Inthecalmofretirement，thewell—meaningpopedeploredtheeffusionofChristianblood，whichmustbeimputedtohisaccount:hefelt，thathehadbeentheauthorofsinandscandal；
andashisundertakinghadfailed，theindecencyofhismilitarycharacterwasuniversallycondemned。^35Withthesedispositions，helistenedtotheoffersofabeneficialtreaty；desertedanalliancewhichhehadpreachedasthecauseofGod；andratifiedthepastandfutureconquestsoftheNormans。Bywhateverhandstheyhadbeenusurped，theprovincesofApuliaandCalabriawereapartofthedonationofConstantineandthepatrimonyofSt。
Peter:thegrantandtheacceptanceconfirmedthemutualclaimsofthepontiffandtheadventurers。Theypromisedtosupporteachotherwithspiritualandtemporalarms；atributeorquitrentoftwelvepencewasafterwardsstipulatedforeveryploughland；andsincethismemorabletransaction，thekingdomofNapleshasremainedabovesevenhundredyearsafiefoftheHolySee。^36
[Footnote33:SeetheexpeditionofLeoXI。againsttheNormans。
SeeWilliamAppulusl。ii。p。259—261andJeffreyMalaterral。i。c。13，14，15，p。253。Theyareimpartial，asthenationaliscounterbalancedbytheclericalprejudice]
[Footnote34:Teutonici，quiacaesariesetformadecorosFecerategregieprocericorporisillosCorporaderidentNormannicaquaebrevioraEssevidebantur。
TheversesoftheApulianarecommonlyinthisstrain，thoughheheatshimselfalittleinthebattle。Twoofhissimilesfromhawkingandsorceryaredescriptiveofmanners。]
[Footnote35:SeveralrespectablecensuresorcomplaintsareproducedbyM。deSt。Marc，tom。ii。p。200—204。AsPeterDamianus，theoracleofthetimes，hasdeniedthepopestherightofmakingwar，thehermitlugenseremiincolaisarraignedbythecardinal，andBaroniusAnnal。Eccles。A。D。1053，No。10—
17moststrenuouslyassertsthetwoswordsofSt。Peter。]
[Footnote36:TheoriginandnatureofthepapalinvestituresareablydiscussedbyGiannone，IstoriaCivilediNapoli，tom。ii。
p。37—49，57—66，asalawyerandantiquarian。YethevainlystrivestoreconcilethedutiesofpatriotandCatholic，adoptsanemptydistinctionof"EcclesiaRomananondedit，sedaccepit，"
andshrinksfromanhonestbutdangerousconfessionofthetruth。]
ThepedigreeofRobertofGuiscard^37isvariouslydeducedfromthepeasantsandthedukesofNormandy:fromthepeasants，bytheprideandignoranceofaGrecianprincess；^38fromthedukes，bytheignoranceandflatteryoftheItaliansubjects。^39
Hisgenuinedescentmaybeascribedtothesecondormiddleorderofprivatenobility。^40Hesprangfromaraceofvalvassorsorbannerets，ofthedioceseofCoutances，intheLowerNormandy:
thecastleofHautevillewastheirhonorableseat:hisfatherTancredwasconspicuousinthecourtandarmyoftheduke；andhismilitaryservicewasfurnishedbytensoldiersorknights。
Twomarriages，ofaranknotunworthyofhisown，madehimthefatheroftwelvesons，whowereeducatedathomebytheimpartialtendernessofhissecondwife。Butanarrowpatrimonywasinsufficientforthisnumerousanddaringprogeny；theysawaroundtheneighborhoodthemischiefsofpovertyanddiscord，andresolvedtoseekinforeignwarsamoregloriousinheritance。
Twoonlyremainedtoperpetuatetherace，andcherishtheirfather'sage:theirtenbrothers，astheysuccessfullyattainedthevigorofmanhood，departedfromthecastle，passedtheAlps，andjoinedtheApuliancampoftheNormans。Theelderwerepromptedbynativespirit；theirsuccessencouragedtheiryoungerbrethren，andthethreefirstinseniority，William，Drogo，andHumphrey，deservedtobethechiefsoftheirnationandthefoundersofthenewrepublic。Robertwastheeldestofthesevensonsofthesecondmarriage；andeventhereluctantpraiseofhisfoeshasendowedhimwiththeheroicqualitiesofasoldierandastatesman。Hisloftystaturesurpassedthetallestofhisarmy:
hislimbswerecastinthetrueproportionofstrengthandgracefulness；andtothedeclineoflife，hemaintainedthepatientvigorofhealthandthecommandingdignityofhisform。
Hiscomplexionwasruddy，hisshoulderswerebroad，hishairandbeardwerelongandofaflaxencolor，hiseyessparkledwithfire，andhisvoice，likethatofAchilles，couldimpressobedienceandterroramidstthetumultofbattle。Intheruderagesofchivalry，suchqualificationsarenotbelowthenoticeofthepoetorhistorians:theymayobservethatRobert，atonce，andwithequaldexterity，couldwieldintherighthandhissword，hislanceintheleft；thatinthebattleofCivitellahewasthriceunhorsed；andthatinthecloseofthatmemorabledayhewasadjudgedtohaveborneawaytheprizeofvalorfromthewarriorsofthetwoarmies。^41Hisboundlessambitionwasfoundedontheconsciousnessofsuperiorworth:inthepursuitofgreatness，hewasneverarrestedbythescruplesofjustice，andseldommovedbythefeelingsofhumanity:thoughnotinsensibleoffame，thechoiceofopenorclandestinemeanswasdeterminedonlybyhispresentadvantage。ThesurnameofGuiscard^42wasappliedtothismasterofpoliticalwisdom，whichistoooftenconfoundedwiththepracticeofdissimulationanddeceit；andRobertispraisedbytheApulianpoetforexcellingthecunningofUlyssesandtheeloquenceofCicero。Yettheseartsweredisguisedbyanappearanceofmilitaryfrankness:inhishighestfortune，hewasaccessibleandcourteoustohisfellow—soldiers；
andwhileheindulgedtheprejudicesofhisnewsubjects，heaffectedinhisdressandmannerstomaintaintheancientfashionofhiscountry。Hegraspedwitharapacious，thathemightdistributewithaliberal，hand:hisprimitiveindigencehadtaughtthehabitsoffrugality；thegainofamerchantwasnotbelowhisattention；andhisprisonersweretorturedwithslowandunfeelingcruelty，toforceadiscoveryoftheirsecrettreasure。AccordingtotheGreeks，hedepartedfromNormandywithonlyfivefollowersonhorsebackandthirtyonfoot；yeteventhisallowanceappearstoobountiful:thesixthsonofTancredofHautevillepassedtheAlpsasapilgrim；andhisfirstmilitarybandwasleviedamongtheadventurersofItaly。HisbrothersandcountrymenhaddividedthefertilelandsofApulia；
buttheyguardedtheirshareswiththejealousyofavarice；theaspiringyouthwasdrivenforwardstothemountainsofCalabria，andinhisfirstexploitsagainsttheGreeksandthenatives，itisnoteasytodiscriminatetheherofromtherobber。Tosurpriseacastleoraconvent，toensnareawealthycitizen，toplundertheadjacentvillagesfornecessaryfood，weretheobscurelaborswhichformedandexercisedthepowersofhismindandbody。ThevolunteersofNormandyadheredtohisstandard；
and，underhiscommand，thepeasantsofCalabriaassumedthenameandcharacterofNormans。
[Footnote37:Thebirth，character，andfirstactionsofRobertGuiscard，maybefoundinJeffreyMalaterra，l。i。c。3，4，11，16，17，18，38，39，40，WilliamAppulus，l。ii。p。260—262，
WilliamGemeticensis，orofJumieges，l。xi。c。30，p。663，664，edit。Camden，andAnnaComnena，Alexiad，l。i。p。23—27，l。
vi。p。165，166，withtheannotationsofDucange，Not。inAlexiad，p。230—232，320，whohassweptalltheFrenchandLatinChroniclesforsupplementalintelligence。]
[Footnote38:aGreekcorruption，andelsewhere，l。iv。p。
84，。AnnaComnenawasborninthepurple；yetherfatherwasnomorethanaprivatethoughillustrioussubject，whoraisedhimselftotheempire。]
[Footnote39:Giannone，tom。ii。p。2forgetsallhisoriginalauthors，andreststhisprincelydescentonthecreditofInveges，anAugustinemonkofPalermointhelastcentury。TheycontinuethesuccessionofdukesfromRollotoWilliamII。theBastardorConqueror，whomtheyholdcommunementesitienetobethefatherofTancredofHauteville；amoststrangeandstupendousblunder!ThesonsofTancredfoughtinApulia，beforeWilliamII。wasthreeyearsold，A。D。1037。]
[Footnote40:ThejudgmentofDucangeisjustandmoderate:CertehumilisfuitactenuisRobertifamilia，siducalemetregiumspectemusapicem，adquemposteapervenit；quaehonestatamenetpraeternobiliumvulgariumstatumetconditionemillustrishabitaest，"quaenechumireperetnecaltumquidtumeret。"Wilhem。
Malmsbur。deGestisAnglorum，l。iii。p。107。Not。adAlexiad。p。
230。]
[Footnote41:IshallquotewithpleasuresomeofthebestlinesoftheApulian，l。ii。p。270。
Pugnatutraquemanu，neclanceacassa，necensisCassuserat，quocunquemanudeducerevellet。
Terdejectusequo，terviribusipseresumptisMajorinarmaredit:stimulosfuroripseministrat。
UtLeocumfrendens，&c。
———————
NullusinhocbellosicutipostbellaprobatumestVictorvelvictus，tammagnosediditictus。]
[Footnote42:TheNormanwritersandeditorsmostconversantwiththeirownidiominterpretGuiscardorWiscard，byCallidus，acunningman。Therootwiseisfamiliartoourear；andintheoldwordWiseacre，Icandiscernsomethingofasimilarsenseandtermination。ItisnobadtranslationofthesurnameandcharacterofRobert。]
AsthegeniusofRobertexpandedwithhisfortune，heawakenedthejealousyofhiselderbrother，bywhom，inatransientquarrel，hislifewasthreatenedandhislibertyrestrained。AfterthedeathofHumphrey，thetenderageofhissonsexcludedthemfromthecommand；theywerereducedtoaprivateestate，bytheambitionoftheirguardiananduncle；andGuiscardwasexaltedonabuckler，andsalutedcountofApuliaandgeneraloftherepublic。Withanincreaseofauthorityandofforce，heresumedtheconquestofCalabria，andsoonaspiredtoarankthatshouldraisehimforeverabovetheheadsofhisequals。
Bysomeactsofrapineorsacrilege，hehadincurredapapalexcommunication；butNicholastheSecondwaseasilypersuadedthatthedivisionsoffriendscouldterminateonlyintheirmutualprejudice；thattheNormanswerethefaithfulchampionsoftheHolySee；anditwassafertotrusttheallianceofaprincethanthecapriceofanaristocracy。AsynodofonehundredbishopswasconvenedatMelphi；andthecountinterruptedanimportantenterprisetoguardthepersonandexecutethedecreesoftheRomanpontiff。HisgratitudeandpolicyconferredonRobertandhisposteritytheducaltitle，^43withtheinvestitureofApulia，Calabria，andallthelands，bothinItalyandSicily，whichhisswordcouldrescuefromtheschismaticGreeksandtheunbelievingSaracens。^44Thisapostolicsanctionmightjustifyhisarms；buttheobedienceofafreeandvictoriouspeoplecouldnotbetransferredwithouttheirconsent；
andGuiscarddissembledhiselevationtilltheensuingcampaignhadbeenillustratedbytheconquestofConsenzaandReggio。Inthehouroftriumph，heassembledhistroops，andsolicitedtheNormanstoconfirmbytheirsuffragethejudgmentofthevicarofChrist:thesoldiershailedwithjoyfulacclamationstheirvaliantduke；andthecounts，hisformerequals，pronouncedtheoathoffidelitywithhollowsmilesandsecretindignation。
Afterthisinauguration，Robertstyledhimself，"BythegraceofGodandSt。Peter，dukeofApulia，Calabria，andhereafterofSicily；"anditwasthelaboroftwentyyearstodeserveandrealizetheseloftyappellations。Suchsardyprogress，inanarrowspace，mayseemunworthyoftheabilitiesofthechiefandthespiritofthenation；buttheNormanswerefewinnumber；
theirresourceswerescanty；theirservicewasvoluntaryandprecarious。Thebravestdesignsofthedukeweresometimesopposedbythefreevoiceofhisparliamentofbarons:thetwelvecountsofpopularelectionconspiredagainsthisauthority；andagainsttheirperfidiousuncle，thesonsofHumphreydemandedjusticeandrevenge。Byhispolicyandvigor，Guiscarddiscoveredtheirplots，suppressedtheirrebellions，andpunishedtheguiltywithdeathorexile:butinthesedomesticfeuds，hisyears，andthenationalstrength，wereunprofitablyconsumed。
Afterthedefeatofhisforeignenemies，theGreeks，Lombards，andSaracens，theirbrokenforcesretreatedtothestrongandpopulouscitiesofthesea—coast。Theyexcelledintheartsoffortificationanddefence；theNormanswereaccustomedtoserveonhorsebackinthefield，andtheirrudeattemptscouldonlysucceedbytheeffortsofperseveringcourage。TheresistanceofSalernowasmaintainedaboveeightmonths；thesiegeorblockadeofBarilastednearfouryears。IntheseactionstheNormandukewastheforemostineverydanger；ineveryfatiguethelastandmostpatient。AshepressedthecitadelofSalerno，ahugestonefromtherampartshatteredoneofhismilitaryengines；andbyasplinterhewaswoundedinthebreast。BeforethegatesofBari，helodgedinamiserablehutorbarrack，composedofdrybranches，andthatchedwithstraw；aperilousstation，onallsidesopentotheinclemencyofthewinterandthespearsoftheenemy。^45
[Footnote43:TheacquisitionoftheducaltitlebyRobertGuiscardisaniceandobscurebusiness。WiththegoodadviceofGiannone，Muratori，andSt。Marc，Ihaveendeavoredtoformaconsistentandprobablenarrative。]
[Footnote44:BaroniusAnnal。Eccles。A。D。1059，No。69haspublishedtheoriginalact。HeprofessestohavecopieditfromtheLiberCensuum，aVaticanMs。YetaLiberCensuumofthexiithcenturyhasbeenprintedbyMuratori，Antiquit。MediiAevi，tom。v。p。851—908；andthenamesofVaticanandCardinalawakenthesuspicionsofaProtestant，andevenofaphilosopher。]
[Footnote45:ReadthelifeofGuiscardinthesecondandthirdbooksoftheApulian，thefirstandsecondbooksofMalaterra。]
TheItalianconquestsofRobertcorrespondwiththelimitsofthepresentkingdomofNaples；andthecountriesunitedbyhisarmshavenotbeendisseveredbytherevolutionsofsevenhundredyears。^46ThemonarchyhasbeencomposedoftheGreekprovincesofCalabriaandApulia，oftheLombardprincipalityofSalerno，therepublicofAmalphi，andtheinlanddependenciesofthelargeandancientduchyofBeneventum。Threedistrictsonlywereexemptedfromthecommonlawofsubjection；thefirstforever，thetwolasttillthemiddleofthesucceedingcentury。ThecityandimmediateterritoryofBeneventohadbeentransferred，bygiftorexchange，fromtheGermanemperortotheRomanpontiff；
andalthoughthisholylandwassometimesinvaded，thenameofSt。PeterwasfinallymorepotentthantheswordoftheNormans。
TheirfirstcolonyofAversasubduedandheldthestateofCapua；
andherprinceswerereducedtobegtheirbreadbeforethepalaceoftheirfathers。ThedukesofNaples，thepresentmetropolis，maintainedthepopularfreedom，undertheshadowoftheByzantineempire。AmongthenewacquisitionsofGuiscard，thescienceofSalerno，^47andthetradeofAmalphi，^48maydetainforamomentthecuriosityofthereader。I。Ofthelearnedfaculties，jurisprudenceimpliesthepreviousestablishmentoflawsandproperty；andtheologymayperhapsbesupersededbythefulllightofreligionandreason。Butthesavageandthesagemustalikeimploretheassistanceofphysic；and，ifourdiseasesareinflamedbyluxury，themischiefsofblowsandwoundswouldbemorefrequentintheruderagesofsociety。ThetreasuresofGrecianmedicinehadbeencommunicatedtotheArabiancoloniesofAfrica，Spain，andSicily；andintheintercourseofpeaceandwar，asparkofknowledgehadbeenkindledandcherishedatSalerno，anillustriouscity，inwhichthemenwerehonestandthewomenbeautiful。^49Aschool，thefirstthataroseinthedarknessofEurope，wasconsecratedtothehealingart:theconscienceofmonksandbishopswasreconciledtothatsalutaryandlucrativeprofession；andacrowdofpatients，ofthemosteminentrank，andmostdistantclimates，invitedorvisitedthephysiciansofSalerno。TheywereprotectedbytheNormanconquerors；andGuiscard，thoughbredinarms，coulddiscernthemeritandvalueofaphilosopher。Afterapilgrimageofthirty—nineyears，Constantine，anAfricanChristian，returnedfromBagdad，amasterofthelanguageandlearningoftheArabians；andSalernowasenrichedbythepractice，thelessons，andthewritingsofthepupilofAvicenna。Theschoolofmedicinehaslongsleptinthenameofauniversity；butherpreceptsareabridgedinastringofaphorisms，boundtogetherintheLeonineverses，orLatinrhymes，ofthetwelfthcentury。^50
II。SevenmilestothewestofSalerno，andthirtytothesouthofNaples，theobscuretownofAmalphidisplayedthepowerandrewardsofindustry。Theland，howeverfertile，wasofnarrowextent；buttheseawasaccessibleandopen:theinhabitantsfirstassumedtheofficeofsupplyingthewesternworldwiththemanufacturesandproductionsoftheEast；andthisusefultrafficwasthesourceoftheiropulenceandfreedom。Thegovernmentwaspopular，undertheadministrationofadukeandthesupremacyoftheGreekemperor。FiftythousandcitizenswerenumberedinthewallsofAmalphi；norwasanycitymoreabundantlyprovidedwithgold，silver，andtheobjectsofpreciousluxury。Themarinerswhoswarmedinherport，excelledinthetheoryandpracticeofnavigationandastronomy:andthediscoveryofthecompass，whichhasopenedtheglobe，isowingtotheiringenuityorgoodfortune。Theirtradewasextendedtothecoasts，oratleasttothecommodities，ofAfrica，Arabia，andIndia:andtheirsettlementsinConstantinople，Antioch，Jerusalem，andAlexandria，acquiredtheprivilegesofindependentcolonies。^51
Afterthreehundredyearsofprosperity，AmalphiwasoppressedbythearmsoftheNormans，andsackedbythejealousyofPisa；butthepovertyofonethousandfishermanisyetdignifiedbytheremainsofanarsenal，acathedral，andthepalacesofroyalmerchants。
[Footnote46:TheconquestsofRobertGuiscardandRogerI。，theexemptionofBeneventoandthexiiprovincesofthekingdom，arefairlyexposedbyGiannoneinthesecondvolumeofhisIstoriaCivile，l。ix。x。xiandl。xvii。p。460—470。ThismoderndivisionwasnotestablishedbeforethetimeofFredericII。]
[Footnote47:Giannone，tom。ii。p。119—127，Muratori，Antiquitat。MediiAevi，tom。iii。dissert。xliv。p。935，936，
andTiraboschi，IstoriadellaLetteraturaItaliana，havegivenanhistoricalaccountofthesephysicians；theirmedicalknowledgeandpracticemustbelefttoourphysicians。]
[Footnote48:AttheendoftheHistoriaPandectarumofHenryBrenckmann，TrajectiadRhenum，1722，in4to。，theindefatigableauthorhasinsertedtwodissertations，deRepublicaAmalphitana，anddeAmalphiaPisanisdirepta，whicharebuiltonthetestimoniesofonehundredandfortywriters。YethehasforgottentwomostimportantpassagesoftheembassyofLiutprand，A。D。939，whichcomparethetradeandnavigationofAmalphiwiththatofVenice。]
[Footnote49:UrbsLatiinonesthacdelitiosiorurbe，Frugibus，arboribus，vinoqueredundat；etundeNontibipoma，nuces，nonpulchrapalatiadesunt，Nonspeciesmuliebrisabestprobitasquevirorum。
GulielmusAppulus，l。iii。p。367]