Opp。tom。i。p。175—268。Theinterpretationoftheassesorcentesimoeusuroeattwelve，theunciarioeatonepercent。，ismaintainedbythebestcriticsandcivilians:Noodt，l。ii。c。
2，p。207，Gravina，Opp。p。205，&c。，210，Heineccius，Antiquitat。adInstitut。l。iii。tit。xv。，Montesquieu，EspritdesLoix，l。xxii。c。22，tom。ii。p。36。Defensedel'EspritdesLoix，tom。iii。p。478，&c。，andaboveall，JohnFredericGronoviusdePecuniaVeteri，l。iii。c。13，p。213—227，andhisthreeAntexegeses，p。455—655，thefounder，oratleastthechampion，ofthisprobableopinion；whichis，however，perplexedwithsomedifficulties。]
[Footnote164:Primoxii。Tabulissancitumestnequisunciariofoenoreampliusexerceret，Tacit。Annal。vi。16。PourpeusaysMontesquieu，EspritdesLoix，l。xxii。22qu'onsoitversedansl'histoiredeRome，onverraqu'unepareilleloinedevoitpasetrel'ouvragedesdecemvirs。WasTacitusignorant—orstupid?
Butthewiserandmorevirtuouspatriciansmightsacrificetheiravaricetotheirambition，andmightattempttochecktheodiouspracticebysuchinterestasnolenderwouldaccept，andsuchpenaltiesasnodebtorwouldincur。
Note:Therealnatureofthefoenusunciariumhasbeenproved；itamountedinayearoftwelvemonthstotenpercent。
See，intheMagazineforCivilLaw，byM。Hugo，vol。v。p。180，184，anarticleofM。Schrader，followinguptheconjecturesofNiebuhr，Hist。Rom。tom。ii。p。431。—W。
CompareaveryclearaccountofthisquestionintheappendixtoMr。TraversTwiss'sEpitomeofNiebuhr，vol。ii。p。
257。—M。]
[Footnote165:JustinianhasnotcondescendedtogiveusuryaplaceinhisInstitutes；butthenecessaryrulesandrestrictionsareinsertedinthePandectsl。xxii。tit。i。ii。andtheCode，l。iv。tit。xxxii。xxxiii。]
[Footnote166:TheFathersareunanimous，Barbeyrac，MoraledesPeres，p。144。&c。:Cyprian，Lactantius，Basil，Chrysostom，seehisfrivolousargumentsinNoodt，l。i。c。7，p。188，GregoryofNyssa，Ambrose，Jerom，Augustin，andahostofcouncilsandcasuists。]
[Footnote167:Cato，Seneca，Plutarch，haveloudlycondemnedthepracticeorabuseofusury。Accordingtotheetymologyoffoenus，theprincipalissupposedtogeneratetheinterest:abreedofbarrenmetal，exclaimsShakespeare—andthestageistheechoofthepublicvoice。]
3。Natureandsocietyimposethestrictobligationofrepairinganinjury；andthesuffererbyprivateinjusticeacquiresapersonalrightandalegitimateaction。Ifthepropertyofanotherbeintrustedtoourcare，therequisitedegreeofcaremayriseandfallaccordingtothebenefitwhichwederivefromsuchtemporarypossession；weareseldommaderesponsibleforinevitableaccident，buttheconsequencesofavoluntaryfaultmustalwaysbeimputedtotheauthor。^168A
Romanpursuedandrecoveredhisstolengoodsbyacivilactionoftheft；theymightpassthroughasuccessionofpureandinnocenthands，butnothinglessthanaprescriptionofthirtyyearscouldextinguishhisoriginalclaim。Theywererestoredbythesentenceofthepraetor，andtheinjurywascompensatedbydouble，orthreefold，orevenquadrupledamages，asthedeedhadbeenperpetratedbysecretfraudoropenrapine，astherobberhadbeensurprisedinthefact，ordetectedbyasubsequentresearch。TheAquilianlaw^169defendedthelivingpropertyofacitizen，hisslavesandcattle，fromthestrokeofmaliceornegligence:thehighestpricewasallowedthatcouldbeascribedtothedomesticanimalatanymomentoftheyearprecedinghisdeath；asimilarlatitudeofthirtydayswasgrantedonthedestructionofanyothervaluableeffects。Apersonalinjuryisbluntedorsharpenedbythemannersofthetimesandthesensibilityoftheindividual:thepainorthedisgraceofawordorblowcannoteasilybeappreciatedbyapecuniaryequivalent。
Therudejurisprudenceofthedecemvirshadconfoundedallhastyinsults，whichdidnotamounttothefractureofalimb，bycondemningtheaggressortothecommonpenaltyoftwenty—fiveasses。Butthesamedenominationofmoneywasreduced，inthreecenturies，fromapoundtotheweightofhalfanounce:andtheinsolenceofawealthyRomanindulgedhimselfinthecheapamusementofbreakingandsatisfyingthelawofthetwelvetables。Veratiusranthroughthestreetsstrikingonthefacetheinoffensivepassengers，andhisattendantpurse—bearerimmediatelysilencedtheirclamorsbythelegaltenderoftwenty—fivepiecesofcopper，aboutthevalueofoneshilling。
^170Theequityofthepraetorsexaminedandestimatedthedistinctmeritsofeachparticularcomplaint。Intheadjudicationofcivildamages，themagistrateassumedarighttoconsiderthevariouscircumstancesoftimeandplace，ofageanddignity，whichmayaggravatetheshameandsufferingsoftheinjuredperson；butifheadmittedtheideaofafine，apunishment，anexample，heinvadedtheprovince，though，perhaps，hesuppliedthedefects，ofthecriminallaw。
[Footnote168:SirWilliamJoneshasgivenaningeniousandrationalEssayonthelawofBailment，London，1781，p。127，in8vo。Heisperhapstheonlylawyerequallyconversantwiththeyear—booksofWestminster，theCommentariesofUlpian，theAtticpleadingsofIsaeus，andthesentencesofArabianandPersiancadhis。]
[Footnote169:NoodtOpp。tom。i。p。137—172hascomposedaseparatetreatise，adLegemAquilian，Pandect。l。ix。tit。ii。]
[Footnote170:AulusGelliusNoct。Attic。xx。i。borrowedthisstoryfromtheCommentariesofQ。Labeoonthexii。tables。]
TheexecutionoftheAlbandictator，whowasdismemberedbyeighthorses，isrepresentedbyLivyasthefirstandthefastinstanceofRomancrueltyinthepunishmentofthemostatrociouscrimes。^171Butthisactofjustice，orrevenge，wasinflictedonaforeignenemyintheheatofvictory，andatthecommandofasingleman。Thetwelvetablesaffordamoredecisiveproofofthenationalspirit，sincetheywereframedbythewisestofthesenate，andacceptedbythefreevoicesofthepeople；yettheselaws，likethestatutesofDraco，^172arewrittenincharactersofblood。^173Theyapprovetheinhumanandunequalprincipleofretaliation；andtheforfeitofaneyeforaneye，atoothforatooth，alimbforalimb，isrigorouslyexacted，unlesstheoffendercanredeemhispardonbyafineofthreehundredpoundsofcopper。Thedecemvirsdistributedwithmuchliberalitytheslighterchastisementsofflagellationandservitude；andninecrimesofaverydifferentcomplexionareadjudgedworthyofdeath。
1。Anyactoftreasonagainstthestate，orofcorrespondencewiththepublicenemy。Themodeofexecutionwaspainfulandignominious:theheadofthedegenerateRomanwasshroudedinaveil，hishandsweretiedbehindhisback，andafterhehadbeenscourgedbythelictor，hewassuspendedinthemidstoftheforumonacross，orinauspicioustree。
2。Nocturnalmeetingsinthecity；whatevermightbethepretence，ofpleasure，orreligion，orthepublicgood。
3。Themurderofacitizen；forwhichthecommonfeelingsofmankinddemandthebloodofthemurderer。Poisonisstillmoreodiousthantheswordordagger；andwearesurprisedtodiscover，intwoflagitiousevents，howearlysuchsubtlewickednesshadinfectedthesimplicityoftherepublic，andthechastevirtuesoftheRomanmatrons。^174Theparricide，whoviolatedthedutiesofnatureandgratitude，wascastintotheriverorthesea，enclosedinasack；andacock，aviper，adog，andamonkey，weresuccessivelyadded，asthemostsuitablecompanions。^175Italyproducesnomonkeys；butthewantcouldneverbefelt，tillthemiddleofthesixthcenturyfirstrevealedtheguiltofaparricide。^176
4。Themaliceofanincendiary。Afterthepreviousceremonyofwhipping，hehimselfwasdeliveredtotheflames；andinthisexamplealoneourreasonistemptedtoapplaudthejusticeofretaliation。
5。Judicialperjury。ThecorruptormaliciouswitnesswasthrownheadlongfromtheTarpeianrock，toexpiatehisfalsehood，whichwasrenderedstillmorefatalbytheseverityofthepenallaws，andthedeficiencyofwrittenevidence。
6。Thecorruptionofajudge，whoacceptedbribestopronounceaniniquitoussentence。
7。Libelsandsatires，whoserudestrainssometimesdisturbedthepeaceofanilliteratecity。Theauthorwasbeatenwithclubs，aworthychastisement，butitisnotcertainthathewaslefttoexpireundertheblowsoftheexecutioner。^177
8。Thenocturnalmischiefofdamagingordestroyinganeighbor'scorn。ThecriminalwassuspendedasagratefulvictimtoCeres。Butthesylvandeitieswerelessimplacable，andtheextirpationofamorevaluabletreewascompensatedbythemoderatefineoftwenty—fivepoundsofcopper。
9。Magicalincantations；whichhadpower，intheopinionoftheLatinshepherds，toexhaustthestrengthofanenemy，toextinguishhislife，andtoremovefromtheirseatshisdeep—rootedplantations。
Thecrueltyofthetwelvetablesagainstinsolventdebtorsstillremainstobetold；andIshalldaretoprefertheliteralsenseofantiquitytothespeciousrefinementsofmoderncriticism。
^178Afterthejudicialprooforconfessionofthedebt，thirtydaysofgracewereallowedbeforeaRomanwasdeliveredintothepowerofhisfellow—citizen。Inthisprivateprison，twelveouncesofricewerehisdailyfood；hemightbeboundwithachainoffifteenpoundsweight；andhismiserywasthriceexposedinthemarketplace，tosolicitthecompassionofhisfriendsandcountrymen。Attheexpirationofsixtydays，thedebtwasdischargedbythelossoflibertyorlife；theinsolventdebtorwaseitherputtodeath，orsoldinforeignslaverybeyondtheTyber:but，ifseveralcreditorswerealikeobstinateandunrelenting，theymightlegallydismemberhisbody，andsatiatetheirrevengebythishorridpartition。Theadvocatesforthissavagelawhaveinsisted，thatitmuststronglyoperateindeterringidlenessandfraudfromcontractingdebtswhichtheywereunabletodischarge；butexperiencewoulddissipatethissalutaryterror，byprovingthatnocreditorcouldbefoundtoexactthisunprofitablepenaltyoflifeorlimb。AsthemannersofRomewereinsensiblypolished，thecriminalcodeofthedecemvirswasabolishedbythehumanityofaccusers，witnesses，andjudges；andimpunitybecametheconsequenceofimmoderaterigor。ThePorcianandValerianlawsprohibitedthemagistratesfrominflictingonafreecitizenanycapital，orevencorporal，punishment；andtheobsoletestatutesofbloodwereartfully，andperhapstruly，ascribedtothespirit，notofpatrician，butofregal，tyranny。
[Footnote171:ThenarrativeofLivyi。28isweightyandsolemn。Attu，Albane，maneres，isaharshreflection，unworthyofVirgil'shumanity，Aeneid，viii。643。Heyne，withhisusualgoodtaste，observesthatthesubjectwastoohorridfortheshieldofAencas，tom。iii。p。229。]
[Footnote172:TheageofDracoOlympiadxxxix。lisfixedbySirJohnMarshamCanonChronicus，p。593—596andCorsini，FastiAttici，tom。iii。p。62。Forhislaws，seethewritersonthegovernmentofAthens，Sigonius，Meursius，Potter，&c。]
[Footnote173:Theviith，dedelictis，ofthexii。tablesisdelineatedbyGravina，Opp。p。292，293，withacommentary，p。
214—230。AulusGelliusxx。1andtheCollatioLegumMosaicarumetRomanarumaffordmuchoriginalinformation。]
[Footnote174:Livymentionstworemarkableandflagitiousaeras，of3000personsaccused，andof190noblematronsconvicted，ofthecrimeofpoisoning，xl。43，viii。18。Mr。Humediscriminatestheagesofprivateandpublicvirtue，Essays，vol。i。p。22，23。IwouldrathersaythatsuchebullitionsofmischiefasinFranceintheyear1680areaccidentsandprodigieswhichleavenomarksonthemannersofanation。]
[Footnote175:Thexii。tablesandCiceroproRoscioAmerino，c。
25，26arecontentwiththesack；SenecaExcerpt。Controvers。v4adornsitwithserpents；Juvenalpitiestheguiltlessmonkeyinnoxiasimia—156。AdrianapudDositheumMagistrum，l。iii。
c。p。874—876，withSchulting'sNote，Modestinus，Pandect。
xlviii。tit。ix。leg。9，Constantine，Cod。l。ix。tit。xvii。，
andJustinian，Institut。l。iv。tit。xviii。，enumerateallthecompanionsoftheparricide。Butthisfancifulexecutionwassimplifiedinpractice。Hodietamenvivexurunturveladbestiasdantur，Paul。Sentent。Recept。l。v。tit。xxivp。512，edit。
Schulting。]
[Footnote176:ThefirstparricideatRomewasL。Ostius，afterthesecondPunicwar，Plutarch，inRomulo，tom。i。p。54。
DuringtheCimbric，P。Malleoluswasguiltyofthefirstmatricide，Liv。Epitom。l。lxviii。]
[Footnote177:Horacetalksoftheformidinefustis，l。ii。
epist。ii。154，butCicerodeRepublica，l。iv。apudAugustin。
deCivitat。Dei，ix。6，inFragment。Philosoph。tom。iii。p。393，edit。Olivetaffirmsthatthedecemvirsmadelibelsacapitaloffence:cumperpaucasrescapitesanxisent—perpaucus!]
[Footnote178:BynkershoekObservat。JurisRom。l。i。c。1，inOpp。tom。i。p。9，10，11laborstoprovethatthecreditorsdividednotthebody，buttheprice，oftheinsolventdebtor。
Yethisinterpretationisoneperpetualharshmetaphor；norcanhesurmounttheRomanauthoritiesofQuintilian，Caecilius，Favonius，andTertullian。SeeAulusGellius，Noct。Attic。xxi。]
[Footnote*:HugoHistoireduDroitRomain，tom。i。p。234
concurswithGibbonSeeNiebuhr，vol。ii。p。313。—M。]
Intheabsenceofpenallaws，andtheinsufficiencyofcivilactions，thepeaceandjusticeofthecitywereimperfectlymaintainedbytheprivatejurisdictionofthecitizens。Themalefactorswhoreplenishourjailsaretheoutcastsofsociety，andthecrimesforwhichtheysuffermaybecommonlyascribedtoignorance，poverty，andbrutalappetite。Fortheperpetrationofsimilarenormities，avileplebeianmightclaimandabusethesacredcharacterofamemberoftherepublic:but，ontheprooforsuspicionofguilt，theslave，orthestranger，wasnailedtoacross；andthisstrictandsummaryjusticemightbeexercisedwithoutrestraintoverthegreatestpartofthepopulaceofRome。
Eachfamilycontainedadomestictribunal，whichwasnotconfined，likethatofthepraetor，tothecognizanceofexternalactions:virtuousprinciplesandhabitswereinculcatedbythedisciplineofeducation；andtheRomanfatherwasaccountabletothestateforthemannersofhischildren，sincehedisposed，withoutappeal，oftheirlife，theirliberty，andtheirinheritance。Insomepressingemergencies，thecitizenwasauthorizedtoavengehisprivateorpublicwrongs。TheconsentoftheJewish，theAthenian，andtheRomanlawsapprovedtheslaughterofthenocturnalthief；thoughinopendaylightarobbercouldnotbeslainwithoutsomepreviousevidenceofdangerandcomplaint。Whoeversurprisedanadultererinhisnuptialbedmightfreelyexercisehisrevenge；^179themostbloodyandwantonoutragewasexcusedbytheprovocation；^180
norwasitbeforethereignofAugustusthatthehusbandwasreducedtoweightherankoftheoffender，orthattheparentwascondemnedtosacrificehisdaughterwithherguiltyseducer。
Aftertheexpulsionofthekings，theambitiousRoman，whoshoulddaretoassumetheirtitleorimitatetheirtyranny，wasdevotedtotheinfernalgods:eachofhisfellow—citizenswasarmedwiththeswordofjustice；andtheactofBrutus，howeverrepugnanttogratitudeorprudence，hadbeenalreadysanctifiedbythejudgmentofhiscountry。^181Thebarbarouspracticeofwearingarmsinthemidstofpeace，^182andthebloodymaximsofhonor，wereunknowntotheRomans；and，duringthetwopurestages，fromtheestablishmentofequalfreedomtotheendofthePunicwars，thecitywasneverdisturbedbysedition，andrarelypollutedwithatrociouscrimes。Thefailureofpenallawswasmoresensiblyfelt，wheneveryvicewasinflamedbyfactionathomeanddominionabroad。InthetimeofCicero，eachprivatecitizenenjoyedtheprivilegeofanarchy；eachministeroftherepublicwasexaltedtothetemptationsofregalpower，andtheirvirtuesareentitledtothewarmestpraise，asthespontaneousfruitsofnatureorphilosophy。Afteratriennialindulgenceoflust，rapine，andcruelty，Verres，thetyrantofSicily，couldonlybesuedforthepecuniaryrestitutionofthreehundredthousandpoundssterling；andsuchwasthetemperofthelaws，thejudges，andperhapstheaccuserhimself，^183that，onrefundingathirteenthpartofhisplunder，Verrescouldretiretoaneasyandluxuriousexile。^184
[Footnote179:ThefirstspeechofLysiasReiske，Orator。Graec。
tom。v。p。2—48isindefenceofahusbandwhohadkilledtheadulterer。TherightsofhusbandsandfathersatRomeandAthensarediscussedwithmuchlearningbyDr。Taylor，LectionesLysiacae，c。xi。inReiske，tom。vi。p。301—308。]
[Footnote180:SeeCasaubonadAthenaeum，l。i。c。5，p。19。
Percurrentraphaniquemugilesque，Catull。p。41，42，edit。
Vossian。Huncmugilisintrat，Juvenal。Satir。x。317。Huncperminxerecalones，Horatl。i。Satir。ii。44。Familiaestuprandumdedit……fraudinonfuit，Val。Maxim。l。vi。c。l，No。13。]
[Footnote181:ThislawisnoticedbyLivyii。8andPlutarch，inPubliccla，tom。i。p。187，anditfullyjustifiesthepublicopiniononthedeathofCaesarwhichSuetoniuscouldpublishundertheImperialgovernment。Jurecaesusexistimatur，inJulio，c。76。ReadthelettersthatpassedbetweenCiceroandMatiusafewmonthsaftertheidesofMarchadFam。xi。27，28。]