[Footnote83:Cantemir，p。80。Cananus，whodescribesSeidBechar，withoutnaminghim，supposesthatthefriendofMahometassumedinhisamourstheprivilegeofaprophet，andthatthefairestoftheGreeknunswerepromisedtothesaintandhisdisciples。]
　　[Footnote84:Forthismiraculousapparition，CananusappealstotheMussulmansaint；butwhowillbeartestimonyforSeidBechar?]
　　IntheestablishmentandrestorationoftheTurkishempire，thefirstmeritmustdoubtlessbeassignedtothepersonalqualitiesofthesultans；since，inhumanlife，themostimportantsceneswilldependonthecharacterofasingleactor。
　　Bysomeshadesofwisdomandvirtue，theymaybediscriminatedfromeachother；but，exceptinasingleinstance，aperiodofninereigns，andtwohundredandsixty—fiveyears，isoccupied，fromtheelevationofOthmantothedeathofSoliman，byarareseriesofwarlikeandactiveprinces，whoimpressedtheirsubjectswithobedienceandtheirenemieswithterror。Insteadoftheslothfulluxuryoftheseraglio，theheirsofroyaltywereeducatedinthecouncilandthefield:fromearlyyouththeywereintrustedbytheirfatherswiththecommandofprovincesandarmies；andthismanlyinstitution，whichwasoftenproductiveofcivilwar，musthaveessentiallycontributedtothedisciplineandvigorofthemonarchy。TheOttomanscannotstylethemselves，liketheArabiancaliphs，thedescendantsorsuccessorsoftheapostleofGod；andthekindredwhichtheyclaimwiththeTartarkhansofthehouseofZingisappearstobefoundedinflatteryratherthanintruth。^85Theiroriginisobscure；buttheirsacredandindefeasibleright，whichnotimecanerase，andnoviolencecaninfringe，wassoonandunalterablyimplantedinthemindsoftheirsubjects。Aweakorvicioussultanmaybedeposedandstrangled；buthisinheritancedevolvestoaninfantoranidiot:norhasthemostdaringrebelpresumedtoascendthethroneofhislawfulsovereign。^86
　　[Footnote85:SeeRicaut，l。i。c。13。TheTurkishsultansassumethetitleofkhan。YetAbulghaziisignorantofhisOttomancousins。]
　　[Footnote86:ThethirdgrandvizierofthenameofKiuperli，whowasslainatthebattleofSalankanenin1691，Cantemir，p。
　　382，presumedtosaythatallthesuccessorsofSolimanhadbeenfoolsortyrants，andthatitwastimetoabolishtherace，MarsigliStatoMilitaire，&c。，p。28。ThispoliticalhereticwasagoodWhig，andjustifiedagainsttheFrenchambassadortherevolutionofEngland，Mignot，Hist。desOttomans，tom。iii。p。
　　434。Hispresumptioncondemnsthesingularexceptionofcontinuingofficesinthesamefamily。]
　　WhilethetransientdynastiesofAsiahavebeencontinuallysubvertedbyacraftyvizierinthepalace，oravictoriousgeneralinthecamp，theOttomansuccessionhasbeenconfirmedbythepracticeoffivecenturies，andisnowincorporatedwiththevitalprincipleoftheTurkishnation。
　　Tothespiritandconstitutionofthatnation，astrongandsingularinfluencemay，however，beascribed。TheprimitivesubjectsofOthmanwerethefourhundredfamiliesofwanderingTurkmans，whohadfollowedhisancestorsfromtheOxustotheSangar；andtheplainsofAnatoliaarestillcoveredwiththewhiteandblacktentsoftheirrusticbrethren。Butthisoriginaldropwasdissolvedinthemassofvoluntaryandvanquishedsubjects，who，underthenameofTurks，areunitedbythecommontiesofreligion，language，andmanners。Inthecities，fromErzeroumtoBelgrade，thatnationalappellationiscommontoalltheMoslems，thefirstandmosthonorableinhabitants；buttheyhaveabandoned，atleastinRomania，thevillages，andthecultivationoftheland，totheChristianpeasants。InthevigorousageoftheOttomangovernment，theTurkswerethemselvesexcludedfromallcivilandmilitaryhonors；andaservileclass，anartificialpeople，wasraisedbythedisciplineofeducationtoobey，toconquer，andtocommand。
　　^87FromthetimeofOrchanandthefirstAmurath，thesultanswerepersuadedthatagovernmentoftheswordmustberenewedineachgenerationwithnewsoldiers；andthatsuchsoldiersmustbesought，notineffeminateAsia，butamongthehardyandwarlikenativesofEurope。TheprovincesofThrace，Macedonia，Albania，Bulgaria，andServia，becametheperpetualseminaryoftheTurkisharmy；andwhentheroyalfifthofthecaptiveswasdiminishedbyconquest，aninhumantaxofthefifthchild，orofeveryfifthyear，wasrigorouslyleviedontheChristianfamilies。Attheageoftwelveorfourteenyears，themostrobustyouthsweretornfromtheirparents；theirnameswereenrolledinabook；andfromthatmomenttheywereclothed，taught，andmaintained，forthepublicservice。Accordingtothepromiseoftheirappearance，theywereselectedfortheroyalschoolsofBoursa，Pera，andAdrianople，intrustedtothecareofthebashaws，ordispersedinthehousesoftheAnatolianpeasantry。ItwasthefirstcareoftheirmasterstoinstructthemintheTurkishlanguage:theirbodieswereexercisedbyeverylaborthatcouldfortifytheirstrength；theylearnedtowrestle，toleap，torun，toshootwiththebow，andafterwardswiththemusket；tilltheyweredraftedintothechambersandcompaniesoftheJanizaries，andseverelytrainedinthemilitaryormonasticdisciplineoftheorder。Theyouthsmostconspicuousforbirth，talents，andbeauty，wereadmittedintotheinferiorclassofAgiamoglans，orthemoreliberalrankofIchoglans，ofwhomtheformerwereattachedtothepalace，andthelattertotheperson，oftheprince。Infoursuccessiveschools，undertherodofthewhiteeunuchs，theartsofhorsemanshipandofdartingthejavelinweretheirdailyexercise，whilethoseofamorestudiouscastappliedthemselvestothestudyoftheKoran，andtheknowledgeoftheArabicandPersiantongues。Astheyadvancedinseniorityandmerit，theyweregraduallydismissedtomilitary，civil，andevenecclesiasticalemployments:thelongertheirstay，thehigherwastheirexpectation；till，atamatureperiod，theywereadmittedintothenumberofthefortyagas，whostoodbeforethesultan，andwerepromotedbyhischoicetothegovernmentofprovincesandthefirsthonorsoftheempire。^88
　　Suchamodeofinstitutionwasadmirablyadaptedtotheformandspiritofadespoticmonarchy。Theministersandgeneralswere，inthestrictestsense，theslavesoftheemperor，towhosebountytheywereindebtedfortheirinstructionandsupport。
　　Whentheylefttheseraglio，andsufferedtheirbeardstogrowasthesymbolofenfranchisement，theyfoundthemselvesinanimportantoffice，withoutfactionorfriendship，withoutparentsandwithoutheirs，dependentonthehandwhichhadraisedthemfromthedust，andwhich，ontheslightestdispleasure，couldbreakinpiecesthesestatuesofglass，astheywereaptlytermedbytheTurkishproverb。^89Intheslowandpainfulstepsofeducation，theircharactersandtalentswereunfoldedtoadiscerningeye:theman，nakedandalone，wasreducedtothestandardofhispersonalmerit；and，ifthesovereignhadwisdomtochoose，hepossessedapureandboundlesslibertyofchoice。
　　TheOttomancandidatesweretrainedbythevirtuesofabstinencetothoseofaction；bythehabitsofsubmissiontothoseofcommand。Asimilarspiritwasdiffusedamongthetroops；andtheirsilenceandsobriety，theirpatienceandmodesty，haveextortedthereluctantpraiseoftheirChristianenemies。^90Norcanthevictoryappeardoubtful，ifwecomparethedisciplineandexerciseoftheJanizarieswiththeprideofbirth，theindependenceofchivalry，theignoranceofthenewlevies，themutinoustemperoftheveterans，andthevicesofintemperanceanddisorder，whichsolongcontaminatedthearmiesofEurope。
　　[Footnote87:Chalcondylesl。v。andDucasc。23exhibittherudelineamentoftheOttomanpolicy，andthetransmutationofChristianchildrenintoTurkishsoldiers。]
　　[Footnote88:ThissketchoftheTurkisheducationanddisciplineischieflyborrowedfromRicaut'sStateoftheOttomanEmpire，theStatoMilitairedel'ImperioOttomanoofCountMarsigli，inHava，1732，infolio，andadescriptionoftheSeraglio，approvedbyMr。Greaveshimself，acurioustraveller，andinsertedinthesecondvolumeofhisworks。]
　　[Footnote89:Fromtheseriesofcxv。viziers，tillthesiegeofVienna，Marsigli，p。13，theirplacemaybevaluedatthreeyearsandahalfpurchase。]
　　[Footnote90:SeetheentertainingandjudiciouslettersofBusbequius。]
　　TheonlyhopeofsalvationfortheGreekempire，andtheadjacentkingdoms，wouldhavebeensomemorepowerfulweapon，somediscoveryintheartofwar，thatwouldgivethemadecisivesuperiorityovertheirTurkishfoes。Suchaweaponwasintheirhands；suchadiscoveryhadbeenmadeinthecriticalmomentoftheirfate。ThechemistsofChinaorEuropehadfound，bycasualorelaborateexperiments，thatamixtureofsaltpetre，sulphur，andcharcoal，produces，withasparkoffire，atremendousexplosion。Itwassoonobserved，thatiftheexpansiveforcewerecompressedinastrongtube，aballofstoneorironmightbeexpelledwithirresistibleanddestructivevelocity。Thepreciseaeraoftheinventionandapplicationofgunpowder^91isinvolvedindoubtfultraditionsandequivocallanguage；yetwemayclearlydiscern，thatitwasknownbeforethemiddleofthefourteenthcentury；andthatbeforetheendofthesame，theuseofartilleryinbattlesandsieges，byseaandland，wasfamiliartothestatesofGermany，Italy，Spain，France，andEngland。^92
　　Thepriorityofnationsisofsmallaccount；nonecouldderiveanyexclusivebenefitfromtheirpreviousorsuperiorknowledge；
　　andinthecommonimprovement，theystoodonthesamelevelofrelativepowerandmilitaryscience。Norwasitpossibletocircumscribethesecretwithinthepaleofthechurch；itwasdisclosedtotheTurksbythetreacheryofapostatesandtheselfishpolicyofrivals；andthesultanshadsensetoadopt，andwealthtoreward，thetalentsofaChristianengineer。TheGenoese，whotransportedAmurathintoEurope，mustbeaccusedashispreceptors；anditwasprobablybytheirhandsthathiscannonwascastanddirectedatthesiegeofConstantinople。^93
　　Thefirstattemptwasindeedunsuccessful；butinthegeneralwarfareoftheage，theadvantagewasontheirside，whoweremostcommonlytheassailants:forawhiletheproportionoftheattackanddefencewassuspended；andthisthunderingartillerywaspointedagainstthewallsandtowerswhichhadbeenerectedonlytoresistthelesspotentenginesofantiquity。BytheVenetians，theuseofgunpowderwascommunicatedwithoutreproachtothesultansofEgyptandPersia，theiralliesagainsttheOttomanpower；thesecretwassoonpropagatedtotheextremitiesofAsia；andtheadvantageoftheEuropeanwasconfinedtohiseasyvictoriesoverthesavagesofthenewworld。Ifwecontrasttherapidprogressofthismischievousdiscoverywiththeslowandlaboriousadvancesofreason，science，andtheartsofpeace，aphilosopher，accordingtohistemper，willlaughorweepatthefollyofmankind。
　　[Footnote91:ThefirstandsecondvolumesofDr。Watson'sChemicalEssayscontaintwovaluablediscoursesonthediscoveryandcompositionofgunpowder。]
　　[Footnote92:Onthissubjectmoderntestimoniescannotbetrusted。TheoriginalpassagesarecollectedbyDucange，Gloss。
　　Latin。tom。i。p。675，Bombarda。Butintheearlydoubtfultwilight，thename，sound，fire，andeffect，thatseemtoexpressourartillery，maybefairlyinterpretedoftheoldenginesandtheGreekfire。FortheEnglishcannonatCrecy，theauthorityofJohnVillaniChron。l。xii。c。65mustbeweighedagainstthesilenceofFroissard。YetMuratoriAntiquit。ItaliaeMediiAevi，tom。ii。Dissert。xxvi。p。514，515hasproducedadecisivepassagefromPetrarch，DeRemediisutriusqueFortunaeDialog。，who，beforetheyear1344，execratesthisterrestrialthunder，nuperrara，nunccommunis。
　　Note:Mr。HallammakesthefollowingobservationontheobjectionthrownourbyGibbon:"ThepositivetestimonyofVillani，whodiedwithintwoyearsafterwards，andhadmanifestlyobtainedmuchinformationastothegreateventspassinginFrance，cannotberejected。HeascribesamaterialeffecttothecannonofEdward，Colpidellebombarde，whichIsuspect，fromhisstrongexpressions，hadnotbeenemployedbefore，exceptagainststonewalls。Itseems，hesays，asifGodthunderedcongrandeuccisionedigentieefondamentodicavalli。"MiddleAges，vol。
　　i。p。510。—M。]
　　[Footnote93:TheTurkishcannon，whichDucasc。30firstintroducesbeforeBelgrade，A。D。1436，ismentionedbyChalcondylesl。v。p。123in1422，atthesiegeofConstantinople。]
　　ChapterLXVI:UnionOfTheGreekAndLatinChurches。
　　PartI。
　　ApplicationsOfTheEasternEmperorsToThePopes。—VisitsToTheWest，OfJohnTheFirst，Manuel，AndJohnTheSecond，Palaeologus。—UnionOfTheGreekAndLatinChurches，PromotedByTheCouncilOfBasil，AndConcludedAtFerraraAndFlorence。—
　　StateOfLiteratureAtConstantinople。—ItsRevivalInItalyByTheGreekFugitives。—CuriosityAndEmulationOfTheLatins。
　　InthefourlastcenturiesoftheGreekemperors，theirfriendlyorhostileaspecttowardsthepopeandtheLatinsmaybeobservedasthethermometeroftheirprosperityordistress；asthescaleoftheriseandfalloftheBarbariandynasties。WhentheTurksofthehouseofSeljukpervadedAsia，andthreatenedConstantinople，wehaveseen，atthecouncilofPlacentia，thesuppliantambassadorsofAlexiusimploringtheprotectionofthecommonfatheroftheChristians。NosoonerhadthearmsoftheFrenchpilgrimsremovedthesultanfromNicetoIconium，thantheGreekprincesresumed，oravowed，theirgenuinehatredandcontemptfortheschismaticsoftheWest，whichprecipitatedthefirstdownfalloftheirempire。ThedateoftheMogulinvasionismarkedinthesoftandcharitablelanguageofJohnVataces。
　　AftertherecoveryofConstantinople，thethroneofthefirstPalaeologuswasencompassedbyforeignanddomesticenemies；aslongastheswordofCharleswassuspendedoverhishead，hebaselycourtedthefavoroftheRomanpontiff；andsacrificedtothepresentdangerhisfaith，hisvirtue，andtheaffectionofhissubjects。OnthedeceaseofMichael，theprinceandpeopleassertedtheindependenceoftheirchurch，andthepurityoftheircreed:theelderAndronicusneitherfearednorlovedtheLatins；inhislastdistress，pridewasthesafeguardofsuperstition；norcouldhedecentlyretractinhisagethefirmandorthodoxdeclarationsofhisyouth。Hisgrandson，theyoungerAndronicus，waslessaslaveinhistemperandsituation；andtheconquestofBithyniabytheTurksadmonishedhimtoseekatemporalandspiritualalliancewiththeWesternprinces。Afteraseparationandsilenceoffiftyyears，asecretagent，themonkBarlaam，wasdespatchedtoPopeBenedicttheTwelfth；andhisartfulinstructionsappeartohavebeendrawnbythemaster—handofthegreatdomestic。^1"Mostholyfather，"washecommissionedtosay，"theemperorisnotlessdesirousthanyourselfofaunionbetweenthetwochurches:butinthisdelicatetransaction，heisobligedtorespecthisowndignityandtheprejudicesofhissubjects。Thewaysofunionaretwofold；forceandpersuasion。Offorce，theinefficacyhasbeenalreadytried；
　　sincetheLatinshavesubduedtheempire，withoutsubduingtheminds，oftheGreeks。Themethodofpersuasion，thoughslow，issureandpermanent。AdeputationofthirtyorfortyofourdoctorswouldprobablyagreewiththoseoftheVatican，intheloveoftruthandtheunityofbelief；butontheirreturn，whatwouldbetheuse，therecompense，ofsuchanagreement?thescornoftheirbrethren，andthereproachesofablindandobstinatenation。Yetthatnationisaccustomedtoreverencethegeneralcouncils，whichhavefixedthearticlesofourfaith；andiftheyreprobatethedecreesofLyons，itisbecausetheEasternchurcheswereneitherheardnorrepresentedinthatarbitrarymeeting。Forthissalutaryend，itwillbeexpedient，andevennecessary，thatawell—chosenlegateshouldbesentintoGreece，toconvenethepatriarchsofConstantinople，Alexandria，Antioch，andJerusalem；and，withtheiraid，toprepareafreeanduniversalsynod。Butatthismoment，"continuedthesubtleagent，"theempireisassaultedandendangeredbytheTurks，whohaveoccupiedfourofthegreatestcitiesofAnatolia。TheChristianinhabitantshaveexpressedawishofreturningtotheirallegianceandreligion；buttheforcesandrevenuesoftheemperorareinsufficientfortheirdeliverance:andtheRomanlegatemustbeaccompanied，orpreceded，byanarmyofFranks，toexpeltheinfidels，andopenawaytotheholysepulchre。"IfthesuspiciousLatinsshouldrequiresomepledge，somepreviouseffectofthesincerityoftheGreeks，theanswersofBarlaamwereperspicuousandrational。"1。Ageneralsynodcanaloneconsummatetheunionofthechurches；norcansuchasynodbeheldtillthethreeOrientalpatriarchs，andagreatnumberofbishops，areenfranchisedfromtheMahometanyoke。2。TheGreeksarealienatedbyalongseriesofoppressionandinjury:theymustbereconciledbysomeactofbrotherlylove，someeffectualsuccor，whichmayfortifytheauthorityandargumentsoftheemperor，andthefriendsoftheunion。3。Ifsomedifferenceoffaithorceremoniesshouldbefoundincurable，theGreeks，however，arethedisciplesofChrist；andtheTurksarethecommonenemiesoftheChristianname。TheArmenians，Cyprians，andRhodians，areequallyattacked；anditwillbecomethepietyoftheFrenchprincestodrawtheirswordsinthegeneraldefenceofreligion。4。ShouldthesubjectsofAndronicusbetreatedastheworstofschismatics，ofheretics，ofpagans，ajudiciouspolicymayyetinstructthepowersoftheWesttoembraceausefulally，toupholdasinkingempire，toguardtheconfinesofEurope；andrathertojointheGreeksagainsttheTurks，thantoexpecttheunionoftheTurkisharmswiththetroopsandtreasuresofcaptiveGreece。"Thereasons，theoffers，andthedemands，ofAndronicuswereeludedwithcoldandstatelyindifference。ThekingsofFranceandNaplesdeclinedthedangersandgloryofacrusade；thepoperefusedtocallanewsynodtodetermineoldarticlesoffaith；andhisregardfortheobsoleteclaimsoftheLatinemperorandclergyengagedhimtouseanoffensivesuperscription，—"Tothemoderator^2oftheGreeks，andthepersonswhostylethemselvesthepatriarchsoftheEasternchurches。"Forsuchanembassy，atimeandcharacterlesspropitiouscouldnoteasilyhavebeenfound。BenedicttheTwelfth^3wasadullpeasant，perplexedwithscruples，andimmersedinslothandwine:hispridemightenrichwithathirdcrownthepapaltiara，buthewasalikeunfitfortheregalandthepastoraloffice。
　　[Footnote1:ThiscuriousinstructionwastranscribedIbelieve
　　fromtheVaticanarchives，byOdoricusRaynaldus，inhisContinuationoftheAnnalsofBaronius，Romae，1646—1677，inx。volumesinfolio。IhavecontentedmyselfwiththeAbbeFleury，Hist。Ecclesiastique。tom。xx。p。1—8，whoseabstractsIhavealwaysfoundtobeclear，accurate，andimpartial。]
　　[Footnote2:Theambiguityofthistitleishappyoringenious；
　　andmoderator，assynonymoustorector，gubernator，isawordofclassical，andevenCiceronian，Latinity，whichmaybefound，notintheGlossaryofDucange，butintheThesaurusofRobertStephens。]