1748
　　Itisnotenoughforawisemantostudynatureandtruth；heshoulddarestatetruthforthebenefitofthefewwhoarewillingandabletothink。Asfortherest，whoarevoluntarilyslavesofprejudice，theycannomoreattaintruth，thanfrogscanfly。
　　Ireducetotwothesystemsofphilosophywhichdealwithman’ssoul。
　　Thefirstandoldersystemismaterialism；thesecondisspiritualism。
　　Themetaphysicianswhohavehintedthatmattermaywellbeendowedwiththefacultyofthoughthaveperhapsnotreasonedill。Forthereisinthiscaseacertainadvantageintheirinadequatewayofexpressingtheirmeaning。Intruth，toaskwhethermattercanthink，withoutconsideringitotherwisethaninitself，islikeaskingwhethermattercantelltime。ItmaybeforeseenthatweshallavoidthisreefuponwhichLockehadthebadlucktoshipwreck。
　　TheLeibnizianswiththeirmonadshavesetupanunintelligiblehypothesis。
　　Theyhaveratherspiritualizedmatterthanmaterializedthesoul。Howcanwedefineabeingwhosenatureisabsolutelyunknowntous？
　　DescartesandalltheCartesians，amongwhomthefollowersofMalebranchehavelongbeennumbered，havemadethesamemistake。Theyhavetakenforgrantedtwodistinctsubstancesinman，asiftheyhadseenthem，andpositivelycountedthem。
　　Thewisestmenhavedeclaredthatthesoulcannotknowitselfsavebythelightoffaith。However，asreasonablebeingstheyhavethoughtthattheycouldreserveforthemselvestherightofexaminingwhattheBiblemeansbytheword``spirit，’’whichitusesinspeakingofthehumansoul。Andifintheirinvestigation，theydonotagreewiththetheologiansonthispoint，arethetheologiansmoreinagreementamongthemselvesonallotherpoints？
　　Hereistheresultinafewwordsofalltheirreflections。IfthereisaGod，heistheAuthorofnaturewaswellasofrevelation。
　　Hehasgivenustheonetoexplaintheother，andreasontomakethemagree。
　　Todistrusttheknowledgethatcanbedrawnfromthestudyofanimatedbodies，istoregardnatureandrevelationastwocontrarieswhichdestroyeachother，andconsequentlytodareupholdtheabsurddoctrine，thatGodcontradictsHimselfinHisvariousworksanddeceivesus。
　　Ifthereisarevelation，itcannotthencontradictnature。BynatureonlycanweunderstandthemeaningofthewordsoftheGospel，ofwhichexperienceistheonlytrulyinterpreter。Infact，thecommentatorsbeforeourtimehaveonlyobscuredthetruth。WecanjudgedofthisbytheauthoroftheSpectacleofNature。
　　``Itisastonishing，’’hesaysconcerningLocke，``thatamanwhodegradesoursoulfarenoughtoconsideritasoulofclayshoulddaresetupreasonasjudgeandsovereignarbiterofthemysteriesoffaith，for，’’headds，``whatanastonishingideaofChristianityonewouldhave，ifoneweretofollowreason。’’
　　Notonlydothesereflectionsfailtoelucidatefaith，buttheyalsoconstitutesuchfrivolousobjectionstothemethodofthosewhoundertaketointerprettheScripture，thatIamalmostashamedtowastetimeinrefutingthem。
　　Theexcellenceofreasondoesnotdependonabigworddevoidofmeaning（immateriality），butontheforce，extent，andperspicuityofreasonitself。Thusa``soulofclay’’whichshoulddiscover，atoneglance，asitwere，therelationsandtheconsequencesofaninfinitenumberofideashardtounderstand，wouldevidentlybepreferabletoafoolishandstupidsoul，thoughthatwerecomposedofthemostpreciouselements。Amanisnotaphilosopherbecause，withPliny，heblushesoverthewretchednessofourorigin。Whatseemsvileisherethemostpreciousofthings，andseemstobetheobjectofnature’shighestartandmostelaboratecare。Butasman，eventhoughheshouldcomefromanapparentlystillmorelowlysource，wouldyetbethemostperfectofallbeings，sowhatevertheoriginofhissoul，ifitispure，noble，andlofty，itisabeautifulsoulwhichdignifiesthemanendowedwithit。
　　Pluche’ssecondwayofreasoningseemsvicioustome，eveninhissystem，whichsmacksalittleoffanaticism；for[onhisview]
　　ifwehaveanideaoffaithasbeingcontrarytotheclearestprinciples，tothemostincontestabletruths，wemustyetconclude，outofrespectforrevelationanditsauthor，thatthisconceptionisfalse，andthatwedonotyetunderstandthemeaningofthewordsoftheGospel。
　　Ofthetwoalternatives，onlyoneispossible：eithereverythingisillusion，natureaswellasrevelation，orexperiencealonecanexplainfaith。Butwhatcanbemoreridiculousthanthepositionofourauthor！CanoneimaginehearingaPeripateticsay，``WeoughtnottoaccepttheexperimentsofTorricelli，forifweshouldacceptthem，ifweshouldridourselvesofthehorrorofthevoid，whatanastonishingphilosophyweshouldhave！’’
　　IhaveshownhowviciousthereasoningofPlucheisinordertoprove，inthefirstplace，thatifthereisarevelation，itisnotsufficientlydemonstratedbythemereauthorityoftheChurch，andwithoutanyappealtoreason，asallthosewhofearreasonclaim：andinthesecondplace，toprotectagainstallassaultthemethodofthosewhowouldwishtofollowthepaththatIopentothem，ofinterpretingsupernaturalthings，incomprehensibleinthemselves，inthelightofthoseideaswithwhichnaturehasendowedus。Experienceandobservationshouldthereforebeouronlyguideshere。Botharetobefoundthroughouttherecordsofthephysicianswhowerephilosophers，andnotintheworksofthephilosopherswhowerenotphysicians。Theformerhavetraveledthroughandilluminatedthelabyrinthofman；
　　theyalonehavelaidbarethosesprings[oflife]hiddenundertheexternalintegumentwhichconcealssomanywondersfromoureyes。
　　Theyalone，tranquillycontemplatingoursoul，havesurprisedit，athousandtimes，bothinitswretchednessandinitsglory，andtheyhavenomoredespiseditinthefirstestate，thantheyhaveadmireditinthesecond。Thus，torepeat，onlythephysicianshavearighttospeakonthissubject。Whatcouldtheothers，especiallythetheologians，havetosay？Isitnotridiculoustohearthemshamelesslycomingtoconclusionsaboutasubjectconcerningwhichtheyhavehadnomeansofknowinganything，andfromwhichonthecontrarytheyhavebeencompletelyturnedasidebyobscurestudiesthathaveledthemtoathousandprejudicedopinions，-inaword，tofanaticism，whichaddsyetmoretotheirignoranceofthemechanismofthebody？
　　Buteventhoughwehavechosenthebestguides，weshallstillfindmanythornsandstumblingblocksintheway。
　　Manissocomplicatedamachinethatitisimpossibletogetaclearideaofthemachinebeforehand，andhenceimpossibletodefineit。Forthisreason，alltheinvestigationshavebeenvain，whichthegreatestphilosophershavemadeà；priori，thatistotosay，insofarastheyuse，asitwere，thewingsofthespirit。Thusitisonlyà；posterioriorbytryingtodisentanglethesoulfromtheorgansofthebody，sotospeak，thatonecanreachthehighestprobabilityconcerningman’sownnature，eventhoughonecannotdiscoverwithcertaintywhathisnatureis。
　　Letusthentakeinourhandsthestaffofexperience，payingnoheedtotheaccountsofalltheidletheoriesofthephilosophers。
　　TObeblindandtothinkonecandowithoutthisstaffiftheworstkindofblindness。Howtrulyacontemporarywritersaysthattheonlyvanityfailstogatherfromsecondarycausesthesamelessonsasfromprimarycauses！Onecanandoneevenoughttoadmireallthesefinegeniusesintheirmostuselessworks，suchmenasDescartes，Malebranche，Leibnitz，Wolffandtherest，butwhatprofit，Iask，hasanyonegainedfromtheirprofoundmeditations，andfromalltheirworks？Letusstartoutthentodiscovernotwhathasbeenthought，butwhatmustbethoughtforthesakeofreposeinlife。
　　Thereareasmanydifferentminds，differentcharacters，anddifferentcustoms，astherearedifferenttemperaments。EvenGalenknewthistruthwhichDescartescarriedsofarastoclaimthatmedicinealonecanchangemindsandmorals，alongwithbodies。
　　（BythewriteofL’historiedel’â；me，thisteachingisincorrectlyattributedtoHippocrates。）Itistruethatmelancholy，bile，phlegm，bloodetc。，-accordingtothenature，theabundance，andthedifferentcombinationofthesehumors-makeeachmandifferentfromanother。
　　Indiseasethesoulissometimeshidden，showingnosignoflife；sometimesitissoinflamedbyfurythatitseemstobedoubled；
　　sometimes，imbecilityvanishesandtheconvalescenceofanidiotproducesawiseman。Sometimes，again，thegreatestgeniusbecomesimbecileandloosesthesenseofself。Adieuthentoallthatfineknowledge，acquiredatsohighaprice，andwithsomuchtrouble！Hereisaparalyticwhoasksishislegisinbedwithhim；thereisasoldierwhothinksthathestillhasthearmwhichhasbeencutoff。Thememoryofhisoldsensations，andoftheplacetowhichtheywerereferredbyhissoul，isthecauseofthisillusion，andofthiskindofdelirium。Themerementionofthememberwhichhehaslostisenoughtorecallittohismind，andtomakehimfeelallitsmotions；andthiscauseshimanindefinableandinexpressiblekindofimaginarysuffering。Thismancrieslikeachildatdeath’sapproach，whilethisotherjests。WhatwasneededtochangethebraveryofCaiusJulius，Seneca，orPetroniusintocowardiceorfaintheartedness？Merelyanobstructioninthespleen，intheliver，animpedimentintheportalvein。
　　Why？Becausetheimaginationisobstructedalongwiththeviscera，andthisgivesrisetoallthesingularphenomenaofhysteriaandhypochondria。
　　WhatcanIaddtothestoriesalreadytoldofthosewhoimaginethemselvestransformedintowolf-men，cocksorvampires，orofthosewhothinkthatthedeadfeeduponthem？WhyshouldIstoptospeakofthemanwhoimaginesthathisnoseorsomeothermemberisofglass？Thewaytohelpthismantoregainhisfacultiesandhisownflesh-and-bloodnoseistoadvisehimtosleeponhay，lesthebeakthefragileorgan，andthentosetfiretothehaythathemaybeafraidofbeingburned-afarwhichhassometimescuredparalysis。ButImusttouchlightlyonfactswhicheverybodyknows。
　　NeithershallIdwelllongonthedetailsoftheeffectsofsleep。Hereatiredsoldiersnoresinatrench，inthemiddleofthethunderofhundredsofcannon。Hissoulhearsnothing；hissleepisasdeepasapoplexy。Abombisonthepointofcrushinghim。Hewillfeelthislessperhapsthanhefeelsaninsectwhichisunderhisfoot。
　　Ontheotherhand，thismanwhoisdevouredbyjealousy，hatred，avarice，orambition，canneverfindanyrest。Themostpeacefulspot，thefreshestandmostcalmingdrinksarealikeuselesstoonewhohasnotfreedhisheartfromthetormentofpassion。
　　Thesoulandthebodyfallasleeptogether。Asthemotionofthebloodiscalmed，asweetfeelingofpeaceandquietspreadsthroughthewholemechanism。Thesoulfeelsitselflittlebylittlegrowingheavyastheeyelidsdroop，andlosesitstenseness，asthefibresofthebrainrelax；thuslittlebylittleitbecomesasifparalyzedandwithitallthemusclesofthebody。Thesecannolongersustaintheweightofthehead，andthesoulcannolongerbeartheburdenofthought；itisinsleepasifitwerenot。
　　Isthecirculationtooquick？thesoulcannotsleep。Isthesoultoomuchexcited？thebloodcannotbequieted：itgallopsthroughtheveinswithanaudiblemurmur/Sucharethetwooppositecausesofinsomnia。Asinglefrightinthemidstofourdreamsmakestheheartbeatatdoublespeedandsnatchesusfromneededanddeliciousrepose，asarealgrieforanurgentneedwoulddo。Lastlyasthemerecessationofthefunctionsofthesoulproducessleep，thereare，evenwhenweareawake（oratleastwhenwearehalfawake），kindsofveryfrequentshortnapsofthemind，vergers’dreams，whichshowthatthesouldoesnotalwayswaitforthebodytosleep。Forifthesoulisnotfastasleep，itsurelyisnotfarfromsleep，sinceitcannotpointoutasingleobjecttowhichithasattended，amongtheuncountednumberofconfusedideaswhich，sotospeak，filltheatmosphereofourbrainslikeclouds。
　　Opiumistoocloselyrelatedtothesleepitproduces，tobeleftoutofconsiderationhere。Thisdrugintoxicates，likewine，coffee，etc。，eachinitsownmeasureandaccordingtothedose。Itmakesamanhappyinastatewhichwouldseeminglybethetomboffeeling，asitistheimageofdeath。Howsweetisthislethargy！
　　Thesoulwouldlongnevertoemergefromit。Forthesoulhasbeenapreytothemostintensesorrow，butnowfeelsonlythejoyofsufferingpast，andofsweetestpeace。Opiumalterseventhewill，forcingthesoulwhichwishedtowakeandtoenjoylife，tosleepinspiteofitself。Ishallomitanyreferencetotheeffectofpoisons。
　　Coffee，thewell-knownantidoteforwine，byscourgingtheimagination，curesourheadachesandscattersourcareswithoutlayingupforus，aswinedoes，otherheadachesforthemorrow。Butletuscontemplatethesoulinitsotherneeds。
　　Thehumanbodyisamachinewhichwindsitsownsprings。Itisthelivingimageofperpetualmovement。Nourishmentkeepsupthemovementwhichfeverexcites。Withoutfood，thesoulpinesaway，goesmad，anddiesexhausted。Thesoulisataperwhoselightflaresupthemomentbeforeitgoesout。Butnourishthebody，pourintoitsveinslife-givingjuicesandstrongliquors，andthenthesoulgrowsstronglikethem，asifarmingitselfwithaproudcourage，andthesoldierwhomwaterwouldhavemadetoflee，growsboldandrunsjoyouslytodeathtothesoundofdrums。Thusahotdrinksetsintostormymovementthebloodwhichacolddrinkwouldhavecalmed。
　　Whatpowerthereisinameal！Joyrevivesinasadheart，andinfectsthesoulsofcomrades，whoexpresstheirdelightinthefriendlysongsinwhichtheFrenchmanexcels。Themelancholymanaloneisdejected，andthestudiousmanisequallyoutofplace[insuchcompany]。
　　Rawmeatmakesanimalsfierce，anditwouldhavethesameeffectonman。ThisissotruethattheEnglishwhoeatmeatredandbloody，andnotaswelldoneasours，seemtosharemoreorlessinthesavageryduetothiskindoffood，andtoothercauseswhichcanberenderedineffectivebyeducationonly。Thissavagerycreatesinthesoul，pride，hatred，scornofothernations，indocilityandothersentimentswhichdegradethecharacter，justasheavyfoodmakesadullandheavymindwhoseusualtraitsarelazinessandindolence。
　　Popeunderstoodwellthefullpowerofgreedinesswhenhesaid：
　　Catiusisevermoral，evergraveThinkswhoenduresaknaveisnextaknave，Savejustatdinner-thenprefersnodoubtAroguewithven’sontoasaintwithout。
　　Elsewherehesays：
　　Seethesamemaninvigor，inthegout，Alone，incompany，inplaceorout，Earlyatbusinessandathazardlate，Madatafoxchase，wiseatadebate，Drunkataborough，civilataball，FriendlyatHackney，faithlessatWhiteHall。
　　InSwitzerlandwehadabailiffbythenameofM。SteignerdeWittghofen。
　　Whenhefastedhewasamostuprightandevenamostindulgentjudge，butwoetotheunfortunatemanwhomhefoundontheculprit’sbenchafterhehadhadalargedinner！Hewascapableofsendingtheinnocentliketheguiltytothegallows。
　　Wethinkweare，andinfactweare，goodmen，onlyaswearegayorbrave；everythingdependsonthewayourmachineisrunning。Oneissometimesinclinedtosaythatthesoulissituatedinthestomach，andthatVanHelmont，whosaidthattheseatofthesoulwasinthepylorus，madeonlythemistakeoftakingthepartforthewhole。
　　Towhatexcessescruelhungercanbringus！Wenolongerregardevenourownparentsandchildren。Wetearthemtopieceseagerlyandmakehorriblebanquetsofthem；andinthefurywithwhichwearecarriedaway，theweakestisalwaysthepreyofthestrongest。
　　Lagrossesse，cetteé；muledé；siré；edespâ；lescouleurs，nesecontentepasd’amenerleplussouventà；sasuiteslegoû；tsdé；pravé；squiaccompagnentcesdeuxé；tats：elleaquelquefoisfaitexé；cuterà；l’â；melesplusaffreuxcomplots；effetsd’unemainesubite，quié；touffejusqu’à；laloinaturelle。
　　Ce’stainsiquelecerveau，cettematricedel’esprit，sepervertità；samaniè；re，aveccelleducorps。
　　Quelleautrefureurd’hommeoudefemme，dansceuxquelacontinenceetlasanté；poursuivent！C’estpeupourcettefilletimideetmodested’avoirperdutoutehonteettoutepudeur；
　　elleneregardeplusl’inceste，quecommeunefemmegalanteregardel’adultè；re。Sisesbesoinsnetrouventpasdepromptssoulagements，ilsnesebornerontpointauxsimplesaccidentsd’unepassionuté；rine，à；lamanie，etc。；cettemalheureusemourrad’unmal，dontilyatantdemé；decins。
　　Oneneedsonlyeyestoseethenecessaryinfluenceofoldageonreason。
　　Thesoulfollowstheprogressofthebody，asitdoestheprogressofeducation。Intheweakersex，thesoulaccordsalsowithdelicacyoftemperament，andfromthisdelicacyfollowtenderness，affection，quickfeelingsduemoretopassionthantoreason，prejudices，andsuperstitions，whosestrongimpresscanhardlybeeffaced。Man，ontheotherhand，whosebrainandnervespartakeofthefirmnessofallsolids，hasnotonlystrongerfeaturesbutalsoamorevigorousmind。Education，whichwomenlack，strengthenshismindstillmore。Thuswithsuchhelpofnatureandart，whyshouldnotamanbemoregrateful，moregenerous，moreconstantinfriendship，strongerinadversity？But，tofollowalmostexactlythethoughtoftheauthoroftheLettressurlaPhysiognomie，thesexwhichunitesthecharmsofthemindandofthebodywithalmostallthetenderestandmostdelicatefeelingsoftheheart，shouldnotenvyusthetwocapacitieswhichseemtohavebeengiventoman，theonemerelytoenablehimbettertofathomtheallurementsofbeauty，andtheothermerelytoenablehimtoministerbettertoitspleasure。
　　Itisnomorenecessarytobejustasgreataphysiognomistasthisauthor，inordertoguessthequalityofthemindfromthecountenanceortheshapeofthefeatures，providedthesearesufficientlymarked，thanitisnecessarytobeagreatdoctortorecognizeadiseaseaccompaniedbyallitmarkedsymptoms。LookattheportraitsofLocke，ofSteele，ofBoerhaave，ofMaupertuis，andtherest，andyouwillnotbesurprisedtofindstrongfacesandeagleeyes。Lookoveramultitudeofothers，andyoucanalwaysdistinguishthemanoftalentfromthemanofgenius，andoftenevenanhonestmanfromascoundrel。Forexampleithasbeennoticedthatacelebratedpoetcombines（inhisportrait）thelookofapickpocketwiththefireofPrometheus。
　　Historyprovidesuswithanoteworthyexampleofthepoweroftemperature。
　　ThefamousDukeofGuisewassostronglyconvincedthatHenrytheThird，inwhosepowerhehadsooftenbeen，wouldneverdareassassinatehim，thathewenttoBlois。
　　WhentheChancellorChivernylearnedoftheduke’sdeparture，hecried，``Heislost。’’Afterthisfatalpredictionhadbeenfulfilledbytheevent，Chivernywasaskedwhyhemadeit。``Ihaveknownthekingfortwentyyears，’’saidhe；``heisnaturallykindandevenweaklyindulgent，butIhavenoticedthatwhenitiscold，ittakesnothingatalltoprovokehimandsendhimintoapassion。’’
　　Onenationisofheavyandstupidwit，andanotherquick，lightandpenetrating。Whencecomesthisdifference，ifnotinpartfromthedifferenceinfoods，anddifferenceininheritance，andinpartfromthemixtureofthediverseelementswhichfloataroundintheimmensityofthevoid？Themind，likethebody，hasitscontagiousdiseasesanditsscurvy。
　　Suchistheinfluenceofclimate，thatamanwhogoesfromoneclimatetoanother，feelsthechange，inspiteofhimself。Heisawalkingplantwhichhastransplanteditself；iftheclimateisnotthesame，itwillsurelyeitherdegenerateorimprove。
　　Furthermore，wecatcheverythingfromthosewithwhomwecomeincontact；
　　theirgestures，theiraccent，etc。；justastheeyelidisinstinctivelyloweredwhenablowisforeseen，or（asforthesamereason）thebodyofthespectatormechanicallyimitates，inspiteofhimself，allthemotionsofagoodmimic。
　　FromwhatIhavejustsaid，itfollowsthatabrilliantmanishisownbestcompany，unlesshecanfindothersofthesamesort。Inthesocietyoftheunintelligent，themindgrowsrustyforlackofexercise，asattennisaballthatisservedbadlyisbadlyreturned。Ishouldpreferanintelligentmanwithoutaneducation，ifhewerestillyoungenough，toamanbadlyeducated。A
　　badlytrainedmindislikeanactorwhomtheprovinceshavespoiled。
　　Thus，thediversestatesofthesoularealwayscorrelativewiththoseofthebody。Butthebettertoshowthisdependence，initscompletenessanditscauses，letusheremakeuseofcomparativeanatomy；
　　letuslaybaretheorgansofmanandofanimals。
　　Howcanhumannaturebeknown，ifwemaynotderiveanylightfromanexactcomparisonofthestructureofmanandofanimals？
　　Ingeneral，theformandthestructureofthebrainsofquadrupedsarealmostthesameasthoseofthebrainofman；thesameshape，thesamearrangementeverywhere，withthisessentialdifference，thatofalltheanimalsmanistheonewhosebrainislargest，and，inproportiontoitsmass，moreconvolutedthanthebrainofanyotheranimal；thencomethemonkey，thebeaver，theelephant，thedog，thefox，thecat。Theseanimalsaremostlikeman，foramongthem，too，onenotesthesameprogressiveanalogyinrelationtothecorpuscallosuminwhichLancisi-anticipatingthelateM。delaPeyronie-establishedtheseatofthesoul。Thelatter，however，illustratedthetheorybyinnumerableexperiments。
　　Nextafterallthequadrupeds，birdshavethelargestbrains。Fishhavelargeheads，butthesearevoidofsense，liketheheadsofmanymen。Fishhavenocorpuscallosum，andverylittlebrain，whileinsectsentirelylackbrain。
　　Ishallnotlaunchoutintoanymoredetailaboutthevarietiesofnature，norintoconjecturesconcerningthem，forthereisaninfinitenumberofboth，asanyonecanseebyreadingnofurtherthanthetreatisesofWillisDeCerebroandDeAnimaBrutorum。
　　Ishalldrawtheconclusionswhichfollowclearlyfromtheseincontestableobservations：1st，thatthefierceranimalsare，thelessbraintheyhave；2d，thatthisorganseemstoincreaseinsizeinproportiontothegentlenessoftheanimal；3d，thatnatureseemshereeternallytoimposeasingularcondition，thatthemoreonegainsinintelligencethemoreonelosesininstinct。Doesthisbringgainorloss？
　　Donotthink，however，thatIwishtoinferbythat，thatthesizealoneofthebrain，isenoughtoindicatethedegreeoftamenessinanimals：thequalitymustcorrespondtothequantity，andthesolidsandliquidsmustbeinthatdueequilibriumwhichconstituteshealth。
　　If，asisordinarilyobserved，theimbeciledoesnotlackbrain，hisbrainwillbedeficientinitsconsistency-forinstance，inbeingtoosoft。Thesamethingistrueoftheinsane，andthedefectsoftheirbrainsdonotalwaysescapeourinvestigation。Butifthecausesofimbecility，insanity，etc。，arenotobvious，whereshallwelookforthecausesofthediversityofallminds？Theywouldescapetheeyesofalynxandofanargus。Amerenothing，atinyfiber，somethingthatcouldneverbefoundbythemostdelicateanatomy，wouldhavemadeofErasmusandFontenelletwoidiots，andFontenellehimselfspeaksofthisveryfactinoneofhisbestdialogues。
　　Willishasnoticedinadditiontothesoftnessofthebrain-substanceinchildren，puppiesandbirds，thatthecorporastriataareobliteratedanddiscoloredinalltheseanimals，andthatthestriationsareasimperfectlyformedasinparalytics。Ilajoute，cequiestvrai，quel’hommealaprotubé；ranceannulairefortgrosse；
　　etensuitetoujoursdiminutivementpardé；gré；s，lesingeetlesautresanimauxnommé；sci-devant，tandisqueleveau，leboeuf，leloup，labrebis，lecochon，etc。quiontcettepartied’untè；spetitvolume，ontlesnattesettestesfortgros。
　　Howevercautiousandreservedonemaybeabouttheconsequencesthatcanbededucedfromtheseobservations，andfrommanyothersconcerningthekindofvariationintheorgans，nerves，etc。，[onemustadmitthat]somanydifferentvarietiescannotbethegratuitousplayofnature。Theyproveatleastthenecessityforagoodandvigorousphysicalorganization，sincethroughouttheanimalkingdomthesoulgainsforcewiththebodyandacquireskeenness，asthebodygainsstrength。
　　Letuspausetocontemplatethevaryingcapacitiesofanimalstolearn。
　　Doubtlesstheanalogybestframedleadsthemindtothinkthatthecauseswehavementionedproduceallthedifferencethatisfoundbetweenanimalsandmen，althoughwemustconfessthatourweakunderstanding，limitedtothecoarsestobservations，cannotseethebondsthatexistbetweencauseandeffect。Thisisakindofharmonythatphilosopherswillneverknow。
　　Amonganimals，somelearntospeakandsing；theyremembertunes，andstrikethenotesasexactlyasamusician。Others，forinstancetheape，showmoreintelligence，andyetcannotlearnmusic。
　　Whatisthereasonforthis，exceptsomedefectintheorgansofspeech？Butisthisdefectsoessentialtothestructurethatitcouldneverberemedied？Inaword，woulditbeabsolutelyimpossibletoteachtheapealanguage？Idonotthinkso。
　　Ishouldchoosealargeapeinpreferencetoanyother，untilbysomegoodfortuneanotherkindshouldbediscovered，morelikeus，fornothingpreventstherebeingsuchaoneinregionsunknowntous。Theaperesemblesussostronglythatnaturalistshavecalledit``wildman’’or``manofthewoods。’’IshouldtakeitintheconditionofthepupilsofAmman，thatistosay，I
　　shouldnotwantittobetooyoungortooold；forapesthatarebroughttoEuropeareusuallytooold。Iwouldchoosetheonewiththemostintelligentface，andtheonewhich，inathousandlittleways，bestliveduptoitslookofintelligence。Finallynotconsideringmyselfworthytobehismaster，IshouldputhimintheschoolofthatexcellentteacherwhomIhavejustnamed，orwithanotherteacherequallyskillful，ifthereisone。
　　YouknowbyAmman’swork，andbyallthosewhohaveinterpretedhismethod，allthewondershehasbeenabletoaccomplishforthoseborndeaf。Intheireyeshediscoveredears，ashehimselfexplained，andinhowshortatime！Inshorthetaughtthemtohear，speak，read，andwrite。Igrantthatadeafperson’seyesseemoreclearlyandarekeenerthanifhewerenotdeaf，forthelossofonememberorsensecanincreasethestrengthoracutenessofanother，butapesseeandhear，theyunderstandwhattheyhearandsee，andgraspsoperfectlythesignsthataremadetothem，thatIdoubtnotthattheywouldsurpassthepupilsofAmmaninanyothergameorexercise。Whythenshouldtheeducationofmonkeysbeimpossible？Whymightnotthemonkey，bydintofgreatpains，atlastimitateafterthemannerofdeafmutes，themotionsnecessaryforpronunciation。Idonotdaredecidewhetherthemonkey’sorgansofspeech，howevertrained，wouldbeincapableofarticulation。But，becauseofthegreatanalogybetweenapeandmanandbecausethereisnoknownanimalwhoseexternalandinternalorganssostrikinglyresembleman’s，itwouldsurprisemeifspeechwereabsolutelyimpossibletotheape。Locke，whowascertainlyneversuspectedofcredulity，foundnodifficultyinbelievingthestorytoldbySirWilliamTempleinhismemoirs，aboutaparrotwhichcouldanswerrationally，andwhichhadlearnedtocarryonakindofconnectedconversation，aswedo。I
　　knowthatpeoplehaveridiculedthisgreatmetaphysician；butsupposesomeoneshouldhaveannouncedthatreproductionsometimestakeplacewithouteggsorafemale，wouldhehavefoundmanypartisans？YetM。Trembleyhasfoundcaseswherereproductiontakesplacewithoutcopulationandbyfission。WouldnotAmmantoohavepassedformadifhehadboastedthathecouldinstructscholarslikehisinsoshortatime，beforehehadhappilyaccomplishedthefeat？Hissuccesses，have，however，astonishedtheworld；andhe，liketheauthorofTheHistoryofthePolyps，hasrisentoimmortalityatonebound。
　　Whoeverowesthemiraclesthatheworkstohisowngeniussurpasses，inmyopinion，themanwhooweshistochance。Hewhohasdiscoveredtheartofadorningthemostbeautifulofkingdoms[ofnature]，andofgivingitperfectionsthatitdidnothave，shouldberankedaboveanidlecreatoroffrivoloussystems，orapainstakingauthorofsterilediscoveries。Amman’sdiscoveriesarecertainlyofamuchgreatervalue；hehasfreedmenfromtheinstincttowhichtheyseemedtobecondemned，andhasgiventhemideas，intelligence，orinaword，asoulwhichtheywouldneverhavehad。Whatgreaterpowerthanthis！
　　Letusnotlimittheresourcesofnature；theyareinfinite，especiallywhenreinforcedbygreatart。
　　CouldnotthedevicewhichopenstheEustachiancanalofthedeaf，openthatofapes？Mightnotahappydesiretoimitatethemaster’spronunciation，liberatetheorgansofspeechinanimalsthatimitatesomanyothersignswithsuchskillandintelligence？
　　NotonlydoIdefyanyonetonameanyreallyconclusiveexperimentwhichprovesmyviewimpossibleandabsurd；butsuchisthelikenessofthestructureandfunctionsoftheapetooursthatIhaveverylittledoubtthatifthisanimalwereproperlytrainedhemightatlastbetaughttopronounce，andconsequentlytoknow，alanguage。Thenhewouldnolongerbeawildman，noradefectiveman，buthewouldbeaperfectman，alittlegentleman，withasmuchmatterormuscleaswehave，forthinkingandprofitingbyhiseducation。
　　Thetransitionfromanimalstomanisnotviolent，astruephilosopherswilladmit。Whatwasmanbeforetheinventionofwordsandtheknowledgeoflanguage？Ananimalofhisownspecieswithmuchlessinstinctthantheothers。Inthosedays，hedidnotconsiderhimselfkingovertheotheranimals，norwashedistinguishedfromtheape，andfromtherest，exceptastheapeitselfdiffersfromtheotheranimals，i。e。，byamoreintelligentface。ReducedtothebareintuitiveknowledgeoftheLeibnizianshesawonlyshapesandcolors，withoutbeingabletodistinguishbetweenthem：
　　thesame，oldasyoung，childatallages，helispedouthissensationsandhisneeds，asagodthatishungryortiredofsleeping，asksforsomethingtoeat，orforawalk。
　　Words，languages，laws，sciences，andthefineartshavecome，andbythemfinallytheroughdiamondofourmindhasbeenpolished。Manhasbeentrainedinthesamewayasanimals。Hehasbecomeanauthor，astheyhavebecomebeastsofburden。
　　Ageometricianhaslearnedtoperformthemostdifficultdemonstrationsandcalculations，asamonkeyhaslearnedtotakehislittlehatoffandon，andtomounthistamedog。Allhasbeenaccomplishedthroughsigns，everyspecieshaslearnedwhatitcouldunderstand，andinthiswaymenhaveacquiredsymbolicknowledge，stillsocalledbyourGermanphilosophers。
　　Nothing，asanyonecansee，issosimpleasthemechanismofoureducation。
　　Everythingmaybereducedtosoundsorwordsthatpassfromthemouthofonethroughtheearsofanotherintohisbrain。Atthesamemoment，heperceivesthroughhiseyestheshapeofthebodiesofwhichthesewordsarethearbitrarysigns。
　　Butwhowasthefirsttospeak？Whowasthefirstteacherofthehumanrace？Whoinventedthemeansofutilizingtheplasticityofourorganism？Icannotanswer：thenamesofthesefirstsplendidgeniuseshavebeenlostinthenightoftime。Butartisthechildofnature，sonaturemusthavelongprecededit。
　　Wemustthinkthatthemenwhowerethemosthighlyorganized，thoseonwhomnaturehaslavishedherrichestgifts，taughttheothers。Theycouldnothaveheardanewsoundforinstance，norexperiencednewsensations，norbeenstruckbyallthevariedandbeautifulobjectsthatcomposetheravishingspectacleofnaturewithoutfindingthemselvesinthestateofmindofthedeafmanofChartres，whoseexperiencewasfirstrelatedbythegreatFontenelle，when，atfortyyears，heheardforthefirsttime，theastonishingsoundofbells。
　　Woulditbeabsurdtoconcludefromthisthatthefirstmortalstriedafterthemannerofthisdeafman，orlikeanimalsandlikemutes（anotherkindofanimals），toexpresstheirnewfeelingbymotionsdependingonthenatureoftheirimagination，andthereforeafterwardsbyspontaneoussounds，distinctiveofeachanimal，asthenaturalexpressionoftheirsurprise，theirjoy，theirecstasiesandtheirneeds？Fordoubtlessthosewhomnatureendowedwithfinerfeelinghadalsogreaterfacilityinexpression。
　　Thatisthewayinwhich，Ithink，menhaveusedtheirfeelingandtheirinstincttogainintelligenceandthenhaveemployedtheirintelligencetogainknowledge。Thosearetheways，sofarasIcanunderstandthem，inwhichmenhavefilledthebrainwiththeideas，forthereceptionofwhichnaturemadeit。Natureandmanhavehelpedeachother；andthesmallestbeginningshave，littlebylittle，increased，untileverythingintheuniversecouldbeaseasilydescribedasacircle。
　　Asaviolinstringoraharpsichordkeyvibratesandgivesforthsound，sothecerebralfibers，struckbywavesofsound，arestimulatedtorenderorrepeatthewordsthatstrikethem。Andasthestructureofthebrainissuchthatwheneyeswellformedforseeing，haveonceperceivedtheimageofobjects，thebraincannothelpseeingtheirimagesandtheirdifferences，sowhenthesignsofthesedifferenceshavebeentracedorimprintedinthebrain，thesoulnecessarilyexaminestheirrelations-anexaminationthatwouldhavebeenimpossiblewithoutthediscoveryofsignsortheinventionoflanguage。Atthetimewhentheuniversewasalmostdumb，thesoul’sattitudetowardallobjectswasthatofamanwithoutanyideaofproportiontowardapictureorapieceofsculpture，inwhichhecoulddistinguishnothing；
　　orthesoulwaslikealittlechild（forthesoulwastheninitsinfancy）who，holdinginhishandsmallbitsofstraworwood，seestheminavagueandsuperficialwaywithoutbeingabletocountordistinguishthem。Butletsomeoneattachakindofbanner，orstandard，tothisbitofwood（whichperhapsiscalledamast），andanotherbannertoanothersimilarobject；letthefirstbeknownbythesymbol1，andthesecondbythesymbolornumber2，thenthechildwillbeabletocounttheobjects，andinthiswayhewilllearnallofarithmetic。Assoonasonefigureseemsequaltoanotherinitsnumericalsing，hewilldecidewithoutdifficultythattheyaretwodifferentbodies，that11make2，and22make4，etc。
　　Thisrealorapparentlikenessoffiguresisthefundamentalbasisofalltruthsandofallweknow。Amongthesesciences，evidentlythosewhosesignsarelesssimpleandlesssensiblearehardertounderstandthantheothers，becausemoretalentisrequiredtocomprehendandcombinetheimmensenumberofwordsbywhichsuchsciencesexpressthetruthsintheirprovince。Ontheotherhand，thesciencesthatareexpressedbythenumbersorbyothersmallsigns，areeasilylearned；andwithoutdoubtthisfacilityratherthanitsdemonstrabilityiswhathasmadethefortuneofalgebra。
　　Allthisknowledge，withwhichvanityfillstheballoon-likebrainsofourproudpedants，isthereforebutahugemassofwordsandfigures，whichforminthebrainallthemarksbywhichwedistinguishandrecallobjects。Allourideasareawakenedafterthefashioninwhichthegardenerwhoknowsplantsrecallsallstagesoftheirgrowthatsightofthem。Thesewordsandtheobjectsdesignatedbythemaresoconnectedinthebrainthatitiscomparativelyraretoimagineathingwithoutthenameorsignthatisattachedtoit。
　　Ialwaysusetheword``imagine，’’becauseIthinkthateverythingistheworkofimagination，andthatallthefacultiesofthesoulcanbecorrectlyreducedtopureimaginationinwhichtheyallconsist。
　　Thusjudgment，reason，andmemoryarenotabsolutepartsofthesoul，butmerelymodificationsofthiskindofmedullaryscreenuponwhichimagesoftheobjectspaintedintheeyeareprojectedasbyamagiclantern。
　　Butifsuchisthemarvelousandincomprehensibleresultofthestructureofthebrain，ifeverythingisperceivedandexplainedbyimagination，whyshouldwedividethesensitiveprinciplewhichthinksinman？Isnotthisaclearinconsistencyinthepartisansofthesimplicityofthemind？Forathingthatisdividedcannolongerwithoutabsurdityberegardedasindivisible。Seetowhatoneisbroughtbytheabuseoflanguageandbythosefinewords（spirituality，immateriality，etc。）usedhaphazardandnotunderstoodevenbythemostbrilliant。
　　Nothingiseasierthantoproveasystembased，asthisoneis，ontheintimatefeelingandpersonalexperienceofeachindividual。Iftheimagination，orletussay，thatfantasticpartofthebrainwhosenatureisasunknowntousasitswayofacting，benaturallysmallorweak，itwillhardlybeabletocomparetheanalogyortheresemblanceofitsideas，itwillbeabletoseeonlywhatisfacetofacewithit，orwhataffectsitverystrongly；
　　andhowwillitseeallthis！Yetitisalwaysimaginationwhichapperceives，andimaginationwhichrepresentstoitselfallobjectsalongwiththeirnamesandsymbols；andthus，onceagain，imaginationisthesoul，sinceitplaysalltherolesofthesoul。
　　Bytheimagination，byitsflatteringbrush，thecoldskeletonofreasontakesonlivingandruddyflesh，bytheimaginationthesciencesflourish，theartsareadorned，thewoodspeaks，theechoessigh，therocksweep，marblebreathes，andallinanimateobjectsgainlife。Itisimaginationagainwhichaddsthepiquantcharmofvoluptuousnesstothetendernessofanamorousheart；whichmakestendernessbudinthestudyofthephilosopherandofthedustypedant，which，inaword，createsscholarsaswellasoratorsandpoets。Foolishlydecriedbysome，vainlypraisedbyothers，andmisunderstoodbyall；itfollowsnotonlyinthetrainofthegracesandofthefinearts，itnotonlydescribesbutcanalsomeasurenature。Itreasons，judges，analyzes，compares，andinvestigates。Coulditfeelsokeenlythebeautiesofthepicturesdrawnforit，unlessitdiscoveredtheirrelations？
　　No，justasitcannotturnitsthoughtsonthepleasuresofthesenses，withoutenjoyingtheirperfectionortheirvoluptuousness，itcannotreflectonwhatithasmechanicallyconceived，withoutthusbeingjudgmentitself。
　　Themoretheimaginationorthepooresttalentisexercised，themoreitgainsinembonpoint，sotospeak，andthelargeritgrows。Itbecomessensitive，robust，broad，andcapableofthinking。
　　Thebestoforganismshasneedofthisexercise。
　　Man’spreeminentadvantageishisorganism。Invainallwritersofbooksonmoralsfailtoregardaspraiseworthythosequalitiesthatcomebynature，esteemingonlythetalentsgainedbydintofreflectionandindustry。Forwhencecome，Iask，skill，learning，andvirtue，ifnotfromadispositionthatmakesusfittobecomeskillful，wise，andvirtuous？Andwhenceagain，comesthisdisposition，ifnotfromnature？Onlythoughnaturedowehaveanygoodqualities；toherweoweallthatweare。WhythenshouldInotesteemmenwithgoodnaturalqualitiesasmuchasmenwhoshinebyacquiredandasitwereborrowedvirtues？
　　Whateverthevirtuemaybe，fromwhateversourceitmaycome，itisworthyofesteem；theonlyquestionis，howtoestimateit。
　　Mind，beauty，wealth，nobility，althoughthechildrenofchance，allhavetheirownvalue，asskill，learningandvirtueallhavetheirs。Thoseuponwhomnaturehasheapedhermostcostlygiftsshouldpitythosetowhomthesegiftshavebeenrefused；but，intheircharacterofexperts，theymayfeeltheirsuperioritywithoutpride。Abeautifulwomanwouldbeasfoolishtothinkherselfugly，asanintelligentmantothinkhimselfafool。Anexaggeratedmodesty（ararefault，tobesure）isakindofingratitudetowardsnature。Anhonestpride，onthecontrary，isthemarkofastrongandbeautifulsoul，revealedbymanlyfeaturesmouldedbyfeeling。
　　Ifone’sorganismisanadvantage，andthepreeminentadvantage，andthesourceofallothers，educationisthesecond。Thebestmadebrainwouldbeatotallosswithoutit，justasthebestconstitutedmanwouldbebutacommonpeasant，withoutknowledgeofthewaysoftheworld。But，ontheotherhand，whatwouldbetheuseofthemostexcellentschool，withoutamatrixperfectlyopentotheentranceandconceptionofideas？Ilestaussiimpossiblededonneruneseuleidé；eà；unhommeprivé；detouslessens，quedefaireunenfantà；
　　unefemmeà；laquellelanatureauraitpoussé；ladistractionjusqu’à；oublierdefaireunevulve，commejel’aivudansune，quin’avaitnifente，nivagin，nimatrice，etquipourcetteraisonfutdé；marié；eaprè；sdixansdemariage。
　　Butifthebrainisatthesametimewellorganizedandwelleducated，itisafertilesoil，wellsown，thatbringsforthahundredfoldwhatithasreceived：or（toleavethefiguresofspeechoftenneededtoexpresswhatonemeans，andtoaddgracetotruthitself）theimagination，raisedbyarttotherareandbeautifuldignityofgenius，apprehendsexactlyalltherelationsoftheideasithasconceived，andtakesineasilyanastoundingnumberofobjects，inordertodeducefromthemalongchainofconsequences，whichareagainbutnewrelations，producedbyacomparisonwiththefirst，towhichthesoulfindsaperfectresemblance。Suchis，Ithink，thegenerationofintelligence。Isay``finds’’asIbeforegavetheepithet``apparent’’tothelikenessofobjects，notbecauseIthinkthatoursensesarealwaysdeceivers，asFatherMalebranchehasclaimed，orthatoureyes，naturallyalittleunsteady，failtoseeobjectsastheyareinthemselves（thoughmicroscopesprovethistouseveryday）butinordertoavoidanydisputewiththePyrrhonians，amongwhomBayleiswellknown。
　　IsayoftruthingeneralwhatM。deFontenellesaysofcertaintruthsinparticular，thatwemustsacrificeitinordertoremainongoodtermswithsociety。Anditaccordswiththegentlenessofmycharacter，toavoidalldisputesunlesstowhatconversation[！]。TheCartesianswouldhereinvainmakeanonsetuponmewiththeirinnateideas。IcertainlywouldnotgivemyselfaquarterofthetroublethatM。Locketook，toattacksuchchimeras。
　　Intruth，whatistheuseofwritingaponderousvolumetoproveadoctrinewhichbecameanaxiomthreethousandyearsago？
　　Accordingtotheprincipleswhichwehavelaiddown，andwhichweconsidertrue；hewhohasthemostimaginationshouldberegardedashavingthemostintelligenceorgenius，forallthesewordsaresynonymous；andagain，onlybyashamefulabuse[ofterms]dowethinkthatwearesayingdifferentthings，whenwearemerelyusingdifferentwords，differentsounds，towhichnoideaorrealdistinctionisattached。
　　Thefinest，greatestorstrongestimaginationisthentheonemostsuitedtothesciencesaswellastothearts。IdonotpretendtosaywhethermoreintellectisnecessarytoexcelintheartofAristotleorofDescartesthantoexcelinthatofEuripidesorofSophocles，andwhethernaturehastakenmoretroubletomakeNewtonthantomakeCorneille，thoughIdoubtthis。Butitiscertainthatimaginationalone，differentlyapplied，hasproducedtheirdiversetriumphsandtheirimmortalglory。
　　Ifoneisknownashavinglittlejudgmentandmuchimagination，thismeansthattheimaginationhasbeenlefttoomuchalone，has，asitwere，occupiedmostofthetimeinlookingatitselfinthemirrorofitssensations，hasnotsufficientlyformedthehabitofexaminingthesensationsthemselvesattentively。[Itmeansthattheimagination]hasbeenmoreimpressedbyimagesthanbytheirtruthorthelikeness。
　　Truly，soquickaretheresponsesoftheimaginationthatifattention，thatkeyormotherofthesciences，doesnotdoitspart，imaginationcandolittlemorethanrunoverandskimitsobjects。
　　Seethatbirdonthebough：itseemsalwaysreadytoflyaway。Imaginationislikethebird，alwayscarriedonwardbytheturmoilofthebloodandtheanimalspirits。Onewaveleavesamark，effacedbytheonethatfollows；thesoulpursuesit，ofteninvain：itmustexpecttoregretthelossofthatwhichithasnotquicklyenoughseizedandfixed。Thus，imagination，thetrueimageoftime，isbeingceaselesslydestroyedandrenewed。
　　Suchisthechaosandthecontinuousquicksuccessionofourideas：
　　theydriveeachotherawayevenasonewaveyieldstoanother。Therefore，ifimaginationdoesnot，asitwere，useonesetofitsmusclestomaintainakindofequilibriumwiththefibersofthebrain，tokeepitsattentionforawhileuponanobjectthatisonthepointofdisappearing，andtopreventitselffromcontemplatingprematurelyanotherobject-[unlesstheimaginationdoesallthis]，itwillneverbeworthyofthefinenameofjudgment。Itwillexpressvividlywhatithasperceivedinthesamefashion：itwillcreateorators，musicians，painters，poets，butneverasinglephilosopher。Onthecontrary，iftheimaginationbetrainedfromchildhoodtobridleitselfandtokeepfrombeingcarriedawaybyitsownimpetuosity-animpetuositywhichcreatesonlybrilliantenthusiasts-andtocheck，torestrain，itsideas，toexaminetheminalltheiraspectsinordertoseeallsidesofanobject，thentheimagination，readyinjudgment，willcomprehendthegreatestpossiblesphereofobjects，throughreasoning；
　　anditsvivacity（alwayssogoodasigninchildren，andonlyneedingtoberegulatedbystudyandtraining）willbeonlyafar-seeinginsightwithoutwhichlittleprogresscanbemadeinthesciences。
　　Sucharethesimplefoundationsuponwhichtheedificeoflogichasbeenreared。Naturehasbuiltthesefoundationsforthewholehumanrace，butsomehaveusedthem，whileothershaveabusedthem。
　　Inspiteofalltheseadvantagesofmanoveranimals，itisdoinghimhonortoplacehiminthesameclass。For，truly，uptoacertainage，heismoreofananimalthanthey，sinceatbirthhehaslessinstinct。Whatanimalwoulddieofhungerinthemidstofariverofmilk？Manalone。Likethatchildofoldentimewhomamodernwriterrefers，followingArnobius，heknowsneitherthefoodssuitableforhim，northewaterthatcandrownhim，northefirethatcanreducehimtoashes。Lightawaxcandleforthefirsttimeunderachild’seyes，andhewillmechanicallyputhisfingersintheflameasiftofindoutwhatisthenewthingthathesees。Itisathisowncostthathewilllearnofthedanger，buthewillnotbecaughtagain。Or，putthechildwithananimalonaprecipice，thechildalonefallsoff；hedrownswheretheanimalwouldsaveitselfbyswimming。Atfourteenorfifteenyearsthechildknowshardlyanythingofthegreatpleasuresinstoreforhim，inthereproductionofhisspecies；whenheisayouth，hedoesnotknowexactlyhowtobehaveinagamewhichnatureteachesanimalssoquickly。Hehideshimselfasifhewereashamedoftakingpleasure，andofhavingbeenmadetobehappy，whileanimalsfranklygloryinbeingCynics。Withouteducation，theyarewithoutprejudices。Foronemoreexample，letusobserveadogandachildwhohavelosttheirmasteronahighway：thechildcriesanddoesnotknowtowhatsainttopray，whilethedog，betterhelpedbyhissenseofsmellthanthechildbyhisreason，soonfindshismaster。
　　Thusnaturemadeustobelowerthananimalsoratleasttoexhibitallthemore，becauseofthatnativeinferiority，thewonderfulefficacyofeducationwhichaloneraisesusfromtheleveloftheanimalsandliftsusabovethem。Butshallwegrantthissamedistinctiontothedeafandtotheblind，toimbeciles，madmen，orsavages，ortothosewhohavebeenbroughtupinthewoodswithanimals；tothosewhohavelosttheirimaginationthroughmelancholia，orinshorttoallthoseanimalsinhumanformwhogiveevidenceofonlytherudestinstinct？No，allthese，menofbodybutnotofmind，donotdeservetobeclassedbythemselves。
　　Wedonotintendtohidefromourselvestheargumentsthatcanbebroughtforwardagainstourbeliefandinfavorofaprimitivedistinctionbetweenmenandanimals。Somesaythatthereisinmananaturallaw，aknowledgeofgoodandevil，whichhasneverbeenimprintedontheheartofanimals。
　　Butisthisobjection，orratherthisassertion，basedonobservation？
　　Anassertionunfoundedonobservationmayberejectedbyaphilosopher。Haveweeverhadasingleexperiencewhichconvincesusthatmanalonehasbeenenlightenedbyaraydeniedallotheranimals？Ifthereisnosuchexperience，wecannomoreknowwhatgoesoninanimals’mindsoreveninthemindsofothermen，thanwecanhelpfeelingwhataffectstheinnerpartofourownbeing。Weknowthatwethink，andwefeelremorse-anintimatefeelingforcesustorecognizethisonlytoowell；butthisfeelinginusisinsufficienttoenableustojudgetheremorseofothers。Thatiswhywehavetotakeothersattheirwords，orjudgethembythesensibleandexternalsignswehavenoticedinourselveswhenweexperiencedthesameaccusationsofconscienceandthesametorments。
　　Inordertodecidewhetheranimalswhichdonottalkhavereceivedthenaturallaw，wemust，therefore，haverecoursetothosesignstowhichIhavejustreferred，ifanysuchexist。Thefactsseemtoproveit。Adogthatbitthemasterwhowasteasingit，seemedtorepentaminuteafterwards；itlookedsad，ashamed，afraidtoshowitself，andseemedtoconfessitsguiltbyacrouchinganddowncastair。Historyoffersusafamousexampleofalionwhichwouldnotdevouramanabandonedtoitsfury，becauseitrecognizedhimasitsbenefactor。Howmuchmightitbewishedthatmanhimselfalwaysshowedthesamegratitudeforkindnesses，andthesamerespectforhumanity！Thenweshouldnolongerfeareitherungratefulwretches，orwarswhicharetheplagueofthehumanraceandtherealexecutionersofthenaturallaw。
　　Butabeingtowhichnaturehasgivensuchaprecociousandenlightenedinstinct，whichjudges，combines，reasons，anddeliberatesasfarasthesphereofitsactivityextendsandpermits，abeingwhichfeelsattachmentbecauseofbenefitsreceived，andwhichleavingamasterwhotreatsitbadlygoestoseekabetterone，abeingwithastructurelikeours，whichperformsthesameacts，hasthesamepassions，thesamegriefs，thesamepleasures，moreorlessintenseaccordingtotheswayoftheimaginationandthedelicacyofthenervousorganization-doesnotsuchabeingshowclearlythatitknowsitsfaultsandours，understandsgoodandevil，andinaword，hasconsciousnessofwhatitdoes？Woulditssoul，whichfeelsthesamejoys，thesamemortificationandthesamediscomfiturewhichwefeel，remainutterlyunmovedbydisgustwhenitsawafellow-creaturetorntobits，orwhenithaditselfpitilesslydismemberedthisfellow-creature？
　　Ifthisbegranted，itfollowsthatthepreciousgiftnowinquestionwouldnothavebeendeniedtoanimals：forsincetheyshowussuresignsofrepentance，aswellasofintelligence，whatisthereabsurdinthinkingthatbeings，almostasperfectmachinesasourselves，are，likeus，madetounderstandandtofeelnature？
　　Letnooneobjectthatanimals，forthemostpart，aresavagebeasts，incapableofrealizingtheevilthattheydo；fordoallmendiscriminatebetterbetweenviceandvirtue？Thereisferocityinourspeciesaswellasintheirs。Menwhoareinthebarbaroushabitofbreakingthenaturallawarenottormentedasmuchbyit，asthosewhotransgressforthefirsttime，andwhohavenotbeenhardenedbytheforceofhabit。Thesamethingistrueofanimalsasofmen-bothmaybemoreorlessferociousintemperament，andbothbecomemoresobylivingwithotherslikethemselves。