner,sinceonlyrarelyandunderquitespecialconditionsisasocietyabletoadoptacriticalattitudetowardsitself;inthiscontextwearenotofcoursediscussinghistoricalperiodswhichthemselvesbelievethattheyareperiodsofdecline。TheChristianreligionwasabletocontributetoanobjectiveunderstandingofearliermythologiesonlywhenitsself—criticismwastoacertainextentprepared,asitwerepotentially。
　　Similarly,onlywhentheself—criticismofbourgeoissocietyhadbegun,wasbourgeoispoliticaleconomyabletounderstandthefeudal,ancientandorientaleconomies。Insofarasbourgeoispoliticaleconomydidnotsimplyidentifyitselfwiththepastinamythologicalmanner,itscriticismofearliereconomies—especiallyofthefeudalsystemagainstwhichitstillhadtowageadirectstruggle—resembledthecriticismthatChristianitydirectedagainstheathenism,orwhichProtestantismdirectedagainstCatholicism。
　　Justasingeneralwhenexamininganyhistoricalorsocialscience,soalsointhecaseofthedevelopmentofeconomiccategoriesisitalwaysnecessarytorememberthatthesubject,inthiscontextcontemporarybourgeoissociety,ispresupposedbothinrealityandinthemind,andthatthereforecategoriesexpressformsofexistenceandconditionsofexistence——andsometimesmerelyseparateaspects——ofthisparticularsociety,thesubject;
　　thusthecategory,evenfromthescientificstandpoint,bynomeansbeginsatthemomentwhenitisdiscussedassuch。Thishastoberememberedbecauseitprovidesimportantcriteriaforthearrangementofthematerial。Forexample,nothingseemsmorenaturalthantobeginwithrent,i。e。,withlandedproperty,sinceitisassociatedwiththeearth,thesourceofallproductionandalllife,andwithagriculture,thefirstformofproductioninallsocietiesthathaveattainedameasureofstability。
　　Butnothingwouldbemoreerroneous。Thereisineverysocialformationaparticularbranchofproductionwhichdeterminesthepositionandimportanceofalltheothers,andtherelationsobtaininginthisbranchaccordinglydeterminetherelationsofallotherbranchesaswell。Itisasthoughlightofaparticularhuewerecastuponeverything,tingeingallothercoloursandmodifyingtheirspecificfeatures;orasifaspecialetherdeterminedthespecificgravityofeverythingfoundinit。Letustakeasanexamplepastoraltribes。（Tribeslivingexclusivelyonhuntingorfishingarebeyondtheboundarylinefromwhichrealdevelopmentbegins。）
　　Acertaintypeofagriculturalactivityoccursamongthemandthisdetermineslandownership。Itiscommunalownershipandretainsthisforminalargerorsmallermeasure,accordingtothedegreetowhichthesepeoplemaintaintheirtraditions,e。g。,communalownershipamongtheSlavs。Amongsettledagriculturalpeople—settledalreadytoalargeextent—whereagriculturepredominatesasinthesocietiesofantiquityandthefeudalperiod,evenmanufacture,itsstructureandtheformsofpropertycorrespondingthereto,have,insomemeasure,specificallyagrarianfeatures。Manufactureiseithercompletelydependentonagriculture,asintheearlierRomanperiod,orasintheMiddleAges,itcopiesinthetownandinitsconditionstheorganisationofthecountryside。IntheMiddleAgesevencapital——unlessitwassolelymoneycapital——consistedofthetraditionaltools,etc。,andretainedaspecificallyagrariancharacter。Thereversetakesplaceinbourgeoissociety。Agriculturetoanincreasingextentbecomesjustabranchofindustryandiscompletelydominatedbycapital。Thesameappliestorent。Inallformsinwhichlandedpropertyisthedecisivefactor,naturalrelationsstillpredominate;intheformsinwhichthedecisivefactoriscapital,social,historicallyevolvedelementspredominate。
　　Rentcannotbeunderstoodwithoutcapital,butcapitalcanbeunderstoodwithoutrent。Capitalistheeconomicpowerthatdominateseverythinginbourgeoissociety。Itmustformboththepointofdepartureandtheconclusionandithastobeexpoundedbeforelandedproperty。Afteranalysingcapitalandlandedpropertyseparately,theirinterconnectionmustbeexamined。
　　Itwouldbeinexpedientandwrongthereforetopresenttheeconomiccategoriessuccessivelyintheorderinwhichtheyhaveplayedthedominantroleinhistory。Onthecontrary,theirorderofsuccessionisdeterminedbytheirmutualrelationinmodernbourgeoissocietyandthisisquitethereverseofwhatappearstobenaturaltothemorinaccordancewiththesequenceofhistoricaldevelopmentThepointatissueisnottherolethatvariouseconomicrelationshaveplayedinthesuccessionofvarioussocialformationsappearinginthecourseofhistory;evenlessisittheirsequence"asconcepts"（Proudhon）（anebulousnotionofthehistoricalprocess）,buttheirpositionwithinmodernbourgeoissociety。
　　Itispreciselythepredominanceofagriculturalpeoplesintheancientworldwhichcausedthemerchantnations——Phoenicians,Carthaginians——
　　todevelopinsuchpurity（abstractprecision）。Forcapitalintheshapeofmerchantormoneycapitalappearsinthatabstractformwherecapitalhasnotyetbecomethedominantfactorinsociety。LombardsandJewsoccupiedthesamepositionwithregardtomediaevalagrariansocieties。
　　Anotherexampleofthevariousroleswhichthesamecategorieshaveplayedatdifferentstagesofsocietyarejoint—stockcompanies,oneofthemostrecentfeaturesofbourgeoissociety;buttheyarisealsoinitsearlyperiodintheformoflargeprivilegedcommercialcompanieswithrightsofmonopoly。
　　TheconceptofnationalwealthfindsitswayintotheworksoftheeconomistsoftheseventeenthcenturyasthenotionthatwealthiscreatedfortheState,whosepower,ontheotherhand,isproportionaltothiswealth——
　　anotionwhichtosomeextentstillsurvivesevenamongeighteenth—centuryeconomists。ThisisstillanunintentionallyhypocriticalmannerinwhichwealthandtheproductionofwealthareproclaimedtobethegoalofthemodernState,whichisregardedmerelyasameansforproducingwealth。
　　Thedispositionofmaterialhasevidentlytobemadeinsuchawaythat（section）onecomprisesgeneralabstractdefinitions,whichthereforeappertaininsomemeasuretoallsocialformations,butinthesensesetforthearlier。
　　Two,thecategorieswhichconstitutetheinternalstructureofbourgeoissocietyandonwhichtheprincipalclassesarebased。Capital,wage—labour,landedpropertyandtheirrelationstooneanother。Townandcountry。Thethreelargesocialclasses;exchangebetweenthem。Circulation。The（private）
　　creditsystem。Three,theStateastheepitomeofbourgeoissociety。Analysisofitsrelationstoitself。The44unproductive"classes。Taxes。Nationaldebt。Publiccredit。Population。Colonies。Emigration。Four,internationalconditionsofproduction。Internationaldivisionoflabour。Internationalexchange。Exportandimport。Rateofexchange。Five,worldmarketandcrises。4。PRODUCTIONMeansofProductionandConditionsofProduction。
　　ConditionsofProductionandCommunication。
　　PoliticalFormsandFormsofCognitioninRelationtotheConditionsofProductionandCommunication。
　　LegalRelations。FamilyRelationsNotesregardingpointswhichhavetobementionedinthiscontextandshouldnotbeforgotten。
　　1。Wardevelops[certainfeatures]earlierthanpeace;thewayinwhichasaresultofwar,andinthearmies,etc。,certaineconomicconditions,e。g。,wage—labour,machinery,etc。,wereevolvedearlierthanwithincivilsociety。Therelationsbetweenproductivepowerandconditionsofcommunicationarelikewiseparticularlyobviousinthearmy。
　　2。Therelationofthehithertoexistingidealistichistoriographytorealistichistoriography。Inparticularwhatisknownashistoryofcivilisation,theoldhistoryofreligionandstates。（Thevariouskindsofhistoriographyhithertoexistingcouldalsobediscussedinthiscontext;theso—calledobjective,subjective（moralandothers）,philosophical[historiography）。）
　　3。Secondaryandtertiaryphenomena,ingeneralderivedandtransmitted,i。e。,non—primary,conditionsofproduction。Theinfluenceofinternationalrelations。
　　4。Reproachesaboutthematerialismofthisconception;relationtonaturalisticmaterialism。
　　5。Dialecticsoftheconceptsproductivepower（meansofproduction）
　　andrelationsofproduction,thelimitsofthisdialecticalconnection,whichdoesnotabolishtherealdifferences,havetobedefined。
　　6。Theunequaldevelopmentofmaterialproductionand,e。g。,thatofart。Theconceptofprogressisonthewholenottobeunderstoodintheusualabstractform。Modernart,etc。Thisdisproportionisnotasimportantanddifficulttograspaswithinconcretesocialrelations,e。g。,ineducation。RelationsoftheUnitedStatestoEurope。However,thereallydifficultpointtobediscussedhereishowtherelationsofproductionaslegalrelationstakepartinthisunevendevelopment。ForexampletherelationofRomancivillaw（thisappliesinsmallermeasuretocriminalandconstitutionallaw）tomodernproduction。
　　7。Thisconceptionappearstobeaninevitabledevelopment。Butvindicationofchance。How？（Freedom,etc。,aswell。）（Influenceofthemeansofcommunication。Worldhistorydidnotalwaysexist;historyasworldhistoryisaresult。）
　　8。Thestartingpointisofcoursethenaturallydeterminedfactors;
　　bothsubjectiveandobjective。Tribes,races,etc。
　　Asregardsart,itiswellknownthatsomeofitspeaksbynomeanscorrespondtothegeneraldevelopmentofsociety;nor,dotheythereforetothematerialsubstructure,theskeletonasitwereofitsorganisation。
　　ForexampletheGreekscomparedwithmodern[nations）,orelseShakespeare。Itisevenacknowledgedthatcertainbranchesofart,e。g。,theepos,cannolongerbeproducedintheirepoch—makingclassicformafterartisticproductionassuchhasbegun;inotherwordsthatcertainimportantcreationswithinthecompassofartareonlypossibleatanearlystageinthedevelopmentofart。Ifthisisthecasewithregardtodifferentbranchesofartwithinthesphereofartitself,itisnotsoremarkablethatthisshouldalsobethecasewithregardtotheentiresphereofartanditsrelationtothegeneraldevelopmentofsociety。Thedifficultyliesonlyinthegeneralformulationofthesecontradictions。Assoonastheyarereducedtospecificquestionstheyarealreadyexplained。
　　Letustake,forexample,therelationofGreekart,andthatofShakespeare,tothepresenttime。WeknowthatGreekmythologyisnotonlythearsenalofGreekart,butalsoitsbasis。IstheconceptionofnatureandofsocialrelationswhichunderliesGreekimaginationandthereforeGreek（art）possiblewhenthereareself—actingmules,railways,locomotivesandelectrictelegraphs？
　　WhatisaVulcancomparedwithRobertsandCo。,Jupitercomparedwiththelightningconductor,andHermescomparedwiththeCreditMobilier？
　　Allmythologysubdues,controlsandfashionstheforcesofnatureintheimaginationandthroughimagination;itdisappearsthereforewhenrealcontrolovertheseforcesisestablished。WhatbecomesofFamasidebysidewithPrintingHouseSquare？GreekartpresupposesGreekmythology,inotherwordsthatnaturalandsocialphenomenaarealreadyassimilatedinanunintentionallyartisticmannerbytheimaginationofthepeople。
　　ThisisthematerialofGreekart,notjustanymythology,i。e。,noteveryunconsciouslyartisticassimilationofnature（herethetermcomprisesallphysicalphenomena,includingsociety）;EgyptianmythologycouldneverbecomethebasisoforgiverisetoGreekart。Butatanyrate（itpresupposes）
　　amythology;onnoaccounthoweverasocialdevelopmentwhichprecludesamythologicalattitudetowardsnature,i。e。,anyattitudetonaturewhichmightgiverisetomyth;asocietythereforedemandingfromtheartistanimaginationindependentofmythology。
　　Regardedfromanotheraspect:isAchillespossiblewhenpowderandshothavebeeninvented？AndistheIliadpossibleatallwhentheprintingpressandevenprintingmachinesexist？Isitnotinevitablethatwiththeemergenceofthepressbarthesingingandthetellingandthemusecease,thatistheconditionsnecessaryforepicpoetrydisappear？
　　Thedifficultyweareconfrontedwithisnot,however,thatofunderstandinghowGreekartandepicpoetryareassociatedwithcertainformsofsocialdevelopment。Thedifficultyisthattheystillgiveusaestheticpleasureandareincertainrespectsregardedasastandardandunattainableideal。
　　Anadultcannotbecomeachildagain,orhebecomeschildish。Butdoesthenaiveteofthechildnotgivehimpleasure,anddoesnothehimselfendeavourtoreproducethechild'sveracityonahigherlevel？Doesnotthechildineveryepochrepresentthecharacteroftheperiodinitsnaturalveracity？Whyshouldnotthehistoricalchildhoodofhumanity,whereitattaineditsmostbeautifulform,exertaneternalcharmbecauseitisastagethatwillneverrecur？Therearerudechildrenandprecociouschildren。
　　Manyoftheancientpeoplesbelongtothiscategory。TheGreekswerenormalchildren。Thecharmtheirarthasforusdoesnotconflictwiththeimmaturestageofthesocietyinwhichitoriginated。Onthecontraryitscharmisaconsequenceofthisandisinseparablylinkedwiththefactthattheimmaturesocialconditionswhichgaverise,andwhichalonecouldgiverise,tothisartcannotrecur。
　　WrittenbetweentheendofAugustandthemiddleofSeptember1857
　　Engels'ReviewofMarx'sBookKarlMarx'sACONTRIBUTIONTOTHECRITIQUEOFPOLITICALECONOMY
　　FREDERICKENGELS（Reviewof）KARLMARX,"ACONTRIBUTIONTOTHECRITIQUEOFPOLITICALECONOMY"I[DasVolk,30No。14,August6,1859]
　　TheGermanshavelongsinceshownthatinallspheresofsciencetheyareequal,andinmostofthemsuperior,toothercivilisednations。Onlyonebranchofscience,politicaleconomy,hadnoGermannameamongitsforemostscholars。Thereasonisobvious。Politicaleconomyisthetheoreticalanalysisofmodernbourgeoissocietyandthereforepresupposesdevelopedbourgeoisconditions,conditionswhichforcenturies,followingthewarsinthewakeoftheReformationandthepeasantwarsandespeciallytheThirtyYears'War,couldnotestablishthemselvesinGermany。TheseparationoftheNetherlandsfromtheEmpireremovedGermanyfromtheinternationaltraderoutesandrestrictedherindustrialdevelopmentfromtheverybeginningtothepettiestscale。WhiletheGermanspainfullyandslowlyrecoveredfromthedevastationsofthecivilwars,whiletheyuseduptheirstoreofcivicenergy,whichhadneverbeenverylarge,infutilestruggleagainstthecustomsbarriersandabsurdcommercialregulationswhicheverypettyprincelingandimperialbaroninflictedupontheindustryofhissubjects,whiletheimperialcitieswiththeircraft—guildpracticesandpatricianspiritwenttoruin——Holland,EnglandandFrancemeanwhileconqueredtheleadingpositionsininternationaltrade,establishedonecolonyafteranotherandbroughtmanufactoryproductiontotheheightofitsdevelopment,untilfinallyEngland,withtheaidofsteampower,whichmadehercoalandirondepositsvaluable,headedmodernbourgeoisdevelopment。ButpoliticaleconomycouldnotariseinGermanysolongasastrugglehadstilltobewagedagainstsopreposterouslyantiquatedremnantsoftheMiddleAgesasthosewhichhamperedthebourgeoisdevelopmentofhermaterialforcesuntil1830。OnlytheestablishmentoftheCustomsUnionenabledtheGermanstocomprehendpoliticaleconomyatall。ItwasindeedatthistimethatEnglishandFrencheconomicworksbegantobeimportedforthebenefitoftheGermanmiddleclass。Menoflearningandbureaucratssoongotholdoftheimportedmaterialandtreateditinawaywhichdoeslittlecredittothe"Germanintellect"。Theliteraryeffortsofahotchpotchofchevaliersd'industrie,traders,schoolmastersandbureaucratsproducedabunchofGermaneconomicpublicationswhichasregardstriteness,banality,frivolity,verbosityandplagiarismareequalledonlybytheGermannovel。Amongpeoplepursuingpracticalobjectivestherearosefirsttheprotectionistschooloftheindustrialists,whosechiefspokesman,List,isstillthebestthatGermanbourgeoispoliticaleconomyhasproducedalthoughhiscelebratedworkisentirelycopiedfromtheFrenchmanFerrier,thetheoreticalcreatoroftheContinentalSystem。Inoppositiontothistrendthefree—tradeschoolwasformedinthefortiesbymerchantsfromtheBalticprovinces,whofumblinglyrepeatedtheargumentsoftheEnglishFreeTraderswithchildlike,butnotdisinterested,faith。Finally,amongtheschoolmastersandbureaucratswhohadtohandlethetheoreticalaspectstherewereuncriticalanddesiccatedcollectorsofherbaria,likeHerrRau,pseudo—cleverspeculatorswhotranslatedforeignpropositionsintoundigestedHegelianlanguagelikeHerrStein,orgleanerswithliterarypretensionsinthefieldofso—calledhistoryofcivilisation,likeHerrRiehl。Theupshotofallthiswascameralistics,aneclecticeconomicsaucecoveringahotchpotchofsundrytrivialities,ofthesortajuniorcivilservantmightfindusefultorememberduringhisfinalexamination。
　　WhileinthiswayinGermanythebourgeoisie,theschoolmastersandthebureaucratswerestillmakinggreatexertionstolearnbyrote,andinsomemeasuretounderstand,thefirstelementsofAnglo—Frenchpoliticaleconomy,whichtheyregardedasincontestabledogmas,theGermanproletarianpartyappearedonthescene。Itstheoreticalaspectwaswhollybasedonastudyofpoliticaleconomy,andGermanpoliticaleconomyasanindependentsciencedatesalsofromtheemergenceofthisparty。TheessentialfoundationofthisGermanpoliticaleconomyisthematerialistconceptionofhistorywhoseprincipalfeaturesarebrieflyoutlinedinthe"Preface"totheabove—namedwork。Sincethe"Preface"hasinthemainalreadybeenpublishedinDasVolk,werefertoit。Thepropositionthat"theprocessofsocial,politicalandintellectuallifeisaltogethernecessitatedbythemodeofproductionofmateriallife";thatallsocialandpoliticalrelations,allreligiousandlegalsystems,alltheoreticalconceptionswhichariseinthecourseofhistorycanonlybeunderstoodifthematerialconditionsoflifeobtainingduringtherelevantepochhavebeenunderstoodandtheformeraretracedbacktothesematerialconditions,wasarevolutionarydiscoverynotonlyforeconomicsbutalsoforallhistoricalsciences——andallbranchesofsciencewhicharenotnaturalsciencesarehistorical。"Itisnottheconsciousnessofmenthatdeterminestheirexistence,buttheirsocialexistencethatdeterminestheirconsciousness。"
　　Thispropositionissosimplethatitshouldbeself—evidenttoanyonenotboggeddowninidealisthumbug。Butitleadstohighlyrevolutionaryconsequencesnotonlyinthetheoreticalspherebutalsointhepracticalsphere。"Atacertainstageofdevelopment,thematerialproductiveforcesofsocietycomeintoconflictwiththeexistingrelationsofproductionor——thismerelyexpressesthesamethinginlegalterms——withthepropertyrelationswithintheframeworkofwhichtheyhaveoperatedhitherto。Fromformsofdevelopmentoftheproductiveforcestheserelationsturnintotheirfetters。Thenbeginsaneraofsocialrevolution。Thechangesintheeconomicfoundationleadsoonerorlatertothetransformationofthewholeimmensesuperstructure……Thebourgeoismodeofproductionisthelastantagonisticformofthesocialprocessofproduction——antagonisticnotinthesenseofindividualantagonismbutofanantagonismthatemanatesfromtheindividuals'socialconditionsofexistence——buttheproductiveforcesdevelopingwithinbourgeoissocietycreatealsothematerialconditionsforasolutionofthisantagonism。"Theprospectofagiganticrevolution,themostgiganticrevolutionthathasevertakenplace,accordinglypresentsitselftousassoonaswepursueourmaterialistthesisfurtherandapplyittothepresenttime。
　　Closerconsiderationshowsimmediatelythatalreadythefirstconsequencesoftheapparentlysimpleproposition,thattheconsciousnessofmenisdeterminedbytheirexistenceandnottheotherwayround,spurnallformsofidealism,eventhemostconcealedones,rejectingallconventionalandcustomaryviewsofhistoricalmatters。Theentiretraditionalmannerofpoliticalreasoningisupset;patrioticmagnanimityindignantlyobjectstosuchanunprincipledinterpretation。ItwasthusinevitablethatthenewpointofviewshouldshocknotonlytheexponentsofthebourgeoisiebutalsothemassofFrenchsocialistswhointendedtorevolutionisetheworldbyvirtueofthemagicwords,liberté,égalité,fraternite。ButitutterlyenragedthevociferousGermanvulgardemocrats。
　　Theyneverthelesshaveapartialityforattemptingtoplagiarisethenewideasintheirowninterest,althoughwithanexceptionallackofunderstanding。
　　Thedemonstrationofthematerialistconceptionevenuponasinglehistoricalexamplewasascientifictaskrequiringyearsofquietresearch,foritisevidentthatmereemptytalkcanachievenothinginthiscontextandthatonlyanabundanceofcriticallyexaminedhistoricalmaterialwhichhasbeencompletelymasteredcanmakeitpossibletosolvesuchaproblem。
　　OurpartywaspropelledontothepoliticalstagebytheFebruaryRevolutionandthuspreventedfrompursuingpurelyscientificaims。Thefundamentalconception,nevertheless,runslikeanunbrokenthreadthroughallliteraryproductionsoftheparty。Everyoneofthemshowsthattheactionsineachparticularcasewereinvariablyinitiatedbymaterialcausesandnotbytheaccompanyingphrases,thatonthecontrarythepoliticalandlegalphrases,likethepoliticalactionsandtheirresults,originatedinmaterialcauses。
　　AfterthedefeatoftheRevolutionof1848—49,atatimewhenitbecameincreasinglyimpossibletoexertanyinfluenceonGermanyfromabroad,ourpartyrelinquishedthefieldofemigrantsquabbles——forthatwastheonlyfeasibleactionleft——tothevulgardemocrats。Whilethesewerechasingabouttotheirheart'scontent,scufflingtoday,fraternisingtomorrowandthedayafteroncemorewashingtheirdirtylineninpublic,whiletheywentbeggingthroughoutAmericaandimmediatelyafterwardsstartedanotherrowoverthedivisionofthefewcoinstheyhadcollected——ourpartywasgladtofindoncemoresomequiettimeforresearchwork。Ithadthegreatadvantagethatitstheoreticalfoundationwasanewscientificconceptiontheelaborationofwhichprovidedadequatework;
　　evenforthisreasonaloneitcouldneverbecomesodemoralisedasthe"greatmen"oftheemigration。
　　Thebookunderconsiderationisthefirstresultofthesestudies。II[DasVolk,No。16,August20,1859]
　　Thepurposeofaworkliketheoneunderreviewcannotsimplybedesultorycriticismofseparatesectionsofpoliticaleconomyorthediscussionofoneoranothereconomicissueinisolation。Onthecontrary,itisfromthebeginningdesignedtogiveasystematicrésuméofthewholecomplexofpoliticaleconomyandacoherentelaborationofthelawsgoverningbourgeoisproductionandbourgeoisexchange。Thiselaborationisatthesametimeacomprehensivecritiqueofeconomicliterature,foreconomistsarenothingbutinterpretersofandapologistsfortheselaws。
　　HardlyanyattempthasbeenmadesinceHegel'sdeathtosetforthanybranchofscienceinitsspecificinnercoherence。TheofficialHegelianschoolhadassimilatedonlythemostsimpledevicesofthemaster'sdialecticsandappliedthemtoeverythingandanything,oftenmoreoverwithridiculousincompetence。Hegel'swholeheritagewas,sofarastheywereconcerned,confinedexclusivelytoatemplate,bymeansofwhichanysubjectcouldbeknockedintoshape,andasetofwordsandphraseswhoseonlyremainingpurposewastoturnupconvenientlywhenevertheyexperiencedalackofideasandofconcreteknowledge。Thusithappened,asaprofessoratBonnhassaid,thattheseHegeliansknewnothingbutcouldwriteabouteverything。
　　Theresultswere,ofcourse,accordingly。Foralltheirconceitthesegentlemenwere,however,sufficientlyconsciousoftheirfailingstoavoidmajorproblemsasfaraspossible。Thesuperannuatedfossilisedtypeoflearninghelditsgroundbecauseofitssuperiorfactualknowledge,andafterFeuerbach'srenunciationofthespeculativemethod,Hegelianismgraduallydiedaway,anditseemedthatsciencewasoncemoredominatedbyantiquatedmetaphysicswithitsrigidcategories。
　　Forthistherewerequitenaturalreasons。TheruleoftheHegelianDiadochi,whichendedinemptyphrases,wasnaturallyfollowedbyaperiodinwhichtheconcretecontentofsciencepredominatedoncemoreovertheformalaspect。Moreover,Germanyatthesametimeapplieditselfwithquiteextraordinaryenergytothenaturalsciences,inaccordancewiththeimmensebourgeoisdevelopmentsettinginafter1848;withthecomingintofashionofthesesciences,inwhichthespeculativetrendhadneverachievedanyrealimportance,theoldmetaphysicalmodeofthinking,evendowntotheextremetrivialityofWolff,gainedgroundrapidly。Hegelwasforgottenandanewmaterialismaroseinthenaturalsciences;itdifferedinprincipleverylittlefromthematerialismoftheeighteenthcenturyanditsmainadvantagewasmerelyagreaterstockofdatarelatingtothenaturalsciences,especiallychemistryandphysiology。Thenarrow—mindedmodeofthinkingofthepre—KantianperiodinitsmostbanalformisreproducedbyBüchnerandVogt,andevenMoleschott,whoswearsbyFeuerbach,frequentlyfloundersinahighlydivertingmannerthroughthemostsimplecategories。Thejadedcart—horseofthecommonplacebourgeoismindfaltersofcourseinconfusioninfrontoftheditchseparatingsubstancefromappearance,andcausefromeffect;butoneshouldnotridecarthorsesifoneintendstogo。coursingovertheveryroughgroundofabstractreasoning。
　　Inthiscontext,therefore,aquestionhadtobesolvedwhichwasnotconnectedwithpoliticaleconomyassuch。Whichscientificmethodshouldbeused？Therewas,ontheonehand,theHegeliandialecticsinthequiteabstract"speculative"forminwhichHegelhadleftit,andontheotherhandtheordinary,mainlyWolffian,metaphysicalmethod,whichhadcomeagainintovogue,andwhichwasalsoemployedbythebourgeoiseconomiststowritetheirbulkyramblingvolumes。ThesecondmethodhadbeentheoreticallydemolishedbyKantandparticularlybyHegelsothatitscontinueduseinpracticecouldonlyberenderedpossiblebyinertiaandtheabsenceofanalternativesimplemethod。TheHegelianmethod,ontheotherhand,wasinitsexistingformquiteinapplicable。Itwasessentiallyidealistandthemainpointinthiscasewastheelaborationofaworldoutlookthatwasmorematerialistthananypreviousone。Hegel'smethodtookasitspointofdeparturepurethought,whereasherethestartingpointwastobeinexorablefacts。Amethodwhich,accordingtoitsownavowal,"camefromnothingthroughnothingtonothing"wasinthisshapebynomeanssuitable。
　　Itwas,nevertheless,theonlyelementintheentireavailablelogicalmaterialwhichcouldatleastserveasapointoforigin。Ithadnotbeensubjectedtocriticism,notbeenoverthrown;noneoftheopponentsofthegreatdialecticianhadbeenabletomakeabreachintheproudedifice。
　　IthadbeenforgottenbecausetheHegelianschooldidnotknowhowtoapplyit。Hence,itwasfirstofallessentialtocarrythroughathoroughcritiqueoftheHegelianmethod。
　　ItwastheexceptionalhistoricalsenseunderlyingHegel'smannerofreasoningwhichdistinguisheditfromthatofallotherphilosophers。Howeverabstractandidealisttheformemployed,yethisevolutionofideasrunsalwaysparallelwiththeevolutionofuniversalhistory,andthelatterwasindeedsupposedtobeonlytheproofoftheformer。Althoughthisreversedtheactualrelationandstooditonitshead,yettherealcontentwasinvariablyincorporatedinhisphilosophy,especiallysinceHegel——unlikehisfollowers——didnotrelyonignorance,butwasoneofthemosteruditethinkersofalltime。Hewasthefirsttotrytodemonstratethatthereisanevolution,anintrinsiccoherenceinhistory,andhoweverstrangesomethingsinhisphilosophyofhistorymayseemtousnow,thegrandeurofthebasicconceptionisstilladmirabletoday,comparedbothwithhispredecessorsandwiththosewhofollowinghimventuredtoadvancegeneralhistoricalobservations。ThismonumentalconceptionofhistorypervadesthePhänomenologies,AsthetikandGeschichtederPhilosophie,andthematerialiseverywheresetforthhistorically,inadefinitehistoricalcontext,evenifinanabstractdistortedmanner。
　　Thisepoch—makingconceptionofhistorywasadirecttheoreticalpre—conditionofthenewmaterialistoutlook,andalreadythisconstitutedaconnectinglinkwiththelogicalmethodaswell。Since,evenfromthestandpointof"purereasoning",thisforgottendialecticshadledtosuchresults,andhadmoreoverwiththegreatesteasecopedwiththewholeoftheformerlogicandmetaphysics,itmustatalleventscomprisemorethansophistryandhairsplitting。Butthecritiqueofthismethod,whichtheentireofficialphilosophyhadevadedandstillevades,wasnosmallmatter。
　　MarxwasandistheonlyonewhocouldundertaketheworkofextractingfromtheHegelianlogicthenucleuscontainingHegel'srealdiscoveriesinthisfield,andofestablishingthedialecticalmethod,divestedofitsidealistwrappings,inthesimpleforminwhichitbecomestheonlycorrectmodeofconceptualevolution。TheworkingoutofthemethodwhichunderliesMarx'scritiqueofpoliticaleconomyis,wethink,aresulthardlylesssignificantthanthebasicmaterialistconception。
　　Evenafterthedeterminationofthemethod,thecritiqueofeconomicscouldstillbearrangedintwoways——historicallyorlogically。Sinceinthecourseofhistory,asinitsliteraryreflection,theevolutionproceedsbyandlargefromthesimplesttothemorecomplexrelations,thehistoricaldevelopmentofpoliticaleconomyconstitutedanaturalclue,whichthecritiquecouldtakeasapointofdeparture,andthentheeconomiccategorieswouldappearonthewholeinthesameorderasinthelogicalexposition。Thisformseemstohavetheadvantageofgreaterlucidity,forittracestheactualdevelopment,butinfactitwouldthusbecome,atmost,morepopular。Historymovesofteninleapsandboundsandinazigzagline,andasthiswouldhavetobefollowedthroughout,itwouldmeannotonlythataconsiderableamountofmaterialofslightimportancewouldhavetobeincluded,butalsothatthetrainofthoughtwouldfrequentlyhavetobeinterrupted;itwould,moreover,beimpossibletowritethehistoryofeconomywithoutthatofbourgeoissociety,andthetaskwouldthusbecomeimmense,becauseoftheabsenceofallpreliminarystudies。
　　Thelogicalmethodofapproachwasthereforetheonlysuitableone。This,however,isindeednothingbutthehistoricalmethod,onlystrippedofthehistoricalformanddivertingchanceoccurrences。Thepointwherethishistorybeginsmustalsobethestartingpointofthetrainofthought,anditsfurtherprogresswillbesimplythereflection,inabstractandtheoreticallyconsistentform,ofthehistoricalcourse。Thoughthereflectioniscorrected,itiscorrectedinaccordancewithlawsprovidedbytheactualhistoricalcourse,sinceeachfactorcanbeexaminedatthestageofdevelopmentwhereitreachesitsfullmaturity,itsclassicalform。
　　Withthismethodwebeginwiththefirstandsimplestrelationwhichishistorically,actuallyavailable,thusinthiscontextwiththefirsteconomicrelationtobefound。Weanalysethisrelation。Thefactthatitisarelationalreadyimpliesthatithastwoaspectswhicharerelatedtoeachother。Eachoftheseaspectsisexaminedseparately;thisrevealsthenatureoftheirmutualbehaviour,theirreciprocalaction。Contradictionswillemergedemandingasolution。Butsincewearenotexamininganabstractmentalprocessthattakesplacesolelyinourmind,butanactualeventwhichreallytookplaceatsometimeorother,orwhichisstilltakingplace,thesecontradictionswillhaveariseninpracticeandhaveprobablybeensolved。Weshalltracethemodeofthissolutionandfindthatithasbeeneffectedbyestablishinganewrelation,whosetwocontradictoryaspectsweshallthenhavetosetforth,andsoon。
　　Politicaleconomybeginswithcommodities,withthemomentwhenproductsareexchanged,eitherbyindividualsorbyprimitivecommunities。
　　Theproductbeingexchangedisacommodity。Butitisacommoditymerelybyvirtueofthething,theproductbeinglinkedwitharelationbetweentwopersonsorcommunities,therelationbetweenproducerandconsumer,whoatthisstagearenolongerunitedinthesameperson。Hereisatonceanexampleofapeculiarfact,whichpervadesthewholeeconomyandhasproducedseriousconfusioninthemindsofbourgeoiseconomists——economicsisnotconcernedwiththingsbutwithrelationsbetweenpersons,andinthefinalanalysisbetweenclasses;theserelationshoweverarealwaysboundtothingsandappearasthings。Althoughafeweconomistshadaninklingofthisconnectioninisolatedinstances,Marxwasthefirsttorevealitssignificancefortheentireeconomythusmakingthemostdifficultproblemssosimpleandclearthatevenbourgeoiseconomistswillnowbeabletograspthem。
　　Ifweexaminethevariousaspectsofthecommodity,thatisofthefullyevolvedcommodityandnotasitatfirstslowlyemergesinthespontaneousbarteroftwoprimitivecommunities,itpresentsitselftousfromtwoangles,thatofuse—valueandofexchange—value,andthuswecomeimmediatelytotheprovinceofeconomicdebate。AnyonewishingtofindastrikinginstanceofthefactthattheGermandialecticmethodatitspresentstageofdevelopmentisatleastassuperiortotheoldsuperficiallyglibmetaphysicalmethodasrailwaysaretothemediaevalmeansoftransport,shouldlookupAdamSmithoranyotherauthoritativeeconomistofreputetoseehowmuchdistressexchange—valueanduse—valuecausedthesegentlemen,thedifficultytheyhadindistinguishingthetwoproperlyandinexpressingthedeterminateformpeculiartoeach,andthencomparetheclear,simpleexpositiongivenbyMarx。
　　Afteruse—valueandexchange—valuehavebeenexpounded,thecommodityasadirectunityofthetwoisdescribedasitenterstheexchangeprocess。Thecontradictionsarisingheremaybefoundonpp。20and21。Wemerelynotethatthesecontradictionsarenotonlyofinterestfortheoretical,abstractreasons,butthattheyalsoreflectthedifficultiesoriginatingfromthenatureofdirectinterchange,i。e。,simplebarter,andtheimpossibilitiesinevitablyconfrontingthisfirstcrudeformofexchange。Thesolutionoftheseimpossibilitiesisachievedbyinvestingaspecificcommodity——money——withtheattributeofrepresentingtheexchange—valueofallothercommodities。Moneyorsimplecirculationisthenanalysedinthesecondchapter,namely（1）moneyasameasureofvalue,and,atthesametime,valuemeasuredintermsofmoney,i。e。,price,ismorecloselydefined;（2）moneyasmeansofcirculationand（3）
　　theunityofthetwoaspects,realmoneywhichrepresentsbourgeoismaterialwealthasawhole。Thisconcludesthefirstpart,theconversionofmoneyintocapitalisleftforthesecondpart。
　　Onecanseethatwiththismethod,thelogicalexpositionneedbynomeansbeconfinedtothepurelyabstractsphere。Onthecontrary,itrequireshistoricalillustrationandcontinuouscontactwithreality。Agreatvarietyofsuchevidenceisthereforeinserted,comprisingreferencesbothtodifferentstagesintheactualhistoricalcourseofsocialdevelopmentandtoeconomicworks,inwhichtheworkingoutofluciddefinitionsofeconomicrelationsistracedfromtheoutset。Thecritiqueofparticular,moreorlessone—sidedorconfusedinterpretationsisthussubstantiallygivenalreadyinthelogicalexpositionandcanbekeptquiteshort。
　　Theeconomiccontentofthebookwillbediscussedinathirdarticle。
　　WrittenbetweenAugust8and15,1859