Thepeasant，ormechanic，imbibedtheusefulprejudicethathewasadvancedtothemoredignifiedprofessionofarms，inwhichhisrankandreputationwoulddependonhisownvalor；andthat，althoughtheprowessofaprivatesoldiermustoftenescapethenoticeoffame，hisownbehaviormightsometimesconfergloryordisgraceonthecompany，thelegion，oreventhearmy，towhosehonorshewasassociated。Onhisfirstentranceintotheservice，anoathwasadministeredtohimwitheverycircumstanceofsolemnity。Hepromisednevertodeserthisstandard，tosubmithisownwilltothecommandsofhisleaders，andtosacrificehislifeforthesafetyoftheemperorandtheempire。
^33TheattachmentoftheRomantroopstotheirstandardswasinspiredbytheunitedinfluenceofreligionandofhonor。Thegoldeneagle，whichglitteredinthefrontofthelegion，wastheobjectoftheirfondestdevotion；norwasitesteemedlessimpiousthanitwasignominious，toabandonthatsacredensigninthehourofdanger。^34Thesemotives，whichderivedtheirstrengthfromtheimagination，wereenforcedbyfearsandhopesofamoresubstantialkind。Regularpay，occasionaldonatives，andastatedrecompense，aftertheappointedtimeofservice，alleviatedthehardshipsofthemilitarylife，^35whilst，ontheotherhand，itwasimpossibleforcowardiceordisobediencetoescapetheseverestpunishment。Thecenturionswereauthorizedtochastisewithblows，thegeneralshadarighttopunishwithdeath；anditwasaninflexiblemaximofRomandiscipline，thatagoodsoldiershoulddreadhisofficersfarmorethantheenemy。
FromsuchlaudableartsdidthevaloroftheImperialtroopsreceiveadegreeoffirmnessanddocilityunattainablebytheimpetuousandirregularpassionsofbarbarians。
[Footnote33:TheoathofserviceandfidelitytotheemperorwasannuallyrenewedbythetroopsonthefirstofJanuary。]
[Footnote34:TacituscallstheRomaneagles，BellorumDeos。
Theywereplacedinachapelinthecamp，andwiththeotherdeitiesreceivedthereligiousworshipofthetroops。
Note:SeealsoDio。Cass。xl。c。18。—M。]
[Footnote35:SeeGronoviusdePecuniavetere，l。iii。p。120，&c。TheemperorDomitianraisedtheannualstipendofthelegionariestotwelvepiecesofgold，which，inhistime，wasequivalenttoabouttenofourguineas。Thispay，somewhathigherthanourown，hadbeen，andwasafterwards，graduallyincreased，accordingtotheprogressofwealthandmilitarygovernment。Aftertwentyyears'service，theveteranreceivedthreethousanddenarii，aboutonehundredpoundssterling，oraproportionableallowanceofland。Thepayandadvantagesoftheguardswere，ingeneral，aboutdoublethoseofthelegions。]
AndyetsosensibleweretheRomansoftheimperfectionofvalorwithoutskillandpractice，that，intheirlanguage，thenameofanarmywasborrowedfromthewordwhichsignifiedexercise。^36Militaryexercisesweretheimportantandunremittedobjectoftheirdiscipline。Therecruitsandyoungsoldierswereconstantlytrained，bothinthemorningandintheevening，norwasageorknowledgeallowedtoexcusetheveteransfromthedailyrepetitionofwhattheyhadcompletelylearnt。
Largeshedswereerectedinthewinter—quartersofthetroops，thattheirusefullaborsmightnotreceiveanyinterruptionfromthemosttempestuousweather；anditwascarefullyobserved，thatthearmsdestinedtothisimitationofwar，shouldbeofdoubletheweightwhichwasrequiredinrealaction。^37ItisnotthepurposeofthisworktoenterintoanyminutedescriptionoftheRomanexercises。Weshallonlyremark，thattheycomprehendedwhatevercouldaddstrengthtothebody，activitytothelimbs，orgracetothemotions。Thesoldierswerediligentlyinstructedtomarch，torun，toleap，toswim，tocarryheavyburdens，tohandleeveryspeciesofarmsthatwasusedeitherforoffenceorfordefence，eitherindistantengagementorinacloseronset；
toformavarietyofevolutions；andtomovetothesoundofflutesinthePyrrhicormartialdance。^38Inthemidstofpeace，theRomantroopsfamiliarizedthemselveswiththepracticeofwar；anditisprettilyremarkedbyanancienthistorianwhohadfoughtagainstthem，thattheeffusionofbloodwastheonlycircumstancewhichdistinguishedafieldofbattlefromafieldofexercise。^39Itwasthepolicyoftheablestgenerals，andevenoftheemperorsthemselves，toencouragethesemilitarystudiesbytheirpresenceandexample；andweareinformedthatHadrian，aswellasTrajan，frequentlycondescendedtoinstructtheunexperiencedsoldiers，torewardthediligent，andsometimestodisputewiththemtheprizeofsuperiorstrengthordexterity。
^40Underthereignsofthoseprinces，thescienceoftacticswascultivatedwithsuccess；andaslongastheempireretainedanyvigor，theirmilitaryinstructionswererespectedasthemostperfectmodelofRomandiscipline。
[Footnote36:Exercitusabexercitando，VarrodeLinguaLatina，l。iv。CiceroinTusculan。l。ii。37。[15。]Thereisroomforaveryinterestingwork，whichshouldlayopentheconnectionbetweenthelanguagesandmannersofnations。
NoteIamnotawareoftheexistence，atpresent，ofsuchawork；buttheprofoundobservationsofthelateWilliamvonHumboldt，intheintroductiontohisposthumouslypublishedEssayontheLanguageoftheIslandofJava，uberdieKawi—sprache，Berlin，1836，maycauseregretthatthistaskwasnotcompletedbythataccomplishedanduniversalscholar。—M。]
[Footnote37:Vegatius，l。ii。andtherestofhisfirstbook。]
[Footnote38:ThePyrrhicdanceisextremelywellillustratedbyM。leBeau，intheAcademiedesInscriptions，tom。xxxv。p。262，&c。Thatlearnedacademician，inaseriesofmemoirs，hascollectedallthepassagesoftheancientsthatrelatetotheRomanlegion。]
[Footnote39:Joseph。deBell。Judaico，l。iii。c。5。WeareindebtedtothisJewforsomeverycuriousdetailsofRomandiscipline。]
[Footnote40:Plin。Panegyr。c。13。LifeofHadrian，intheAugustanHistory。]
Ninecenturiesofwarhadgraduallyintroducedintotheservicemanyalterationsandimprovements。Thelegions，astheyaredescribedbyPolybius，^41inthetimeofthePunicwars，differedverymateriallyfromthosewhichachievedthevictoriesofCaesar，ordefendedthemonarchyofHadrianandtheAntonines。
TheconstitutionoftheImperiallegionmaybedescribedinafewwords。^42Theheavy—armedinfantry，whichcomposeditsprincipalstrength，^43wasdividedintotencohorts，andfifty—fivecompanies，undertheordersofacorrespondentnumberoftribunesandcenturions。Thefirstcohort，whichalwaysclaimedthepostofhonorandthecustodyoftheeagle，wasformedofelevenhundredandfivesoldiers，themostapprovedforvalorandfidelity。Theremainingninecohortsconsistedeachoffivehundredandfifty—five；andthewholebodyoflegionaryinfantryamountedtosixthousandonehundredmen。Theirarmswereuniform，andadmirablyadaptedtothenatureoftheirservice:anopenhelmet，withaloftycrest；abreastplate，orcoatofmail；
greavesontheirlegs，andanamplebucklerontheirleftarm。
Thebucklerwasofanoblongandconcavefigure，fourfeetinlength，andtwoandahalfinbreadth，framedofalightwood，coveredwithabull'shide，andstronglyguardedwithplatesofbrass。Besidesalighterspear，thelegionarysoldiergraspedinhisrighthandtheformidablepilum，aponderousjavelin，whoseutmostlengthwasaboutsixfeet，andwhichwasterminatedbyamassytriangularpointofsteelofeighteeninches。^44Thisinstrumentwasindeedmuchinferiortoourmodernfire—arms；
sinceitwasexhaustedbyasingledischarge，atthedistanceofonlytenortwelvepaces。Yetwhenitwaslaunchedbyafirmandskilfulhand，therewasnotanycavalrythatdurstventurewithinitsreach，noranyshieldorcorseletthatcouldsustaintheimpetuosityofitsweight。AssoonastheRomanhaddartedhispilum，hedrewhissword，andrushedforwardstoclosewiththeenemy。Hisswordwasashortwell—temperedSpanishblade，thatcarriedadoubleedge，andwasalikesuitedtothepurposeofstrikingorofpushing；butthesoldierwasalwaysinstructedtopreferthelatteruseofhisweapon，ashisownbodyremainedlessexposed，whilstheinflictedamoredangerouswoundonhisadversary。^45Thelegionwasusuallydrawnupeightdeep；andtheregulardistanceofthreefeetwasleftbetweenthefilesaswellasranks。^46Abodyoftroops，habituatedtopreservethisopenorder，inalongfrontandarapidcharge，foundthemselvespreparedtoexecuteeverydispositionwhichthecircumstancesofwar，ortheskilloftheirleader，mightsuggest。Thesoldierpossessedafreespaceforhisarmsandmotions，andsufficientintervalswereallowed，throughwhichseasonablereenforcementsmightbeintroducedtothereliefoftheexhaustedcombatants。
^47ThetacticsoftheGreeksandMacedonianswereformedonverydifferentprinciples。Thestrengthofthephalanxdependedonsixteenranksoflongpikes，wedgedtogetherintheclosestarray。^48Butitwassoondiscoveredbyreflection，aswellasbytheevent，thatthestrengthofthephalanxwasunabletocontendwiththeactivityofthelegion。^49
[Footnote41:SeeanadmirabledigressionontheRomandiscipline，inthesixthbookofhisHistory。]
[Footnote42:VegetiusdeReMilitari，l。ii。c。4，&c。
ConsiderablepartofhisveryperplexedabridgmentwastakenfromtheregulationsofTrajanandHadrian；andthelegion，ashedescribesit，cannotsuitanyotherageoftheRomanempire。]
[Footnote43:VegetiusdeReMilitari，l。ii。c。1。InthepurerageofCaesarandCicero，thewordmileswasalmostconfinedtotheinfantry。Underthelowerempire，andthetimesofchivalry，itwasappropriatedalmostasexclusivelytothemenatarms，whofoughtonhorseback。]
[Footnote44:InthetimeofPolybiusandDionysiusofHalicarnassus，l。v。c。45，thesteelpointofthepilumseemstohavebeenmuchlonger。InthetimeofVegetius，itwasreducedtoafoot，orevennineinches。Ihavechosenamedium。]
[Footnote45:Forthelegionaryarms，seeLipsiusdeMilitiaRomana，l。iii。c。2—7。]
[Footnote46:SeethebeautifulcomparisonofVirgil，Georgicii。
v。279。]
[Footnote47:M。Guichard，MemoiresMilitaires，tom。i。c。4，andNouveauxMemoires，tom。i。p。293—311，hastreatedthesubjectlikeascholarandanofficer。]
[Footnote48:SeeArrian'sTactics。WiththetruepartialityofaGreek，Arrianratherchosetodescribethephalanx，ofwhichhehadread，thanthelegionswhichhehadcommanded。]
[Footnote49:Polyb。l。xvii。xviii。9。]
Thecavalry，withoutwhichtheforceofthelegionwouldhaveremainedimperfect，wasdividedintotentroopsorsquadrons；thefirst，asthecompanionofthefirstcohort，consistedofahundredandthirty—twomen；whilsteachoftheothernineamountedonlytosixty—six。Theentireestablishmentformedaregiment，ifwemayusethemodernexpression，ofsevenhundredandtwenty—sixhorse，naturallyconnectedwithitsrespectivelegion，butoccasionallyseparatedtoactintheline，andtocomposeapartofthewingsofthearmy。^50Thecavalryoftheemperorswasnolongercomposed，likethatoftheancientrepublic，ofthenoblestyouthsofRomeandItaly，who，byperformingtheirmilitaryserviceonhorseback，preparedthemselvesfortheofficesofsenatorandconsul；andsolicited，bydeedsofvalor，thefuturesuffragesoftheircountrymen。^51
Sincethealterationofmannersandgovernment，themostwealthyoftheequestrianorderwereengagedintheadministrationofjustice，andoftherevenue；^52andwhenevertheyembracedtheprofessionofarms，theywereimmediatelyintrustedwithatroopofhorse，oracohortoffoot。^53TrajanandHadrianformedtheircavalryfromthesameprovinces，andthesameclassoftheirsubjects，whichrecruitedtheranksofthelegion。Thehorseswerebred，forthemostpart，inSpainorCappadocia。TheRomantroopersdespisedthecompletearmorwithwhichthecavalryoftheEastwasencumbered。Theirmoreusefularmsconsistedinahelmet，anoblongshield，lightboots，andacoatofmail。A
javelin，andalongbroadsword，weretheirprincipalweaponsofoffence。Theuseoflancesandofironmacestheyseemtohaveborrowedfromthebarbarians。^54
[Footnote50:Veget。deReMilitari，l。ii。c。6。Hispositivetestimony，whichmightbesupportedbycircumstantialevidence，oughtsurelytosilencethosecriticswhorefusetheImperiallegionitsproperbodyofcavalry。
Note:SeealsoJoseph。B。J。iii。vi。2。—M。]
[Footnote51:SeeLivyalmostthroughout，particularlyxlii。61。]
[Footnote52:Plin。Hist。Natur。xxxiii。2。ThetruesenseofthatverycuriouspassagewasfirstdiscoveredandillustratedbyM。deBeaufort，RepubliqueRomaine，l。ii。c。2。]
[Footnote53:AsintheinstanceofHoraceandAgricola。ThisappearstohavebeenadefectintheRomandiscipline；whichHadrianendeavoredtoremedybyascertainingthelegalageofatribune。
Note:Thesedetailsarenotaltogetheraccurate。Although，inthelatterdaysoftherepublic，andunderthefirstemperors，theyoungRomannoblesobtainedthecommandofasquadronoracohortwithgreaterfacilitythanintheformertimes，theyneverobtaineditwithoutpassingthroughatolerablylongmilitaryservice。Usuallytheyservedfirstinthepraetoriancohort，whichwasintrustedwiththeguardofthegeneral:theywerereceivedintothecompanionshipcontuberniumofsomesuperiorofficer，andwerethereformedforduty。ThusJuliusCaesar，thoughsprungfromagreatfamily，servedfirstascontubernalisunderthepraetor，M。Thermus，andlaterunderServiliustheIsaurian。Suet。Jul。2，5。Plut。inPar。p。516。Ed。Froben。
TheexampleofHorace，whichGibbonadducestoprovethatyoungknightsweremadetribunesimmediatelyonenteringtheservice，provesnothing。Inthefirstplace，Horacewasnotaknight；hewasthesonofafreedmanofVenusia，inApulia，whoexercisedthehumbleofficeofcoactorexauctionum，collectorofpaymentsatauctions。Sat。i。vi。45，or86。Moreover，whenthepoetwasmadetribune，Brutus，whosearmywasnearlyentirelycomposedofOrientals，gavethistitletoalltheRomansofconsiderationwhojoinedhim。Theemperorswerestilllessdifficultintheirchoice；thenumberoftribuneswasaugmented；thetitleandhonorswereconferredonpersonswhomtheywishedtoattacktothecourt。Augustusconferredonthesonsofsenators，sometimesthetribunate，sometimesthecommandofasquadron。Claudiusgavetotheknightswhoenteredintotheservice，firstthecommandofacohortofauxiliaries，laterthatofasquadron，andatlength，forthefirsttime，thetribunate。SuetinClaud。
withthenotesofErnesti。TheabusesthatarosecausedbytheedictofHadrian，whichfixedtheageatwhichthathonorcouldbeattained。Spart。inHad。&c。Thisedictwassubsequentlyobeyed；fortheemperorValerian，inaletteraddressedtoMulviusGallinnus，praetorianpraefect，excuseshimselfforhavingviolateditinfavoroftheyoungProbusafterwardsemperor，onwhomhehadconferredthetribunateatanearlierageonaccountofhisraretalents。Vopisc。inProb。iv。—W。andG。Agricola，thoughalreadyinvestedwiththetitleoftribune，wascontubernalisinBritainwithSuetoniusPaulinus。Tac。Agr。
v。—M。]
[Footnote54:SeeArrian'sTactics。]
Thesafetyandhonoroftheempirewasprincipallyintrustedtothelegions，butthepolicyofRomecondescendedtoadopteveryusefulinstrumentofwar。Considerablelevieswereregularlymadeamongtheprovincials，whohadnotyetdeservedthehonorabledistinctionofRomans。Manydependentprincesandcommunities，dispersedroundthefrontiers，werepermitted，forawhile，toholdtheirfreedomandsecuritybythetenureofmilitaryservice。^55Evenselecttroopsofhostilebarbarianswerefrequentlycompelledorpersuadedtoconsumetheirdangerousvalorinremoteclimates，andforthebenefitofthestate。^56
Allthesewereincludedunderthegeneralnameofauxiliaries；
andhowsoevertheymightvaryaccordingtothedifferenceoftimesandcircumstances，theirnumberswereseldommuchinferiortothoseofthelegionsthemselves。^57Amongtheauxiliaries，thebravestandmostfaithfulbandswereplacedunderthecommandofpraefectsandcenturions，andseverelytrainedintheartsofRomandiscipline；butthefargreaterpartretainedthosearms，towhichthenatureoftheircountry，ortheirearlyhabitsoflife，morepeculiarlyadaptedthem。Bythisinstitution，eachlegion，towhomacertainproportionofauxiliarieswasallotted，containedwithinitselfeveryspeciesoflightertroops，andofmissileweapons；andwascapableofencounteringeverynation，withtheadvantagesofitsrespectivearmsanddiscipline。^58
Norwasthelegiondestituteofwhat，inmodernlanguage，wouldbestyledatrainofartillery。Itconsistedintenmilitaryenginesofthelargest，andfifty—fiveofasmallersize；butallofwhich，eitherinanobliqueorhorizontalmanner，dischargedstonesanddartswithirresistibleviolence。^59
[Footnote55:Such，inparticular，wasthestateoftheBatavians。Tacit。Germania，c。29。]
[Footnote56:MarcusAntoninusobligedthevanquishedQuadiandMarcomannitosupplyhimwithalargebodyoftroops，whichheimmediatelysentintoBritain。DionCassius，l。lxxi。c。16。]
[Footnote57:Tacit。Annal。iv。5。Thosewhofixaregularproportionofasmanyfoot，andtwiceasmanyhorse，confoundtheauxiliariesoftheemperorswiththeItalianalliesoftherepublic。]
[Footnote58:Vegetius，ii。2。Arrian，inhisorderofmarchandbattleagainsttheAlani。]
[Footnote59:ThesubjectoftheancientmachinesistreatedwithgreatknowledgeandingenuitybytheChevalierFolard，Polybe，tom。ii。p。233—290。Hepreferstheminmanyrespectstoourmoderncannonandmortars。Wemayobserve，thattheuseoftheminthefieldgraduallybecamemoreprevalent，inproportionaspersonalvalorandmilitaryskilldeclinedwiththeRomanempire。
Whenmenwerenolongerfound，theirplacewassuppliedbymachines。SeeVegetius，ii。25。Arrian。]
ChapterI:TheExtentOfTheEmpireInTheAgeOfTheAntonines。