[Footnote135:ForthehistoryoftheemperorsinRomeandItaly，seeSigonius，deRegnoItaliae，Opp。tom。ii。，withtheNotesofSaxius，andtheAnnalsofMuratori，whomightrefermoredistinctlytotheauthorsofhisgreatcollection。]
[Footnote136:SeetheDissertationsofLeBlancattheendofhistreatisedesMonnoyesdeFrance，inwhichheproducessomeRomancoinsoftheFrenchemperors。]
[Footnote137:Romanorumaliquandoservi，scilicetBurgundiones，Romanisimperent?……Romanaeurbisdignitasadtantameststultitiamducta，utmeretricumetiamimperiopareat?
Liutprand，l。iii。c。12，p。450。Sigoniusl。vi。p。400
positivelyaffirmstherenovationoftheconsulship；butintheoldwritersAlbericusismorefrequentlystyledprincepsRomanorum。]
[Footnote138:Ditmar，p。354，apudSchmidt，tom。iii。p。439。]
[Footnote139:ThisbloodyfeastisdescribedinLeonineverseinthePantheonofGodfreyofViterbo，Script。Ital。tom。vii。p。
436，437，whoflourishedtowardstheendofthexiithcentury，FabriciusBibliot。Latin。Med。etInfimiAevi，tom。iii。p。69，edit。Mansi；buthisevidence，whichimposedonSigonius，isreasonablysuspectedbyMuratoriAnnali，tom。viii。p。177。]
[Footnote*:TheMarquisMaffei'sgallerycontainedamedalwithImp。CaesAugust。P。P。Crescentius。HenceHobhouseinfersthatheaffectedtheempire。Hobhouse，IllustrationsofChildeHarold，p。252。—M。]
[Footnote140:Thecoronationoftheemperor，andsomeoriginalceremoniesofthexthcenturyarepreservedinthePanegyriconBerengarius，Script。Ital。tom。ii。parsi。p。405—414，
illustratedbytheNotesofHadrianValesiusandLeibnitz。
SigoniushasrelatedthewholeprocessoftheRomanexpedition，ingoodLatin，butwithsomeerrorsoftimeandfact，l。vii。p。
441—446。]
[Footnote141:InaquarrelatthecoronationofConradII。
Muratoritakesleavetoobserve—doveanobenessereallora，indisciplinati，Barbari，ebestialsTedeschi。Annal。tom。viii。
p。368。]
ChapterXLIX:ConquestOfItalyByTheFranks。
PartVI。
Thereisnothingperhapsmoreadversetonatureandreasonthantoholdinobedienceremotecountriesandforeignnations，inoppositiontotheirinclinationandinterest。AtorrentofBarbariansmaypassovertheearth，butanextensiveempiremustbesupportedbyarefinedsystemofpolicyandoppression；inthecentre，anabsolutepower，promptinactionandrichinresources；aswiftandeasycommunicationwiththeextremeparts；
fortificationstocheckthefirsteffortofrebellion；aregularadministrationtoprotectandpunish；andawell—disciplinedarmytoinspirefear，withoutprovokingdiscontentanddespair。FardifferentwasthesituationoftheGermanCaesars，whowereambitioustoenslavethekingdomofItaly。TheirpatrimonialestateswerestretchedalongtheRhine，orscatteredintheprovinces；butthisampledomainwasalienatedbytheimprudenceordistressofsuccessiveprinces；andtheirrevenue，fromminuteandvexatiousprerogative，wasscarcelysufficientforthemaintenanceoftheirhousehold。Theirtroopswereformedbythelegalorvoluntaryserviceoftheirfeudalvassals，whopassedtheAlpswithreluctance，assumedthelicenseofrapineanddisorder，andcapriciouslydesertedbeforetheendofthecampaign。Wholearmiesweresweptawaybythepestilentialinfluenceoftheclimate:thesurvivorsbroughtbackthebonesoftheirprincesandnobles，^142andtheeffectsoftheirownintemperancewereoftenimputedtothetreacheryandmaliceoftheItalians，whorejoicedatleastinthecalamitiesoftheBarbarians。ThisirregulartyrannymightcontendonequaltermswiththepettytyrantsofItaly；norcanthepeople，orthereader，bemuchinterestedintheeventofthequarrel。Butintheeleventhandtwelfthcenturies，theLombardsrekindledtheflameofindustryandfreedom；andthegenerousexamplewasatlengthimitatedbytherepublicsofTuscany。IntheItaliancitiesamunicipalgovernmenthadneverbeentotallyabolished；
andtheirfirstprivilegesweregrantedbythefavorandpolicyoftheemperors，whoweredesirousoferectingaplebeianbarrieragainsttheindependenceofthenobles。Buttheirrapidprogress，thedailyextensionoftheirpowerandpretensions，werefoundedonthenumbersandspiritoftheserisingcommunities。^143Eachcityfilledthemeasureofherdioceseordistrict:thejurisdictionofthecountsandbishops，ofthemarquisesandcounts，wasbanishedfromtheland；andtheproudestnobleswerepersuadedorcompelledtodeserttheirsolitarycastles，andtoembracethemorehonorablecharacteroffreemenandmagistrates。Thelegislativeauthoritywasinherentinthegeneralassembly；buttheexecutivepowerswereintrustedtothreeconsuls，annuallychosenfromthethreeordersofcaptains，valvassors，^144andcommons，intowhichtherepublicwasdivided。Undertheprotectionofequallaw，thelaborsofagricultureandcommerceweregraduallyrevived；butthemartialspiritoftheLombardswasnourishedbythepresenceofdanger；
andasoftenasthebellwasrung，orthestandard^145erected，thegatesofthecitypouredforthanumerousandintrepidband，whosezealintheirowncausewassoonguidedbytheuseanddisciplineofarms。Atthefootofthesepopularramparts，theprideoftheCaesarswasoverthrown；andtheinvinciblegeniusoflibertyprevailedoverthetwoFrederics，thegreatestprincesofthemiddleage；thefirst，superiorperhapsinmilitaryprowess；
thesecond，whoundoubtedlyexcelledinthesofteraccomplishmentsofpeaceandlearning。
[Footnote142:Afterboilingawaytheflesh。Thecaldronsforthatpurposewereanecessarypieceoftravellingfurniture；andaGermanwhowasusingitforhisbrother，promisedittoafriend，afteritshouldhavebeenemployedforhimself，Schmidt，tom。iii。p。423，424。ThesameauthorobservesthatthewholeSaxonlinewasextinguishedinItaly，tom。ii。p。440。]
[Footnote*:CompareSismondi，HistoiredesRepubliquesItaliannes。HallamMiddleAges。Raumer，GeschichtederHohenstauffen。Savigny，GeschichtedesRomischenRechts，vol。
iii。p。19withtheauthorsquoted。—M。]
[Footnote143:Otho，bishopofFrisingen，hasleftanimportantpassageontheItaliancities，l。ii。c。13，inScript。Ital。
tom。vi。p。707—710:andtherise，progress，andgovernmentoftheserepublicsareperfectlyillustratedbyMuratori，Antiquitat。Ital。MediiAevi，tom。iv。dissertxlv。—lii。p。1
—675。Annal。tom。viii。ix。x。]
[Footnote144:Forthesetitles，seeSelden，TitlesofHonor，vol。iii。part1p。488。Ducange，Gloss。Latin。tom。ii。p。
140，tom。vi。p。776，andSt。Marc，AbregeChronologique，tom。
ii。p。719。]
[Footnote145:TheLombardsinventedandusedthecarocium，astandardplantedonacarorwagon，drawnbyateamofoxen，Ducange，tom。ii。p。194，195。MuratoriAntiquitattom。ii。dis。
xxvi。p。489—493。]
Ambitiousofrestoringthesplendorofthepurple，FrederictheFirstinvadedtherepublicsofLombardy，withtheartsofastatesman，thevalorofasoldier，andthecrueltyofatyrant。
TherecentdiscoveryofthePandectshadrenewedasciencemostfavorabletodespotism；andhisvenaladvocatesproclaimedtheemperortheabsolutemasterofthelivesandpropertiesofhissubjects。Hisroyalprerogatives，inalessodioussense，wereacknowledgedinthedietofRoncaglia；andtherevenueofItalywasfixedatthirtythousandpoundsofsilver，^146whichweremultipliedtoanindefinitedemandbytherapineofthefiscalofficers。Theobstinatecitieswerereducedbytheterrorortheforceofhisarms:hiscaptivesweredeliveredtotheexecutioner，orshotfromhismilitaryengines；and。afterthesiegeandsurrenderofMilan，thebuildingsofthatstatelycapitalwererazedtotheground，threehundredhostagesweresentintoGermany，andtheinhabitantsweredispersedinfourvillages，undertheyokeoftheinflexibleconqueror。^147ButMilansoonrosefromherashes；andtheleagueofLombardywascementedbydistress:theircausewasespousedbyVenice，PopeAlexandertheThird，andtheGreekemperor:thefabricofoppressionwasoverturnedinaday；andinthetreatyofConstance，Fredericsubscribed，withsomereservations，thefreedomoffour—and—twentycities。Hisgrandsoncontendedwiththeirvigorandmaturity；butFrederictheSecond^148wasendowedwithsomepersonalandpeculiaradvantages。HisbirthandeducationrecommendedhimtotheItalians；andintheimplacablediscordofthetwofactions，theGhibelinswereattachedtotheemperor，whiletheGuelfsdisplayedthebanneroflibertyandthechurch。ThecourtofRomehadslumbered，whenhisfatherHenrytheSixthwaspermittedtounitewiththeempirethekingdomsofNaplesandSicily；andfromthesehereditaryrealmsthesonderivedanampleandreadysupplyoftroopsandtreasure。YetFrederictheSecondwasfinallyoppressedbythearmsoftheLombardsandthethundersoftheVatican:hiskingdomwasgiventoastranger，andthelastofhisfamilywasbeheadedatNaplesonapublicscaffold。Duringsixtyyears，noemperorappearedinItaly，andthenamewasrememberedonlybytheignominioussaleofthelastrelicsofsovereignty。
[Footnote146:GuntherLigurinus，l。viii。584，etseq。，apudSchmidt，tom。iii。p。399。]
[Footnote147:Solusimperatorfaciemsuamfirmavitutpetram，Burcard。deExcidioMediolani，Script。Ital。tom。vi。p。917。
ThisvolumeofMuratoricontainstheoriginalsofthehistoryofFrederictheFirst，whichmustbecomparedwithdueregardtothecircumstancesandprejudicesofeachGermanorLombardwriter。
Note:VonRaumerhastracedthefortunesoftheSwabianhouseinoneoftheablesthistoricalworksofmoderntimes。HemaybecomparedwiththespiritedandindependentSismondi。—M。]
[Footnote148:ForthehistoryofFredericII。andthehouseofSwabiaatNaples，seeGiannone，IstoriaCivile，tom。ii。l。xiv。
—xix。]
TheBarbarianconquerorsoftheWestwerepleasedtodecoratetheirchiefwiththetitleofemperor；butitwasnottheirdesigntoinvesthimwiththedespotismofConstantineandJustinian。ThepersonsoftheGermanswerefree，theirconquestsweretheirown，andtheirnationalcharacterwasanimatedbyaspiritwhichscornedtheservilejurisprudenceofthenewortheancientRome。Itwouldhavebeenavainanddangerousattempttoimposeamonarchonthearmedfreemen，whowereimpatientofamagistrate；onthebold，whorefusedtoobey；onthepowerful，whoaspiredtocommand。TheempireofCharlemagneandOthowasdistributedamongthedukesofthenationsorprovinces，thecountsofthesmallerdistricts，andthemargravesofthemarchesorfrontiers，whoallunitedthecivilandmilitaryauthorityasithadbeendelegatedtothelieutenantsofthefirstCaesars。
TheRomangovernors，who，forthemostpart，weresoldiersoffortune，seducedtheirmercenarylegions，assumedtheImperialpurple，andeitherfailedorsucceededintheirrevolt，withoutwoundingthepowerandunityofgovernment。Ifthedukes，margraves，andcountsofGermany，werelessaudaciousintheirclaims，theconsequencesoftheirsuccessweremorelastingandpernicioustothestate。Insteadofaimingatthesupremerank，theysilentlylaboredtoestablishandappropriatetheirprovincialindependence。Theirambitionwassecondedbytheweightoftheirestatesandvassals，theirmutualexampleandsupport，thecommoninterestofthesubordinatenobility，thechangeofprincesandfamilies，theminoritiesofOthotheThirdandHenrytheFourth，theambitionofthepopes，andthevainpursuitofthefugitivecrownsofItalyandRome。Alltheattributesofregalandterritorialjurisdictionweregraduallyusurpedbythecommandersoftheprovinces；therightofpeaceandwar，oflifeanddeath，ofcoinageandtaxation，offoreignallianceanddomesticeconomy。Whateverhadbeenseizedbyviolence，wasratifiedbyfavorordistress，wasgrantedasthepriceofadoubtfulvoteoravoluntaryservice；whateverhadbeengrantedtoonecouldnot，withoutinjury，bedeniedtohissuccessororequal；andeveryactoflocalortemporarypossessionwasinsensiblymouldedintotheconstitutionoftheGermanickingdom。Ineveryprovince，thevisiblepresenceofthedukeorcountwasinterposedbetweenthethroneandthenobles；
thesubjectsofthelawbecamethevassalsofaprivatechief；
andthestandardwhichhereceivedfromhissovereign，wasoftenraisedagainsthiminthefield。ThetemporalpoweroftheclergywascherishedandexaltedbythesuperstitionorpolicyoftheCarlovingianandSaxondynasties，whoblindlydependedontheirmoderationandfidelity；andthebishopricsofGermanyweremadeequalinextentandprivilege，superiorinwealthandpopulation，tothemostamplestatesofthemilitaryorder。Aslongastheemperorsretainedtheprerogativeofbestowingoneveryvacancytheseecclesiasticandsecularbenefices，theircausewasmaintainedbythegratitudeorambitionoftheirfriendsandfavorites。Butinthequarreloftheinvestitures，theyweredeprivedoftheirinfluenceovertheepiscopalchapters；thefreedomofelectionwasrestored，andthesovereignwasreduced，byasolemnmockery，tohisfirstprayers，therecommendation，onceinhisreign，toasingleprebendineachchurch。Theseculargovernors，insteadofbeingrecalledatthewillofasuperior，couldbedegradedonlybythesentenceoftheirpeers。Inthefirstageofthemonarchy，theappointmentofthesontotheduchyorcountyofhisfather，wassolicitedasafavor；itwasgraduallyobtainedasacustom，andextortedasaright:thelinealsuccessionwasoftenextendedtothecollateralorfemalebranches；thestatesoftheempiretheirpopular，andatlengththeirlegal，appellationweredividedandalienatedbytestamentandsale；andallideaofapublictrustwaslostinthatofaprivateandperpetualinheritance。Theemperorcouldnotevenbeenrichedbythecasualtiesofforfeitureandextinction:withinthetermofayear，hewasobligedtodisposeofthevacantfief；and，inthechoiceofthecandidate，itwashisdutytoconsulteitherthegeneralortheprovincialdiet。
AfterthedeathofFrederictheSecond，Germanywasleftamonsterwithahundredheads。Acrowdofprincesandprelatesdisputedtheruinsoftheempire:thelordsofinnumerablecastleswerelesspronetoobey，thantoimitate，theirsuperiors；and，accordingtothemeasureoftheirstrength，theirincessanthostilitiesreceivedthenamesofconquestorrobbery。
SuchanarchywastheinevitableconsequenceofthelawsandmannersofEurope；andthekingdomsofFranceandItalywereshiveredintofragmentsbytheviolenceofthesametempest。ButtheItaliancitiesandtheFrenchvassalsweredividedanddestroyed，whiletheunionoftheGermanshasproduced，underthenameofanempire，agreatsystemofafederativerepublic。Inthefrequentandatlasttheperpetualinstitutionofdiets，anationalspiritwaskeptalive，andthepowersofacommonlegislaturearestillexercisedbythethreebranchesorcollegesoftheelectors，theprinces，andthefreeandImperialcitiesofGermany。I。Sevenofthemostpowerfulfeudatorieswerepermittedtoassume，withadistinguishednameandrank，theexclusiveprivilegeofchoosingtheRomanemperor；andtheseelectorswerethekingofBohemia，thedukeofSaxony，themargraveofBrandenburgh，thecountpalatineoftheRhine，andthethreearchbishopsofMentz，ofTreves，andofCologne。II。
Thecollegeofprincesandprelatespurgedthemselvesofapromiscuousmultitude:theyreducedtofourrepresentativevotesthelongseriesofindependentcounts，andexcludedthenoblesorequestrianorder，sixtythousandofwhom，asinthePolishdiets，hadappearedonhorsebackinthefieldofelection。III。Theprideofbirthanddominion，oftheswordandthemitre，wiselyadoptedthecommonsasthethirdbranchofthelegislature，and，intheprogressofsociety，theywereintroducedaboutthesameaeraintothenationalassembliesofFranceEngland，andGermany。
TheHanseaticLeaguecommandedthetradeandnavigationofthenorth:theconfederatesoftheRhinesecuredthepeaceandintercourseoftheinlandcountry；theinfluenceofthecitieshasbeenadequatetotheirwealthandpolicy，andtheirnegativestillinvalidatestheactsofthetwosuperiorcollegesofelectorsandprinces。^149
[Footnote149:IntheimmenselabyrinthofthejuspublicumofGermany，Imusteitherquoteonewriterorathousand；andIhadrathertrusttoonefaithfulguide，thantranscribe，oncredit，amultitudeofnamesandpassages。ThatguideisM。Pfeffel，theauthorofthebestlegalandconstitutionalhistorythatIknowofanycountry，NouvelAbregeChronologiquedel'HistoireetduDroitpublicAllemagne；Paris，1776，2vols。in4to。Hislearningandjudgmenthavediscernedthemostinterestingfacts；
hissimplebrevitycomprisestheminanarrowspace。Hischronologicalorderdistributesthemundertheproperdates；andanelaborateindexcollectsthemundertheirrespectiveheads。
Tothiswork，inalessperfectstate，Dr。RobertsonwasgratefullyindebtedforthatmasterlysketchwhichtraceseventhemodernchangesoftheGermanicbody。TheCorpusHistoriaeGermanicaeofStruviushasbeenlikewiseconsulted，themoreusefully，asthathugecompilationisfortifiedineverypagewiththeoriginaltexts。
Note:FortheriseandprogressoftheHanseaticLeague，consulttheauthoritativehistorybySartorius；GeschichtedesHanseatischenBandes&Theile，Gottingen，1802。NewandimprovededitionbyLappenbergElamburg，1830。TheoriginalHanseaticLeaguecomprehendedCologneandmanyofthegreatcitiesintheNetherlandsandontheRhine。—M。]
ItisinthefourteenthcenturythatwemayviewinthestrongestlightthestateandcontrastoftheRomanempireofGermany，whichnolongerheld，exceptonthebordersoftheRhineandDanube，asingleprovinceofTrajanorConstantine。TheirunworthysuccessorswerethecountsofHapsburgh，ofNassau，ofLuxemburgh，andSchwartzenburgh:theemperorHenrytheSeventhprocuredforhissonthecrownofBohemia，andhisgrandsonCharlestheFourthwasbornamongapeoplestrangeandbarbarousintheestimationoftheGermansthemselves。^150AftertheexcommunicationofLewisofBavaria，hereceivedthegiftorpromiseofthevacantempirefromtheRomanpontiffs，who，intheexileandcaptivityofAvignon，affectedthedominionoftheearth。Thedeathofhiscompetitorsunitedtheelectoralcollege，andCharleswasunanimouslysalutedkingoftheRomans，andfutureemperor；atitlewhich，inthesameage，wasprostitutedtotheCaesarsofGermanyandGreece。TheGermanemperorwasnomorethantheelectiveandimpotentmagistrateofanaristocracyofprinces，whohadnotlefthimavillagethathemightcallhisown。Hisbestprerogativewastherightofpresidingandproposinginthenationalsenate，whichwasconvenedathissummons；andhisnativekingdomofBohemia，lessopulentthantheadjacentcityofNuremberg，wasthefirmestseatofhispowerandtherichestsourceofhisrevenue。ThearmywithwhichhepassedtheAlpsconsistedofthreehundredhorse。