change，thegovernmentshavejoinedheartily。Awishtoextendtheauthorityandprotectionofthegeneralgovernmentover
themassofcultivators，andtoincreasetheirefficiency，andthroughthatthewealthandfinancialresourcesofthestate，has
ledthedifferentsovereignsalwaystoco-operate，andoftentotakethelead，inputtinganendtothepersonaldependenceof
theserf；andmodifyingthetermsofhistenure。Tothesereasonsofthesovereignsandlandlords，dictatedbyobvious
self-interest，wemustaddothermotiveswhichdohonortotheircharactersandtotheage，theexistenceofwhichitwould
beamereaffectationofhard-heartedwisdomtodoubt；namely，apaternaldesireonthepartofsovereignstoelevatethe
condition，andincreasethecomforts，ofthemostnumerousclassofthehumanbeingscommitted
totheircharge；anda
philanthropicdislikeonthepartoftheproprietorstobesurroundedbyaraceofwretcheddependents，whosedegradation
andmiseryreflectdiscreditonthemselves。Thesefeelingshaveproducedthefermentationonthesubjectoflaborrents，
whichisatthismomentworkingthroughoutthelargedivisionofEuropeinwhichtheyprevail。Fromthecrownlandsin
Russia，throughPoland，41Hungary，andGermany，therehavebeenwithinthelastcentury，orarenow，plansandschemes
onfoot，eitheratonceorgraduallytogetridofthetenure，orgreatlytomodifyitseffects，andimproveitscharacter；andif
thewishes，ortheauthority，ofthestate，oroftheproprietors，couldabolishthesystemandsubstituteabetterinitsplace，it
wouldvanishfromthefaceofEurope。Theactualpovertyoftheserfs，however，andthedegradationoftheirhabitsof
industry，presentaninsurmountableobstacletoanygeneralchangewhichistobecompleteandsudden。Intheirimperfect
civilizationandhalfsavagecarelessness，thenecessityoriginatedwhichforcedproprietorsthemselvestoraise，theproduce
onwhichtheirfamiliesweretosubsist。Thatnecessityhasnotceased；thetenantryarenotyetripeinsomeinstances，not
riperthantheywere1000yearsagotobeentrustedwiththeresponsibilityofraisingandpayingproducerents。Butasthe
pastprogressandactualcircumstancesofdifferentdistrictsarefoundunlike，sotheircapacityforpresentchangediffersin
kindanddegree。Hencethegreatvarietyobservableinplansforalteringtherelationsbetween
theserftenantryandtheir
landlords。SuchavarietyisexhibitedintheUrbariumofMariaTheresa，intheedictbywhichtheviewsoftheLivonian
nobilityweremadelaw；intheconstitutionofPoland，andinthedecreesofthesovereignsofsmallerdistricts。The
ameliorationsproducedbythesestepsarevaluable，if，afterhavingworkedsuccessfullyforsometime，theypreparetheway
fortwogreatmeasureswhicharetheaimofallpartiesinamoreadvancedstateofsociety，thatis，first，thegeneral
commutationoftherevenuederivedfromtheallotmentsoftheserfsintoproducerents，andthen，theestablishmentonthe
domainsheldbytheproprietorsthemselvesofaraceoftenantryabletorelievethemfromthetask
ofcultivation，andtopay
eitherproduceormoneyrents。Buttheseresultsaredifficultanddistant。Themannerinwhichsuchachangewaseffectedin
England，isthatinwhichitismosteasyandsafe。Itwasthegrowthofcenturies；ittookplaceinsensibly:thevilleinswe
knowgraduallyassumedthecharacterofcopyholderspayingfixeddues，whichagainwereslowlycommutedformoney:in
themeantime，thegrowthofthefreepopulationmultipliedthenumbersofhiredlaborers，bywhoseassistancethe
proprietorsmightcultivatetheirdomains，withoutserflabor；andtheincreaseandprogressiveprosperityofanintermediate
classofagriculturalcapitalistssupplied，afteralonginterval，araceofmenfittedtorelievetheproprietorsfromthecharge
ofagriculturealtogether，andenabledtopaytheirrentsinmoneyfromtheincreaseofinternalcommerce，andofthemarket
providedbynon-agriculturalclassesfortheirproduce。Aprocesssimilartothishasbeengoingoninthewesternpartof
Germany，thoughitisyetfarindeedfrombeingcompletethere。TheenslavedserfhasbecomeafreeLeibeigenerwithfixed
services:theLeibeigenerischanginggraduallyintoameyer，whoseservicesarecommutedforproduceormoney；some
few42freelaborersexist，andarehiredbytheproprietorswhofarmtheirdomains；andofthesedomainsanewraceof
tenantryareinsomeinstancesbeginningtotakepossession，advancingthenecessarycapital，payingmoneyrents，anddischargingtheland-ownersfromallshareinthetaskofcultivation。Inthemeantime，itisnotsurprisingthatthesovereignsandproprietorsofcountriesfurthereast，whoseethisprocess
hardlybegunamongstthemselves，andknowthatitmaytakecenturiestocompleteitself，shouldfeelimpatientofsuchdelayinthecareeroftheirimprovement，anddetermineforciblytoanticipatetheslowadvanceofunpurposedchange。ThePrussiangovernmenthastakenthemostdecisiveandextensivemeasuresinthisspirit。Throughoutagreatpartof
Prussia，theserfshadacquiredprescriptiverights，eithertothehereditarypossessionoftheirallotments，ortothe
occupationofthemforlife；rights，whichthoughimperfect，madeanymarkedchangedifficult。Todeclaretheserfsmere
tenantsatwill，wouldhavehadtheappearanceofgreatharshness，andcouldnotprobablyhavebeen
attemptedonalarge
scale，withoutviolenceandconvulsion。Todeclarethemproprietorsofthesoiltheyoccupied，wasnotdoingjusticetothe
fairclaimsofthelandowners。Thegovernmentsteeredamiddlecourse。In1811laborrentstotheeastoftheElbewere
suppressed，anditwasdecided，thatthepeasantswhohadacquiredanhereditaryrighttotheirallotmentsshouldpaythe
proprietorsathirdoftheproduce:thatthosewhohadonlyaclaimtoalifeholdpossessionshouldpayhalftheproduce:thepeasantsweretofindallcapitalandtopayallexpencesandtaxes。43Theserentsareheavy:halftheproduce，thetenantsprovidingcapitalandpayingallexpences，istheheaviestrentknownin
Europe，。withtheexceptionofthosepaidbytheNeapolitanmetayers，whosesoilwillbearnocomparisonwiththePrussian
sands，andisinfactunrivalledforproductivenessandeasytillage。Itisnotsurprisingthatsomeoftheserfsshouldhave
declinedtoaccedetothearrangement，althoughitdeliveredthemfromastateofvirtual44bondage，andguaranteedtheirrighttopossession。Twogreatobjectsweresoughtbythisarrangement；theimprovementoftheconditionofthepeasantry，andthepromotion。
ofgoodagricultureamongtheproprietors。Itsimmediateeffectshavebeentodividethesurfaceofthecountrybetweena
raceofsmallproprietorssubjecttoaheavyrentcharge，andabodyoflargelandholdersfarmingtheirowndomains。That
theconditionofthepeasantswillbeatfirstimproved，supposingthemnottobeweigheddownbytherents，issufficiently
clear；theirfutureprogress，however，justifiessomeapprehensions:theyareexactlyintheconditioninwhichtheanimal
disposition45toincreasetheirnumbersischeckedbythefewestofthosebalancingmotivesanddesireswhichregulatethe
increaseofsuperiorranksorofmorecivilizedpeople，andifthetoogreatsubdivision
oftheirallotmentsisnotguarded
againstintime，theywillprobably，inthecourseofaveryfewgenerations，bemoremiserablethantheirancestorswereas
serfs，andwillcertainlybemorehopelessandhelplessintheirmisery，sincetheywillhavenolandlordtoresortto。Inthe
meantimearaceoffreelaborerswilldoubtlessspringup，withwhoseassistancetheproprietorsmayinstituteabetter
courseofhusbandryontheirdomains，buttheywillstillhavetoprovidecapital，attention，andscience，andinthetwofirstof
theseitistobefearedthat，asabody，theywillalwaysbedeficient。Moreadvancesmustbemadebytheminmoneythan
whentheycultivatedwiththeassistanceoftheirserfs，andthiscircumstancewillincreasetheirdifficultiesandmultiplythe
chancesoftheirfailure。Afterall，thetaskofcultivationisungenialtothem。Theirobjectswithneverbefullyattainedtilla
raceoftenantryappears，abletoadvancethenecessarycapitalandundertakeforamoneyrent。Thesearelikelytoappear
slowlyinPrussia，eventhoughtheyshouldappeartheremuchlessslowlythaninsomeofthesurroundingnations。Thebody
ofthepeasants，itistolerablyevidentalready，willnotgrowrichenoughtosupplythem，andtheymustspringoutofthe
bosomofotherclasses。Thecomparativenumbers，andthereforejointwealthofthese，aresmall，andtheprocess，bywhichtheycanbecomethefarmersofallthedomainsofanextensivecountry，mustbeslowindeed。Inthemeantime，therewillbegreatdifferencesinthisrespectbetweendifferentpartsofGermany。Amtmen，whooccupy
theland，notasagents，buttenants，arealreadycommoninsomestates:inothersalmostunknown。Thosedistrictsofcourse
willprofitthemostrapidlyandlargelybythelatechanges，whichwereapproachingthemselvestotheconditioninwhich
theyarenowplaced，andwereprovidedwithsomeoftheelementsofanewandbetterstateofthings。Thoseinwhichthe
actualchangeswerepreparedbynospontaneousadvances，willforsometimedisappoint，itistobefeared，inagreat
degree，thebenevolentimpatienceofthosestatesmen，whowishedtospeedthemforciblyinpathsofimprovement，whichtheyarenotfullgrownandstrongenoughtotreadsteadily。Leavinghoweverindividualinstances，andsurveyingthewholebroadmassoflaborrentsthroughoutthatlargerdivisionof
Europeinwhichtheystillpreponderate，eitherentire，orindifferentstagesofdecomposition，itwillbesufficientlyobvious，
thatsomeagesmustelapse，beforethosenewelementsofsocietyareperfected，andthatbetterstateofthingsmatured，in
whichthismodeoftenureisdestinedfinallytomerge。Foralongandindefiniteperiodnowbeforeus，therefore，theancient
systemofserfrents，modifiedinitsforms，butenduringinitseffects，willimprintmuchoftheircharacteronthoseimperfect
institutionswhichareslowlyspringingupfromitsdecay。ThefutureprogressofeasternEurope，thesourcesofitswealth，
andstrength，andalltheelementsofitssocialandpoliticalinstitutions，willcontinuetobemainlyinfluencedbytheresultsof
thegradualalterationsnowtakingplaceinthoserelationsbetweentheproprietorsandcultivatorsofthesoil，whichhave
hithertoformedtherudebondbywhichsocietyhasbeenheldtogether。Theprogress，however，ofthis，thelargerpartofthe
mostimportantdivisionoftheglobe，mustforsomegenerationsbeaspectacleofdeepinteresttous，totheirimmediate
westernneighbours，andtoallthenations，infact，whohavehithertokepttheleadinthecareerofEuropeancivilization。We
seethemassesofpeople`whooccupytheeasternandnortherndivisionofourquarteroftheearth，stirringandinstinctwith
anewspiritoflifeandpower，beginningtoacquirefreshintellectandalessshackledindustry，andtounfoldmoreefficiently
themoralandphysicalcapabilitiesoftheirhugeterritories。TheyalreadyassumeastationinEuropesomewhatproportioned
totheextentoftheirnaturalresources；andthefateofthosenationswhichhavehithertobeenthedepositariesofthecivilizationofthemodernworld，isforthefutureinseparablyconnectedwithevents，whichthecareerofthesepowerfulneighboursmustengender。Wecannotbutseehowintimatelythecourseofthatcareerisdependentonpresentandfuture
changesinthesystemoflaborrents，andforthiscausesurely，iffornoother，thatsystemdeservesthecarefulattentionofall
whomayapplythemselvestothetaskofexplainingthenatureoftherentofland，andexaminingitsinfluenceonthecharacterandfortunesofdifferentnations。Thoseindeed，whovaluewhatiscalledpoliticaleconomy，chieflybecauseitleadstoaninsightintothemannerinwhichthe
physicalcircumstances，whichsurroundmanonearth，developeorswayhismoralcharacter，willfeelinterestedonyet
highergroundsintracingtheeffectsofasystem，springingoutofthatcommonnecessity，which，foralongperiodinthe
growthofnations，bindsthemajorityoftheirpopulationtotheearththeytill；asystem，whichhascontinuedforaseriesof
agestostampitspeculiarimpressonthepolitical，theintellectual，andmoralfeaturesofsolargeadivisionofthehuman
race。46
1。AppendixIII。2。SwedenandNorwaymustbeexcepted。Noinformation，writtenorverbal，whichIhavebeenabletocollect，hasmademe
feelsatisfiedthatIunderstandtherealhistoryofthechangesinthetenure，orinthemodeofoccupyingthesoil，whichhave
takenplaceinthosecountries。IcanonlysuspectthattheprogressofSwedenintheserespectshasresembled，insome
measure，thatoftheGermannations:whilethatofNorwayhasbeendistinctandverypeculiar。Laborrents，however，undervariousmodificationshavebeen，andarenow，knowninbothcountries。3。SeeBrightsdescriptionofwhattakesplaceinHungaryevennow，althoughtheAustriangovernmenthasinterposedtoprotect，toacertainextent，therightofthepeasantry。Bright'sHungary。p。114。AppendixIV4。GeneralBoltinwasencouragedbyCatharineIItopublishinRussiasomeresearchesontheoriginofslaveryinRussia，
andassuchwashisconclusion，itrestscertainlyonnomeanauthority。BeforethetimeofBorisGodounoff，GeneralBoltin
asserts，thattheonlyrealslavesinRussiawereprisonerstakenfromanenemy，andthatthepeasantswerereducedto
slaveryasservisafterthatepoch。Storch，Vol。VI。p。310。
5。SeeGamba，Voy。danslaRuss。Tom。II。p。84。6。HeberlateBishopofCalcuttaquotedbyClarke，Travels，Vol。I。p。165。Thepeasantsbelongingtothenobles，have
theirabrockregulatedbytheirmeansofgettingmoney；atanaveragethroughouttheempireofeightortenroubles。Itthen
becomesnotarentforland，butadownrighttaxontheirindustry。Eachmalepeasantisobligedbylawtolaborthreedaysin
eachweekforhisproprietor。Thislawtakeseffectonhisarrivingattheageoffifteen。Iftheproprietorchoosestoemploy
himontheotherdayshemay；as，forexample，inamanufactory；buthethenfindshiminfoodandclothing。Mutual
advantagehowevergenerallyrelaxesthislaw；andexceptingsuchasareselectedfordomesticservants，or，asabove，are
employedinmanufactories，theslavepaysacertainabrockorrent，tobeallowedtoworkalltheweekonhisownaccount。Themasterisboundtofurnishhimwithahouseandacertainportionofland。7。Thisprivilegewasgivenin1801，andin1810thepeasantsofthecrownhadpurchasedlandstothevalueoftwomillions
ofroublesinBankassignations。Duringthesameperiod，alltheotherclassesnotbeingnoblehadonlypurchasedtothe
amountof3……611……000roublesinthesamepapermoney。
8。Foramoredetailedaccountofthesealterations，seeStorch，Vol。VI。Notexix。p。266。
9。Storch，Vol。IV。p。299。
10。Storch，Vol。IV。P。296。
11。Bright'sHungary，p。110。ThepopulationofHungaryamountsbythelastreturnstonearlytenmillions。12。Intheyear1777，thewholenumberofhandicraftsmen，theirservants，andapprentices，inHungary，amountedto30，921；
andthisnumberdoesnotseem，bymorerecentpartialcalculations，tohavebeenmuchincreased。Bright，p。205。
13。Ibid。p。118。14。ThesizeofthesesessionsseemstohavedifferedindifferentpartsofHungary，probablyinproportiontothefertilityofthesoil。15。Besidesthishemustgive4fowls，12eggs，andapfundandahalfofbutter；andeverythirtypeasantsmustgiveonecalf
yearly。Hemustalsopayaformforhishouse；mustcutandbringhomeaklafterofwood；mustspininhisfamilysixpfund
ofwoolorhemp，providedbythelandlord:andamongfourpeasants，theproprietorclaimswhatiscalledalongjourney，
thatis，theymusttransport20centners，each100Frenchpoundsweight，thedistanceoftwoday'sjourneyoutandhome:
andbesidesallthis，theymustpayone-tenthofalltheirproductstothechurch，andone-ninthtothelord。
16。Bright，p。115。
17。Storch，Vol。VI。p。308。Bright。
18。SeeBright。
19。Storch。Vol。VI。p。308。20。Schmalz，Econ。Polit。Frenchtranslation，Vol。II。p。109。Sansdoute，cesontlesproprietaireseux-mê；mes，quiont
donné；lieuà；ladefensequileuraé；té；faitedereprendreleursfermesdesmainsdeleurpaysans，parcequ'ilsontcherché；，et
qu'ilssontparvenus，Asefairedé；greverdesimpô；tsquelespaysanspaientà；l'é；tat，etqu'enconsé；quence，l'é；tatainterê；tà；
s'opposerà；cequelesfermesenmé；tairiesnesoientpasreuniesaubiennobleduseigneurfoncier，etaffranchiesparlà；delaperceptiondel'impot。21。TillthereignofCasimirtheGreat，aboutthemiddleofthe14thcentury，thePolishnoblesexercisedovertheirpeasants
theuncontrouledpoweroflifeanddeath。Threedays'labourwastheirusualrentBURNETT'sView，ofpresentStateofPoland，p。102。22。SeeMr。Jacob'sFirstReport，p。27。TheAppendixtothisReportcontainssomedetailedreturnsfromthemanagersof
Polishestates，andtakenwithMr。Bright'sbook，presentsaperfectpictureofthepracticalworkingofthesystemoflabor
rentsinPolandandinHungary。Foragraphicsketchofthestateofmannersandmoralsithasproduced，thereadermay
consultBurnett。InPoland，inAustria，andotherpartsofGermany，theproprietor'sdomain，withhisimplements，animals，
andcapitalofallsorts，aresometimesletatalowmoneyrenttoatenant，togetherwiththe
rightofexactingandusingthe
laborduefromtheserfs。Thesuperiortenantis，inPoland，veryoftenayoungerbranchofthefamily，occasionallya
stranger。Thissubstitutionofanotherpersonascultivatorofthedomain，leaves，however，thelaborrentsoftheserfsour
presentobjectpreciselywheretheywere。Itisconsideredaverydisastrousmodeofdisposingofthedomain:thestockand
capitalareusually，asmightbeexpected，ruinedattheexpirationofthelease；itisnotnowpractisedextensively；thoughit
appearsfromMr。Jacob'sSecondReport，tobenowspreadingintheNorth-westofGermany。Itmay，however，possibly
provehereafter，onestepping-stonetoadifferentsystem；andifthedilapidationofthestockcouldbeeffectuallyguardedagainst，itmostprobablywoulddoso。23。Foraninstanceofthebadresultsofabenevolentbutill-judgedattemptatahastyandcompleteemancipation，seeBurnett，page106。24。NarrativeofDonJuanVonHalen，&；c。Vol。II。p。88。DonJuanwasmistakenastothedateofthedecree，whichhad
beenissuedsince1804bytheEmperorAlexander，forpartlyemancipatingsomeoftheLivonianserfs。
25。Eden，Vol。I。p。7。AppendixV。
26。See12thCharlesII。c。24。
27。Hodgskin，Vol。11。p。5。"TheAmtmanfrequentlyunites，"&；c。
28。Hodgskin，Vol。II，p。90。
29。Schmalz，Vol。I。p。104。
30。OntheverypoorsoilsintheGermanprovinceswestoftheRhine，laborrentsstill，Iamtold，prevail。31。ThosewhowishthoroughlytounderstandthespiritandeffectsoftheoldHighlandmodesofdividingandcultivatingthe
soil，andtheconsequencesoftheviolentchangeeffectedsince1745，mayconsulttheworkofLordSelkirk，publishedin
1805，entitled"ObservationsonthepresentstateoftheHighlandsofScotland，withaviewofthecausesandprobable
consequencesofEmigration；"itwillberoundable，interesting，andinstructive。
32。Schmalz，EconomiePolit。Frenchtranslation。Vol。I。p。66。
33。Schmalz，Vol。II。p。103。
34。Vol。II。p。107。
35。Schmalz，Vol。II。p。107。
36。Jacob'sGermany，p。235。37。TheRussiangovernment，hopingtoremedythislastdefect，establishedabankfortheexpresspurposeofadvancing
loanstothenoblestobeemployedinimprovingthecultivationoftheirestates。Theexperimentdidnotsucceed。Thenobles
wereobservedtogrowsuddenlymoreexpensive，buttheirestatesremainedastheywere。Storch，Vol。IV。p。288。
38。Jacob'sFirstReport。39。SeeJacob'sGermany，p。342，foraninstanceofthemannerinwhichtherightsoftheproprietorsarefrustratedwhen
theyarebychancedriventothetribunals。TheSaxoncourtsofjusticeseemtobeactuated，whentheyhaveanopportunity
tointerferebetweenproprietorandtenant，bythesamebiastowardsfreedomwhichdidhonortothoseofEngland，andseemtootoapproachtheirobjectwithmuchoftheastutenesswhichsuggestedsomeofourownlegalproceedings。40。Hodgskin，Vol。II。p。6。InHanover，someoftheseminutepatrimonialcourtshavebeenabolished；buttherearestill，or
were，solateas1819，nolessthan160localtribunalsontheroyaldomain，besidesallthosebelongingtoindividualproprietorsandtotowns。41。IntheworkseveraltimesbeforequotedofMr。Burnett，ofBaliolCollege，Oxford，entitled"AView，ofthepresent
StateofPoland，"thereaderwillfindsomecuriousdetailsofthestateofloathsomemoraldegradationtowhichthePolish
peasantsarereduced。TheauthorwasforsometimeprivatetutorinaPolishfamily。
42。Theyareveryfew。43。Differentstatementshavebeenpublishedastothetermsofthisgeneralcommutation。Schmalz，however，whowas
"conseillerintime"oftheKingofPrussia，andProfessor"dudroitpublic"atBerlin，mustbeconsideredunquestionable
authority。Schmalz，Vol。II。p。105。
44。Personalbondagehadlegallyceasedtoexistfromthe10thNovember，1810。Schmalz，Vol。II。p。103。45。Theactualdispositionofthepopulationtoincreasewithextremerapidityshewsthattheseapprehensionsarefarfromfanciful。SeeJacob'sSecondReport。46。Whenthesepageswerefirstwritten，IhadnotseentheSecondReportofMr。Jacob，whichhassincebeenpublishedina
formsuitedtogeneralcirculation。Thatgentlemanhaslatelybeenonthespot，andhascasthisextremelyacuteandpractised
eyeupontheactualconditionandprobableprogressoftheagriculturalportionofeasternEurope。Hehascometoresults
remarkablysimilartothosewhichIhadventuredtosuggestfromamoredistantandgeneralknowledgeoftheir
circumstances。Thestillpredominantinfluenceoflaborrentsthegeneralwantofcapital
amongtheproprietors:therapid
increaseinthenumbersofthepeasantcultivatorswhichhasbeentakingplacesincetheirdependenceonthelandlordshas
beenlessservile:thefeeblebeneficialeffectsonagricultureandonthegeneralcompositionofsocietywhichintwentyyears
havesprungfromthestrongmeasuresofthePrussiangovernment:thedifficultieswhicheverywhereopposethemselvesto
allsuddenchangesintheoldsystemofcultivation:thestrongapparentprobabilitythatthefutureprogressintheeasterndivisionofEuropewillnot，withalltheeffortsthataremaking，bemuchmorerapidthanthatofthiscountrywhenemergingfromasimilarstateofthings；allthesearepointsonwhichIcannowreferwithverygreatsatisfactiontothelocal
knowledgeandauthorityofMr。Jacob，insupportofthesuggestionsIhaveherethrownout。SeeSecondReportpassim，but
moreespecially140andthefollowingpages。
CHAP。III。
SECT。I。
MetayerRents。TheMetayerisapeasanttenantextractinghisownwagesandsubsistencefromthesoil。Hepaysaproducerenttothe
owneroftheland，fromwhichheobtainshisfood。Thelandlord，besidessupplyinghimwiththelandonwhichhelives，
supplieshimalsowiththestockbywhichhislaborisassisted。Thepaymenttothelandlordmaybeconsidered，therefore，toconsistoftwodistinctportions:oneconstitutestheprofitsofhisstock，theotherhisrent。Thestockadvancedisordinarilysmall。Itconsistsofseed；ofsomerudeimplements；ofthematerialsofotherswhichthe
peasantmanufactures；andofsuchmaterialsforhisotherpurposesasthelanditselfaffords；buildingtimber，stone，&；c。and
occasionallyofsomedraftanimals。Ifnotassistedbytheproductivepowersofthesoil，bythemachineryoftheearth，this
stockwouldeitherbewhollyinsufficientforthepermanentmaintenanceofanylaborers，or，turnedintosomeothershape，it
wouldprovideforthetemporarysupportofaverysmallnumber。Whenapplied，however，toassistthepeculiarpowersof
theearth，thissmallstockisfoundsufficienttoenableanumerousbodyoflaborerspermanentlytomaintainthemselves；and
intheproduceoftheirindustrythelandlordshares。Theproducewhichthepossessionoflandhasthusenabledhimto
acquire，andwhichwithoutthelandhecouldnothaveacquired，isthatportionoftheannualproduceofthelaborofthe
countrywhichfallstohisshareasaland-holder。Itisrent。Therestisprofits。Inthemoreadvancedstagesofcivilization，it
iseasytodecideineachparticularcase，whatproportionofthelandlord'srevenuefromametayerfarmisrent，andwhatproportionprofits。Intheruderstages，itismoredifficult；butweshallhaveoccasiontoadverttothishereafter。Theexistenceofsucharaceoftenantryindicatessomeimprovementinthebodyofthepeople，comparedwiththestateof
thingsinwhichserfrentsoriginate。Theyareentrustedwiththetaskofprovidingthefoodandannualrevenueoftheproprietor，withouthissuperintending，orinterferingwith，theirexertions。Themetayer，then，mustbesomewhatsuperiorinskillandcharactertotheserfs，whoseindustrycanbesafelydependedon
bytheproprietor，onlywhileexercisedunderhisdirectcontrol，andwhoserentsarethereforepaid，notinproduce，butin
labor。Butstilltheadvanceofstockbytheproprietor，andtheabandonmentofthemanagementofcultivationtotheactual
laborers，indicatethecontinuedabsenceofanintermediateclassofcapitalists；ofmenabletoadvancefromtheirown
accumulationsthefoodofthelaborerandthestockbywhichheisassisted；andthustotakeuponthemselvesthedirection
ofagriculture。Themetayersystemindicates，therefore，astateofsociety，advanced，whencomparedwiththatinwhichserfrentsprevail；backward，whencomparedwiththatinwhichrentspaidbycapitalistsmaketheirappearance。Itisfoundspringingupinvariouspartsoftheworld，engraftedoccasionallyontheserfrentswehavebeenreviewing，and
moreoftenonthesystemofryotrentswehaveyettoexamine。ButitisinthewesterndivisionofcontinentalEurope，in
Italy，Savoy，Piedmont，theValteline，France，andSpain，thatthepuremetayertenantryarethemostcommon，anditisthere
thattheyinfluencemostdecidedlythesystemsofcultivationandthoseimportantrelationsbetweenthedifferentordersof
society，whichoriginateintheappropriationofthesoil。Intothosecountries，onceprovincesoftheRomanEmpire，they
wereintroducedbytheRomans，and，todiscovertheirorigininEurope，wemustturnbackoureyesforaninstantonthe
classicalnationsofantiquity。
SECTIONII。
OfMetayerRentsinGreece。Greece，whenitfirstpresentsmaterialsforauthentichistory，was，forthemostpart，dividedintosmallpropertiescultivated
bythelaboroftheproprietors，assistedbythatofslaves。Butbeforeweobservehowthisstateofthingsledthewaytothe
establishmentofmetayerrents，itshouldberemarked，thatrelicsofasystemwhicheveninthosedaysborethemarksofantiquity，andwasbecomingobsolete，werestilltobeseeninmanydistrictsofGreece。Irruptionsfromothercountries，astothedetailsofwhichthelearneddisputeinvain，had，previoustotheaeraofhistorical
certainty，filledseveralprovincesofGreecewithforeignmasters。Thesepeople，insomeinstancesatleast，foundtheoriginal
inhabitantsacquaintedwithagriculture，thetoilsofwhichtheyhadnoinclination，perhapsnotsufficientskill，toshare。They
convertedthereforethehusbandmenintoapeculiarspeciesoftenantry，differingfromtheserftenantryofmodemEuropein
this，thatthoughattachedtothesoil，andasortofpredialbondsmen，theypaid，not
labor，butproducerents，andbelonged，
insomeremarkableinstances，nottoindividuals，buttothestate。ThesetenantswerecalledinCretePeriaeci，Mnotae，
Aphamiotae；inLaconiaPeriaeciandHelots；inAtticaThetesandPelatae；inThessalyPenestae，andinotherdistrictsbyothernames。1Theproducerents，whichthistenantrywereboundinCretetopaytothegovernment，enabledthelegislatorsofthatisland
toestablishpublictablesinthedifferentdistricts，atwhichthefreemenandtheirfamilieswerefed。2Thisinstitution
LycurgusestablishedorrenewedatLacedaemon，wherethetablesweresuppliedbytheproduceoftheindustryofthe
Helots；andwhereverSyssitiaeorcommontablescanbetraced，itisatleastprobable，thattheyweresuppliedbyasimilarraceoftenants。InAttica，theexistenceoftheThetesorPelataeasthistenantryweretherecalledexercisednosuchinfluenceonthe
generalhabitsofthecitizensasitdidinCrete，inSparta，andinotherDorianstates；andwhentheywererestoredbySolontopersonalfreedom，thoughnottothepoliticalrightsofcitizens，thealterationledtonostrikingresults。3ItrequiresindeedsomelittleattentiontodiscerntheirpastexistenceamongtheAthenians；andthedetailsoftheircondition
arenowperhapsoutofthereachofresearch。wasthenameappliedindifferently，itshouldseem，bothtotheshare
paidasrentandthatretainedbytheThetes。Therentusuallyconsistedofasixthoftheproduce，hencetheirnameof？sometimesitwasafourth，andthenthePelataeweresaid。ThePenestaeofThessalywerea
bodyofsimilartenantry。Withtheexceptionofthedistrictsoccupiedbythispeculiarspeciesoftenantry，4andofthelands
belongingtotownswhichseemoftentohaveletfortermsofyearsatmoneyrents，thelandsofGreecewereverygenerallyinthepossessionoffreemen，cultivatingsmallpropertieswiththeassistanceofslaves。Slaveswereverynumerous。MendistributedliketheGreeksintosmalltribesofrudefreemen，surroundedbysimilartribes，
probablyexhibitthepugnaciousqualitiesofhumannatureinthehighestdegreeknown。Ithasoftenbeenobservedwith
truth，thatinsuchastateofsocietytheappearanceofdomesticslaveryindicatesaconsiderablesofteningofthemanners。
Whenwarriornationshavefoundoutthemeansofmakingthelaborofcaptivescontribute
totheirownease，theypreserve
them。Beforetheyhavemadesuchadiscoverytheyputthemtodeath。AmongtheNorthAmericanIndians，thelaborofno
manwilldomorethanmaintainhimself；noprofitistobemadeofaslave；hence，unlessthecaptiveisselectedtotakeupon
himselfinthecharacterofasonorhusbandthetaskofprotectingandprovidingfoodforafamilydeprivedofitschief，heis
invariablyslaughtered。SometribesofTartarsonthebordersofPersiamassacreallthetruebelieverswhofallintotheir
hands，butpreserveallhereticsandinfidels；becausetheirreligionforbidsthemtomakeslavesoftruebelievers，andallowsthemtouseorsellallothersattheirpleasure。TheGreeksusedtheslaves，withwhichtheirfrequentwarssuppliedthem，inallkindsofmeniaandlaboriousoccupations，
andanotionthatsuchoccupationscouldnotbefilledwithoutslaves，becamesofamiliar，thateventheiracutest
philosophersseemnevertohavedoubteditsaccuracyorjustice。Acommonwealth，saysAristotle，consistsoffamilies，anda
familytobecompletemustconsistoffreemenandslaves，5andinfixingontheformofgovernment，whichaccordingtohim
wouldbemostperfect，andconducethemosttothehappinessofmankind，herequiresthathisterritoryshouldbecultivated
byslavesofdifferentracesanddestituteofspirit，thatsotheymaybeusefulforlabor，andthattheabsenceofany
dispositiontorevoltmaybesecurelyreliedon。6TheconditionofAfricaisnowinthisparticular，muchlikethatofGreece
then。OneofthelatetravellerswasexplainingtoanAfricanchiefthattherearenoslavesinEngland。"Noslaves，"exclaimedtheirauditor，"thenwhatdoyoudoforservants？"InGreecethelaborofcultivationwasatfirstsharedbetweenthemasterandslave。Thismustalwaysbewhilepropertiesare
small；andaccordinglyitwassoinLatium。Cincinnatuswouldhavestarvedonhisfouracres，hadhetrustedtotheproduce
slavescouldextractfromit，andneglectedtolayhisownhandsontheplough。ButascivilizationwentforwardinGreece，
propertiesbecameenlarged。Theproprietorsclungtocities；wherepopulargovernmentsofferedtotheactivedutiesto
perform，andobjectsofambitiontoaspireto，andtotheindolentandvoluptuouseveryspeciesofpleasure，mademore
seducingbyalltheembellishmentsthatcouldbecreatedbyatasteandfancy，whichseemtohavebelongedtothosetimes
andtothatpeoplealone。BysuchoccupationsandamusementsmanyoftheleadingGreciansweresoengrossed，thatthey
refusedtogiveupeventhetimeandattentionnecessarytocommandtheirhouseholdslaves。7Thosewhostillattendedto
themanagementoftheirfarmsmusthavefoundthetaskdifficultandhazardous。Xenophonhas
leftanaccuratepictureof
themodeinwhichtheGrecian，gentlemenofhisdayconductedthecultivationof，theirestates。Inoneofthedialoguesof
theMemorabilia，Socratesrelatesaconversationhehadhad，withIschomachus，whowasbytheconfessionofall，menand
women，foreignersandcitizens，，anaccomplishedandgoodman。Ischomachusdetailsthoseparticulars
ofhisdomesticeconomywhichhadprincipallyearnedforhimthisgeneralpraise，andexplainsatlargehismanagementof
hishousehold，hiswife，andfinallyhisestate。Itappearsintheprogressofthedialogue，thattheestateofIschomachuswas
withinashortdistanceofAthens，thatherodetoitveryfrequently，paiditmuchpersonalattention，andsuperintendedallits
arrangementswithgreatcare。Whilecultivationwascarriedonunderthesuperintendanceofsuchmen；whileproprietors
freedfromallnecessityofpersonallabor，liberal，learned，andwealthy，sedulouslyappliedthepowersoftheirmindsto
agriculture，theartmaderapidprogress，andasuccessionofwritersonthesubjectappearedinvariouspartsofGreece，
whoseworksevidencedboththequantityofintellectappliedtotheunfoldingtheresourcesofthesoil，andtheactualprogressofcultivation。Butcauseswhichdestroyedthissystemofmanagingthelandweresilentlyatwork。EvenIsehomachuswasobligedtorely
muchonhisoroverseers；slaveswhowereverycarefullytrainedasbailiffs，liketheRomanvillici。Allestates，
however，couldnotbelikehiswithinarideofthecapital；themoredistantwerenecessarilyconfidedalmostwhollytothese
managingslaves；andtheirmanagement，unlesstheydifferedutterlyfromallotherslavessimilarlytrusted，musthavebeen
verygenerallycarelessandbad。AsGreecetoobecameconsolidated，firstbytheMacedonian，thentheRomaninfluence，the
possessionsofindividualproprietorsnaturallyextendedthemselvesoveralargerspace，andprofitablemanagementbyslave
agentsmusthavebecomemoreandmoreimpracticable。Atlastatenantwasintroducedwho，receivingfromthelandowner
hislandandstock，becameresponsibletohimforacertainproportion，usuallyhalf，oftheproduce:andtheproprietorsgave
upfinallyallinterferencewiththetaskofcultivation。Thesenewtenantswerecalledmortitae，andtheyarecalledsostillinGreece。Theprecisedateatwhichtheybegantosupersedethecultivationbyproprietorsisnotknown。Itissupposedbysomethat
thishappenedaftertheirconnectionwithRome，andthat？whichisnotawordofancientorclassicalGreek，wasa
translationoftheLatinphrasecolonuspartiarius。Butwecanseesodistinctlythesameinternalcauseswhichledtothe
creationoftheRomantenantryactinginGreece，thatitisprobablethemnortitaeappearedthereassoon，ifnotsooner，than
thecolonipartiariiamongtheRomans，andthattheword？wassuggestedby？whichwehaveseenwasthe
nameoftheproducerentpaidbytheancientThetesofAttica。Howeverthismightbe，bysuchatenantrythesurfaceof
Greecewasgraduallyoccupied；theysurvivedtheMahometanconquest，andthelandsoftheTurkishAgaswerevery
generallycultivated，beforethepresentdisturbances，byGrecianmortitaeormetayers。8
SECTIONIII。
OnMetayersamongtheRomans。ThecauseswhichintroducedmetayersintoItalywerepreciselysimilartothosewhichultimatelyestablishedtheminGreece。
TheRomansbeganbysharingwiththeirslavesthetoilsofcultivation。As:thesizeofestatesenlarged，theirownersbecame
thesuperintendantsofthelabortheybeforeassisted。InthisstagetheartofagriculturewasdeeplystudiedinRome，asithad
beeninasimilarstageinGreece，byaclassofmenwellqualifiedtocarryitfartowardsperfection。TheworksoffiftyGreek
writersonagriculturewereknowntotheRomans，9andthoseofseveralCarthaginians。Oftheselast，one，Mago，was
markedbythehonorabledistinctionofhavinghisworkstranslatedintoLatininobediencetoaformaldecreeofthe
Senate。10RomanworksonagriculturewerelessnumerousthantheGreek，buttheyweretheproductionsofeminentmen，
beginningwithCatothecensorquieamlatinè；loquiprimusinstituit，Col。andincludingVarroandVirgil。Thegreatpoet
wasfarfrombeingthelastamongthecultivatorsofhisday，andhaseven，inafewremarkablelines，recommendedthat
alternatehusbandry，andsubstitutionofpulseandgreencropsforfallows，whichisthemainbasisofthemostimportant
improvementsofourowntimes。
Alternisidemtonsascessarenovales，Etsegnempatieresitudurescerecampum；
Autibiflavaseres，mutatosidere，farra，Undepriusbetumsiliquâ；quassantelegumenAuttenuisfetusviciae，tristisquelupiniSustulerisfragilescalamossilvamquesonantem。
Geor。Lib。I。1。71。Astheempirebecamelarger，thesizeofestatesincreased；andwhentheywerescatteredoverprovinceswhichreached
fromBritainandSpain，toAsiaMinorandSyria，thesuperintendanceofthehnsbandrycarriedonuponthembecame
burthensomeandinefficient，11andeventhetaskoftrainingproperlythevilliciormanagerswasabandoned，andthelands
givenupinsomemeasuretothediscretionofaninferiorclassofslaves。Theimmediateconsequencewassuchadeficiency
intheproduce，thatsomestrangeandunknowncausewassupposedtobeenfeeblingthefecundityoftheearthitself。
AmongeventhemoreeminentRomans，whilesometalkedofalongcontinuedunwholesomenessintheseasons，others
wereinclinedtoasuperstitiousbelief，。thattheworldwaswaxingold，anditspowers
decayingthattheexuberantcrops
reapedbytheirforefathersbadbeentheproduceofitsyouthfulstrength；andthatthesterilitywhichthenafflicteditwasa
symptomofitsdecrepitude。12Columellasawmoredistinctlytherealcauseofthefallingoff；hedescribesinapassage
whichhasbeenoftenquoted，themalpracticesoftheslavesonthosedistantfarms，whichitwasnoteasyfortheproprietor
oftentovisit；andthoughhimselfanindignantadvocateforthemoregeneralpracticeofagriculture，asthemostliberaland
usefulofarts，heconcludesbyrecommendingthatallsuchestatesshouldbelet。"Itafitutetactoretfamiliapeccent，etagersaepiusinfametur:quaretalisgenerispraedium，si，utdixi，dominipraesentiâ；cariturumest，censeolocandum。"13AraceoftenantsthengraduallyacquiredpossessionofthesurfaceofItalyandtheprovinces。Theywereofvariousclasses，
butthecolonipartiariiormedietarii，metayers，seemalwaystohavebeenfavorites，andthetermsonwhichtheycultivated
tohaveappearedthemostjustandexpedient。Pliny，havingtried，itseems，someotherformofcontractwithhistenantry，
andfindingitanswerill，announcesinoneofhislettershisdeterminationtoadoptthemetayersystemasthebestremedy。
"Theonlyremedy，"hesays，"Icanthinkofis，nottoreservemyrentinmoneybut
inkindpartibus，andtoplacesomeof
myservantstooverlookthetillage，andtotakecareofmyshareoftheproduce，asindeedthereisnosortofrevenuemorejustthanthat，whichisregulatedbythesoil，theclimate，andtheseasons。"14Thesystemthuspraised，ultimatelyprevailedthroughouttheprovincesoftheempire；andinthewesternpartofEurope，
wasneverwhollyextirpatedbytheconvulsionswhichaccompanieditsdownfall。Inmanyinstancesindeedthefirstviolence
ofthebarbariansputtoflightallregularindustry，andintothewildernesswhichtheycreatedtheywereobligedtointroduce
laborrentsandaraceofserfs。Thefeudalsystemtoo，andthenumerousbodyofarriè；revassalsitgavebirthto，changedthe
occupationofmuchofthecountry。Butstill，thickasthedarknesswas，whichcoveredforatimetheremainsofRoman
civilization，itseffectswereneverwhollylost。Thelanguage，thecustoms，thelawsoftheprovincialsstillsurvived，and
sting。lingatlastintoinfluencetheycommunicatedmuchoftheircharactertothatmixedracewhichhasariseninwestern
Europe:indifferentdegreesindifferentcountries，butenoughinalltheprincipalkingdomstodistinguishtheirinhabitantsbroadlyfromthemoreprimitiveracetotheeastwardoftheRhine。Theclassofmetayerswasprobablyneveranywherewhollydestroyed，andastimesoftenedthecharacteroftheconquerors，
andintroducedsomedegreeofconfidenceandsecurityintotheirrelationswiththesubjectcultivators，industrybeganto
returntoitsoldemployments。Itwasalwaysanobjectgainedbythelandlord，ifhecouldsubstituteaproducerent，anda
tenantwhomhecouldtrustwiththewholetaskofcultivation，forarudeserfliketheGermanorSlavonicboor，whoselabor
hecouldrelyon，onlywhilehehimselfenforcedandsuperintendedit。Metayersthereforespreadthemselves:thedomain
landsoftheproprietorsfellgenerallyintotheirhands，andtheyre-acquiredthatgeneral，thoughnotcomplete，possessionof
theagricultureofwesternEurope，whichweseetheminagreatmeasurestillretaining。
SECTIONIV。
OnMetayerRentsinFrance。TheprovinceofGaulwasviolentlyaffectedinallitssocialrelations，bythevariousirruptionsandfinalpredominanceofthe
barbarians。Thegradualestablishmentoffeudaltenures，andtheintroductionofserfsandlaborrents，weretwoofthemost
importanteffectsofthechangeofmasters。Thenumberandspeciesoffeudaltenures，weremultipliedtoastrangeextentin
Francebythepracticeofsubinfeudation；whichhadbeencheckedinEngland，butprevailedwidelyonthecontinent。The
seignoralrights，andtherentsandservicestowhichtheygaverise，wererangedbytheFrenchlawyersunder300heads，thesubdivisionsofwhichtheystatetobeinfinite。15Someofthesemultipliedrightsnodoubtwereengraftedonthemoresimplerelationoftheserfstotheirlandlords；forasthe
feudalsystembecamefamiliartothepeople，thenotionsandphraseologytowhichitgavebirth，extendedthemselvestoa
multitudeofrelationsandobjects，quiteforeigntotheoriginalaimofthesystemitself。Thusonthecontinentannuitiesin
moneyorcornweregrantedasfeuds，andoccasionallyeventheuseofsumsofmoney，16andinEnglandthecopyholder，
whomwecandistinctlytracetothevilleinorslave，wasadmittedtoswearfealtyanddohomagetohislordmuchinthe
mannerofthemilitarytenants；apracticewhichstillcontinues。Thusalso，thoseadmittedtodegreesatourUniversitiesdo
feudalhomagetotheVice-Chancellor。Byasimilarabuseoffeudalforms，someoftheserfsinFrancenodoubtrankedatlastamongstthemanorialtenantryoftheSeigneur，andtheirrelationwasconsideredtobeafeudalone。Butbesidestheserfsthusgraduallyassimilatedtovassals，therewereotherserfswhosestateofslaverywasasdistinctand
undisguisedasthatoftheRussiancultivatorsisnow:theyexistedforsometimeinconsiderablenumbers，andcontinuedto
existinseveralprovincesuptotheeraoftherevolution。Wewillsaysomethingofthesebeforeweproceedtothemetayers。
Theywerefoundontheestatesofthecrown，oflayindividuals，andofecclesiastics，underthenameofmainmortables，
whichwasusedindifferentlywiththatofserf，andappearstohavebeenconsideredsynonymouswithit。Theywereattached
tothesoil，andiftheyescapedfromit，wererestoredbytheinterferenceofthetribunalstotheirowners，towhomtheir
personsandthoseoftheirposteritybelonged。Theywereincapableoftransmittingproperty:iftheyacquiredany，their
ownersmightseizeitattheirdeath:theexerciseofthisrightwasinfullvigor，andsomestartlinginstancesledLouisXVI。
tomakeafeebleattemptatapartialemancipation。Proprietors，exercisingtheirdroitdesuiteasitwascalled，hadforcedthe
reluctanttribunalsofthekingtodeliverintotheirhandsthepropertyofdeceasedcitizenswhohadbeenlongsettledas
respectableinhabitantsindifferenttownsofFrance，someeveninParisitself；butwhowereprovedtohavebeenoriginally