TheimmediatesourceofthesemanifestationsseemstohavebeenthewildrevelsofSt。John’sDay。Inthoserevelssundryoldheathenceremonieshadbeenperpetuated,butunderanominallyChristianform:wildBacchanaliandanceshadthusbecomeasemi-religiousceremonial。Thereligiousandsocialatmospherewaspropitioustothedevelopmentofthegermsofdiabolicinfluencevitalizedintheseorgies,andtheywerescatteredfarandwidethroughlargetractsoftheNetherlandsandGermany,andespeciallythroughthewholeregionoftheRhine。AtColognewehearoffivehundredafflictedatonce;atMetzofelevenhundreddancersinthestreets;atStrasburgofyetmorepainfulmanifestations;andfromtheseandothercitiestheyspreadthroughthevillagesandruraldistricts。
Thegreatmajorityofthesuffererswerewomen,butthereweremanymen,andespeciallymenwhoseoccupationsweresedentary。
Remediesweretrieduponalargescale-exorcismsfirst,butespeciallypilgrimagestotheshrineofSt。Vitus。Theexorcismsaccomplishedsolittlethatpopularfaithinthemgrewsmall,andthemaineffectofthepilgrimagesseemedtobetoincreasethedisorderbysubjectinggreatcrowdstothediaboliccontagion。Yetanothercurativemeanswasseenintheflagellantprocessions——vastcrowdsofmen,women,andchildrenwhowanderedthroughthecountry,screaming,praying,beatingthemselveswithwhips,imploringtheDivinemercyandtheinterventionofSt。
Vitus。MostfearfulofallthemainattemptsatcurewerethepersecutionsoftheJews。AfeelinghadevidentlyspreadamongthepeopleatlargethattheAlmightywasfilledwithwrathatthetolerationofhisenemies,andmightbepropitiatedbytheirdestruction:intheprincipalcitiesandvillagesofGermany,then,theJewswereplundered,tortured,andmurderedbytensofthousands。Nodoubtthat,inallthis,greedwasunitedwithfanaticism;buttheargumentoffanaticismwassimpleandcogent;thedartwhichpiercedthebreastofIsraelatthattimewaswingedandpointedfromitsownsacredbooks:thebiblicalargumentwasthesameusedinvariousagestopromotepersecution;andthiswas,thatthewrathoftheAlmightywasstirredagainstthosewhotoleratedhisenemies,andthatbecauseofthistolerationthesamecursehadnowcomeuponEuropewhichtheprophetSamuelhaddenouncedagainstSaulforshowingmercytotheenemiesofJehovah。
Itisbutjusttosaythatvariouspopesandkingsexertedthemselvestocheckthesecruelties。AlthoughtheargumentofSamueltoSaulwasusedwithfrightfuleffecttwohundredyearslaterbyamostconscientiouspopeinspurringontherulersofFrancetoextirpatetheHuguenots,thepapacyinthefourteenthcenturystoodformercytotheJews。Buteventhisinterventionwaslongwithouteffect;thetideofpopularsuperstitionhadbecometoostrongtobecurbedevenbythespiritualandtemporalpowers。[386]
[386]SeeWellhausen,articleIsrael,intheEncyclopaediaBritannica,ninthedition;alsothereprintofitinhisHistoryofIsrael,London,1885,p。546。Onthegeneralsubjectofthedemoniacalepidemics,seeIsensee,GeschichtederMedicin,vol。
i,pp。260etseq。;alsoHecker’sessay。AstothehistoryofSaul,asacuriouslandmarkinthegeneraldevelopmentofthesubject,seeTheCaseofSaul,showingthathisDisorderwasaRealSpiritualPossession,byGranvilleSharp,London,1807,passim。AstothecitationofSaul’scasebythereigningPopetospurontheFrenchkingsagainsttheHuguenots,IhopetogivealistofauthoritiesinafuturechapteronTheChurchandInternationalLaw。Forthegeneralsubject,withinterestingdetails,seeLaurent,Etudessurl’Histoiredel’Humanities。SeealsoMaury,LaMagieetl’Astrologiedansl’AntiquiteetauMoyenAge。
Againstthisoverwhelmingcurrentscienceformanygenerationscoulddonothing。Throughoutthewholeofthefifteenthcenturyphysiciansappearedtoshunthewholematter。Occasionallysomemorethoughtfulmanventuredtoascribesomephaseofthediseasetonaturalcauses;butthiswasanunpopulardoctrine,andevidentlydangeroustothosewhodevelopedit。
Yet,inthebeginningofthesixteenthcentury,casesof“possession“onalargescalebegantobebroughtwithinthescopeofmedicalresearch,andthemanwholedinthisevolutionofmedicalsciencewasParacelsus。HeitwaswhofirstbademodernEuropethinkforamomentupontheideathatthesediseasesareinflictedneitherbysaintsnordemons,andthatthe“dancingpossession“issimplyaformofdisease,ofwhichthecuremaybeeffectedbyproperremediesandregimen。
Paracelsusappearstohaveescapedanyseriousinterference:ittooksometime,perhaps,forthetheologicalleaderstounderstandthathehad“letanewidealooseupontheplanet。”
buttheysoonunderstoodit,andtheircoursewassimple。Foraboutfiftyyearsthenewideawaswellkeptunder;butin1563
anotherphysician,JohnWier,ofCleves,reviveditatmuchrisktohispositionandreputation。[387]
[387]ForParacelsus,seeIsensee,vol。i,chap。xi;alsoPettigrew,SuperstitionsconnectedwiththeHistoryandPracticeofMedicineandSurgery,London,1844,introductorychapter。ForWier,seeauthoritiesgiveninmypreviouschapter。
Althoughthenewideawasthusresisted,itmusthavetakensomeholduponthoughtfulmen,forwefindthatinthesecondhalfofthesamecenturytheSt。Vitus’sdanceandformsofdemoniacalpossessionakintoitgraduallydiminishedinfrequencyandweresometimestreatedasdiseases。Intheseventeenthcentury,sofarasthenorthofEuropeisconcerned,thesedisplaysof“possession“onagreatscalehadalmostentirelyceased;hereandtherecasesappeared,buttherewasnolongerthewildrageextendingovergreatdistrictsandafflictingthousandsofpeople。Yetitwas,asweshallsee,inthissameseventeenthcentury,inthelastexpiringthroesofthissuperstition,thatitledtotheworstactsofcruelty。[388]
[388]Astothisdiminutionofwidespreadepidemicattheendofthesixteenthcentury,seecitationsfromSchenckvonGrafenberginHecker,asabove;alsoHorst。
WhilethisSatanicinfluencehadbeenexertedonsogreatascalethroughoutnorthernEurope,adisplaystrangelylikeit,yetstrangelyunlikeit,hadbeengoingoninItaly。There,too,epidemicsofdancingandjumpingseizedgroupsandcommunities;
buttheywereattributedtoaphysicalcause——thetheorybeingthatthebiteofatarantulainsomewayprovokedasupernaturalintervention,ofwhichdancingwastheaccompanimentandcure。
InthemiddleofthesixteenthcenturyFracastoromadeanevidentimpressionontheleadersofItalianopinionbyusingmedicalmeansinthecureofthepossessed;thoughitisworthyofnotethatthemedicinewhichheappliedsuccessfullywassuchaswenowknowcouldnotbyanydirecteffectsofitsownaccomplishanycure:whatevereffectitexertedwaswroughtupontheimaginationofthesufferer。Thisformof“possession。”then,passedoutofthesupernaturaldomain,andbecameknownas“tarantism。”ThoughitcontinuedmuchlongerthanthecorrespondingmanifestationsinnorthernEurope,bythebeginningoftheeighteenthcenturyithadnearlydisappeared;and,thoughspecialmanifestationsofitonasmallscalestillbreakoutoccasionally,itsmainsurvivalisthe“tarantella。”whichthetravellerseesdancedatNaplesasacatchpennyassaultuponhispurse。[389]
[389]SeeHecker’sEpidemicsoftheMiddleAges,pp。87-104;alsoextractsandobservationsinCarpenter’sMentalPhysiology,London,1888,pp。321-315;alsoMaudsley,PathologyofMind,pp。
73andfollowing。
But,longbeforethisformof“possession“hadbeguntodisappear,therehadarisennewmanifestations,apparentlymoreinexplicable。Asthefirstgreatepidemicsofdancingandjumpinghadtheirmainorigininareligiousceremony,sovariousnewformshadtheirprincipalsourceinwhatweresupposedtobecentresofreligiouslife——intheconvents,andmoreespeciallyinthoseforwomen。
Outofmanyexampleswemaytakeafewastypical。
Inthefifteenthcenturythechroniclersassureusthat,aninmateofaGermannunneryhavingbeenseizedwithapassionforbitinghercompanions,hermaniaspreaduntilmost,ifnotall,ofherfellow-nunsbegantobiteeachother;andthatthispassionforbitingpassedfromconventtoconventintootherpartsofGermany,intoHolland,andevenacrosstheAlpsintoItaly。
So,too,inaFrenchconvent,whenanunbegantomewlikeacat,othersbeganmewing;thediseasespread,andwasonlycheckedbyseveremeasures。[390]
[390]SeecitationfromZimmermann’sSolitude,inCarpenter,pp。
34,314。
InthesixteenthcenturytheProtestantReformationgavenewforcetowitchcraftpersecutionsinGermany,thenewChurchendeavouringtoshowthatinzealandpowersheexceededtheold。
ButinFranceinfluentialopinionseemednotsofavourabletotheseformsofdiabolicalinfluence,especiallyafterthepublicationofMontaigne’sEssays,in1580,hadspreadascepticalatmosphereovermanyleadingminds。
In1588occurredinFranceacasewhichindicatesthegrowthofthisscepticaltendencyeveninthehigherregionsofthefrenchChurch,InthatyearMarthaBrossier,acountrygirl,was,itwasclaimed,possessedofthedevil。TheyoungwomanwastoallappearanceunderdirectSatanicinfluence。Sheroamedabout,beggingthatthedemonmightbecastoutofher,andherimprecationsandblasphemiesbroughtconsternationwherevershewent。Myth-makingbeganonalargescale;storiesgrewandsped。TheCapuchinmonksthunderedfromthepulpitthroughoutFranceregardingtheseproofsofthepowerofSatan:thealarmspread,untilatlastevenjovial,scepticalKingHenryIVwasdisquieted,andthereigningPopewasaskedtotakemeasurestowardofftheevil。
Fortunately,therethensatintheepiscopalchairofAngersaprelatewhohadapparentlyimbibedsomethingofMontaigne’sscepticism——Miron;and,whenthecasewasbroughtbeforehim,hesubmittedittothemosttime-honouredofsacredtests。Hefirstbroughtintothegirl’spresencetwobowls,onecontainingholywater,theotherordinaryspringwater,butallowedhertodrawafalseinferenceregardingthecontentsofeach:theresultwasthatatthepresentationoftheholywaterthedevilswereperfectlycalm,butwhentriedwiththeordinarywatertheythrewMarthaintoconvulsions。
Thenextexperimentmadebytheshrewdbishopwastosimilarpurpose。Hecommandedloudlythatabookofexorcismsbebrought,andunderapreviousarrangement,hisattendantsbroughthimacopyofVirgil。NosoonerhadthebishopbeguntoreadthefirstlineoftheAeneidthanthedevilsthrewMarthaintoconvulsions。OnanotheroccasionaLatindictionary,whichshehadreasontobelievewasabookofexorcisms,producedasimilareffect。
Althoughthebishopwastherebyledtopronouncethewholematteramixtureofinsanityandimposture,theCapuchinmonksdenouncedthisviewasgodless。TheyinsistedthatthesetestsreallyprovedthepresenceofSatan——showinghiscunningincoveringuptheproofsofhisexistence。Thepeopleatlargesidedwiththeirpreachers,andMarthawastakentoParis,wherevariousexorcismsweretried,andtheParisianmobbecameasdevotedtoherastheyhadbeentwentyyearsbeforetothemurderersoftheHuguenots,astheybecametwocenturieslatertoRobespierre,andastheymorerecentlyweretoGeneralBoulanger。
ButBishopMironwasnottheonlysceptic。TheCardinaldeGondi,ArchbishopofParis,chargedthemosteminentphysiciansofthecity,andamongthemRiolan,toreportuponthecase。
Variousexaminationsweremade,andtheverdictwasthatMarthawassimplyahystericalimpostor。Thanks,then,tomedicalscience,andtothesetwoenlightenedecclesiasticswhosummoneditsaid,whatfiftyorahundredyearsearlierwouldhavebeenthecentreofawidespreadepidemicofpossessionwasisolated,andhinderedfromproducinganationalcalamity。
Inthefollowingyearthishealthfulgrowthofscepticismcontinued。Fourteenpersonshadbeencondemnedtodeathforsorcery,butpublicopinionwasstrongenoughtosecureanewexaminationbyaspecialcommission,whichreportedthat“theprisonersstoodmoreinneedofmedicinethanofpunishment。”andtheywerereleased。[391]
[391]FortheBrossiercase,seeClameil,LaFolie,tomei,livre3,c。2。ForthecasesatTours,seeMadden,Phantasmata,vol。
i,pp。309,310。
Butduringtheseventeenthcentury,theclergygenerallyhavingexertedthemselvesheroicallytoremovethis“evilheartofunbelief“solargelyduetoMontaigne,atheologicalreactionwasbroughtonnotonlyinFrancebutinallpartsoftheChristianworld,andthebeliefindiabolicpossession,thoughcertainlydying,flickereduphectic,hot,andmalignantthroughthewholecentury。In1611wehaveatypicalcaseatAix。Anepidemicofpossessionhavingoccurredthere,Gauffridi,amanofnote,wasburnedatthestakeasthecauseofthetrouble。Michaelis,oneofthepriestlyexorcists,declaredthathehaddrivenoutsixty-fivehundreddevilsfromoneofthepossessed。Similarepidemicsoccurredinvariouspartsoftheworld。[392]
[392]SeeDagron,chap。ii。