Astheseventeenthcenturywenton，ingenuityinallpartsofEuropeseemeddevotedtonewdevelopmentsoffetichism。AverycuriousmonumentofthisevolutioninItalyexistsintheRoyalGalleryofPaintingsatNaples，wheremaybeseenseveralpicturesrepresentingthemeasurestakentosavethecityfromtheplagueduringtheseventeenthcentury，butespeciallyfromtheplagueof1656。OneenormouscanvasgivesacuriousexampleofthetheologicaldoctrineofintercessionbetweenmanandhisMaker，spunouttoitslogicallength。Inthebackgroundistheplague-strickencity：intheforegroundthepeopleareprayingtothecityauthoritiestoaverttheplague；thecityauthoritiesareprayingtotheCarthusianmonks；themonksareprayingtoSt。
　　Martin，St。Bruno，andSt。Januarius；thesethreesaintsintheirturnareprayingtotheVirgin；theVirginpraystoChrist；
　　andChristpraystotheAlmighty。Stillanotherpicturerepresentsthepeople，ledbythepriests，executingwithhorribletorturestheJews，heretics，andwitcheswhoweresupposedtocausethepestilenceof1656，whileintheheavenstheVirginandSt。JanuariusareintercedingwithChristtosheathehisswordandstoptheplague。
　　Insuchanatmosphereofthoughtitisnowonderthatthedeathstatisticswereappalling。Wehearofdistrictsinwhichnotmorethanoneintenescaped，andsomewereentirelydepopulated。
　　SuchappealstofetichagainstpestilencehavecontinuedinNaplesdowntoourowntime，thegreatsavingpowerbeingtheliquefactionofthebloodofSt。Januarius。In1856thepresentwritersawthismiracleperformedinthegorgeouschapelofthesaintformingpartoftheCathedralofNaples。Thechapelwasfilledwithdevoutworshippersofeveryclass，fromtheofficialsincourtdress，representingtheBourbonking，downtothelowestlazzaroni。Thereliquaryofsilver-gilt，shapedlikealargehumanhead，andsupposedtocontaintheskullofthesaint，wasfirstplaceduponthealtar；next，twovialscontainingadarksubstancesaidtobehisblood，havingbeentakenfromthewall，werealsoplaceduponthealtarnearthehead。Asthepriestssaidmasses，theyturnedthevialsfromtimetotime，andtheliquefactionbeingsomewhatdelayed，thegreatcrowdofpeopleburstoutintomoreandmoreimpassionedexpostulationandpetitionstothesaint。Justinfrontofthealtarwerethelazzaroniwhoclaimedtobedescendantsofthesaint’sfamily，andthesewereespeciallyimportunate：atsuchtimestheybeg，theyscold，theyeventhreaten；theyhavebeenknowntoabusethesaintroundly，andtotellhimthat，ifhedidnotcaretoshowhisfavourtothecitybyliquefyinghisblood，St。CosmoandSt。Damianwerejustasgoodsaintsashe，andwouldnodoubtbeverygladtohavethecitydevoteitselftothem。Atlast，ontheoccasionabovereferredto，thepriest，turningthevialssuddenly，announcedthatthesainthadperformedthemiracle，andinstantlypriests，people，choir，andorganburstforthintoagreatTeDeum；bellsrang，andcannonroared；aprocessionwasformed，andtheshrinecontainingthesaint’srelicswascarriedthroughthestreets，thepeopleprostratingthemselvesonbothsidesofthewayandthrowingshowersofroseleavesupontheshrineanduponthepathbeforeit。Thecontentsofthesepreciousvialsareaninterestingrelicindeed，fortheyrepresenttousvividlythatperiodwhenmenwhowerewillingtogotothestakefortheirreligiousopinionsthoughtitnotwrongtosavethesoulsoftheirfellowmenbypiousmendacityandconsecratedfraud。Tothescientificeyethismiracleisverysimple：thevialscontain，nodoubt，oneofthosemixturesfusingatlowtemperature，which，whilekeptinitsplacewithinthecoldstonewallsofthechurch，remainssolid，butuponbeingbroughtoutintothehot，crowdedchapel，andfondledbythewarmhandsofthepriests，graduallysoftensandbecomesliquid。Itwascurioustonote，atthetimeabovementioned，thateventhehighfunctionariesrepresentingthekinglookedatthemiraclewithawe：theyevidentlyfound“joyinbelieving。”andoneofthemassuredthepresentwriterthattheonlythingwhichCOULD
　　causeitwasthedirectexerciseofmiraculouspower。
　　Itmaybereassuringtopersonscontemplatingavisittothatbeautifulcapitalinthesedays，that，whilethismiraclestillgoeson，itisnolongertheonlythingreliedupontopreservethepublichealth。Anunbelievinggeneration，especiallytaughtbytherecenthorrorsofthecholera，hasthoughtitwisetosupplementthepowerofSt。Januariusbythe“Risanamento。”
　　begunmainlyin1885andstillgoingon。Thedrainageofthecityhasthusbeengreatlyimproved，theoldwellsclosed，andpurewaterintroducedfromthemountains。Moreover，atthelastoutburstofcholeraafewyearssince，anobledeedwasdonewhichbyitsmoraleffectexercisedawidespreadhealingpower。
　　Uponhearingofthisterrificoutbreakofpestilence，KingHumbert，thoughunderthebanoftheChurch，brokefromalltheentreatiesofhisfriendsandfamily，wentdirectlyintotheplague-strickencity，andthere，inthestreets，publicplaces，andhospitals，encouragedtheliving，comfortedthesickanddying，andtookmeanstopreventafurtherspreadofthepestilence。TothecreditoftheChurchitshouldalsobesaidthattheCardinalArchbishopSanFelicejoinedhiminthis。
　　Miracleformiracle，theeffectofthisvisitofthekingseemstohavesurpassedanythingthatSt。Januariuscoulddo，foritgaveconfidenceandcouragewhichverysoonshowedtheireffectsindiminishingthenumberofdeaths。ItwouldcertainlyappearthatinthismatterthekingwasmoredirectlyunderDivineinspirationandguidancethanwasthePope；forthefactthatKingHumbertwenttoNaplesattheriskofhislife，whileLeoXIIIremainedinsafetyattheVatican，impressedtheItalianpeopleinfavourofthenewregimeandagainsttheoldasnothingelsecouldhavedone。
　　InotherpartsofItalythesameprogressisseenunderthenewItaliangovernment。Venice，Genoa，Leghorn，andespeciallyRome，whichundertheswayofthepopeswasscandalouslyfilthy，arenowamongthecleanestcitiesinEurope。WhattherelicsofSt。
　　Januarius，St。Anthony，andamultitudeoflocalfetichesthroughoutItalywereforagesutterlyunabletodo，hasbeenaccomplishedbythedevelopmentofthesimplestsanitaryprinciples。
　　Spainshowsmuchthesamecharacteristicsofacountrywheretheologicalconsiderationshavebeenall-controllingforcenturies。DowntotheinterferenceofNapoleonwiththatkingdom，allsanitaryeffortswerelookeduponasabsurdifnotimpious。ThemostsoberaccountsoftravellersintheSpanishPeninsulauntilarecentperiodaresometimesirresistiblycomicintheirpicturesofpeoplesinsistingonmaintainingarrangementsmorefilthythananywhichwouldbepermittedinanAmericanbackwoodscamp，whiletakingenormouspainstostoppestilencebybell-ringings，processions，andnewdressesbestoweduponthelocalMadonnas；yethere，too，ahealthfulscepticismhasbeguntoworkforgood。Theoutbreaksofcholerainrecentyearshavedonesomelittletobringinbettersanitarymeasures。[334]
　　[334]AstotherecoursetofetichisminItalyintimeofplague，andthepicturesshowingtheintercessionofJanuariusandothersaints，IhavereliedonmyownnotesmadeatvariousvisitstoNaples。Forthegeneralsubject，seePeter，EtudesNapolitaines，especiallychaptersvandvi。FordetailedaccountsoftheliquefactionofSt。Januarius’sbloodbyeye-witnesses，oneaneminentCatholicoftheseventeenthcentury，andtheotheradistinguishedProtestantofourowntime，seeMurray’sHandbookforSouthItalyandNaples，descriptionoftheCathedralofSanGennaro。Foraninterestingseriesofarticlesonthesubject，seeTheCatholicWorldforSeptember，October，andNovember，1871。FortheincrediblefilthinessofthegreatcitiesofSpain，andtheresistanceofthepeople，downtoarecentperiod，tothemostordinaryregulationspromptedbydecency，seeBascome，HistoryoftheEpidemicPestilences，especiallypp。119，120。SeealsotheAutobiographyofD’Ewes，London，1845，vol。
　　ii，p。446；also，forvariouscitations，thesecondvolumeofBuckle，HistoryofCivilizationinEngland。
　　II。GRADUALDECAYOFTHEOLOGICALVIEWSREGARDINGSANITATION。
　　Wehaveseenhowpowerfulinvariousnationsespeciallyobedienttotheologyweretheforcesworkinginoppositiontotheevolutionofhygiene，andweshallfindthissameopposition，lesseffective，itistrue，butstillactingwithgreatpower，incountrieswhichhadbecomesomewhatemancipatedfromtheologicalcontrol。InEngland，duringthemedievalperiod，persecutionsofJewswereoccasionallyresortedto，andhereandtherewehearofpersecutionsofwitches；but，astorturewasrarelyusedinEngland，therewere，fromthosechargedwithproducingplague，fewofthosetorture-bornconfessionswhichinothercountriesgaverisetowidespreadcruelties。DowntothesixteenthandseventeenthcenturiesthefilthinessintheordinarymodeoflifeinEnglandwassuchaswecannowhardlyconceive：fermentingorganicmaterialwasallowedtoaccumulateandbecomeapartoftheearthenfloorsofruraldwellings；andthisundoubtedlydevelopedthegermsofmanydiseases。InhisnotedlettertothephysicianofCardinalWolsey，ErasmusdescribesthefilththusincorporatedintothefloorsofEnglishhouses，and，whatisoffarmoreimportance，heshowsaninklingofthetruecauseofthewastingdiseasesoftheperiod。Hesays，“IfIenteredintoachamberwhichhadbeenuninhabitedformonths，Iwasimmediatelyseizedwithafever。”Heascribedthefearfulplagueofthesweatingsicknesstothiscause。So，too，thenotedDr。Caiusadvisedsanitaryprecautionsagainsttheplague，andinafter-generations，Mead，Pringle，andothersurgedthem；buttheprevailingthoughtwastoostrong，andlittlewasdone。EventhefloorofthepresencechamberofQueenElizabethinGreenwichPalacewas“coveredwithhay，aftertheEnglishfashion。”asoneofthechroniclerstellsus。
　　Intheseventeenthcentury，aidinthesegreatscourgeswasmainlysoughtinspecialchurchservices。TheforemostEnglishchurchmenduringthatcenturybeinggreatlygiventostudyoftheearlyfathersoftheChurch；thetheologicaltheoryofdisease，sodeartothefathers，stillheldsway，andthiswasthecasewhenthevariousvisitationsreachedtheirclimaxinthegreatplagueofLondonin1665，whichsweptoffmorethanahundredthousandpeoplefromthatcity。Theattemptsatmeetingitbysanitarymeasureswerefewandpoor；themedicalsystemofthetimewasstilllargelytincturedbysuperstitionsresultingfrommedievalmodesofthought；hencethatplaguewasgenerallyattributedtotheDivinewrathcausedby“theprophaningoftheSabbath。”TextsfromNumbers，thePsalms，Zechariah，andtheApocalypseweredweltuponinthepulpitstoshowthatplaguesaresentbytheAlmightytopunishsin；andperhapsthemostghastlyfigureamongallthosefearfulscenesdescribedbyDeFoeisthatofthenakedfanaticwalkingupanddownthestreetswithapanoffierycoalsuponhishead，and，afterthemannerofJonahatNineveh，proclaimingwoetothecity，anditsdestructioninfortydays。
　　Thatsincausedthisplagueiscertain，butitwassanitarysin。
　　BothbeforeandafterthisculminationofthediseasecasesofplaguewereconstantlyoccurringinLondonthroughouttheseventeenthcentury；butaboutthebeginningoftheeighteenthcenturyitbegantodisappear。Thegreatfirehaddoneagoodworkbysweepingoffmanycausesandcentresofinfection，andtherehadcomewiderstreets，betterpavements，andimprovedwatersupply；sothat，withthedisappearanceoftheplague，otherdiseases，especiallydysenteries，whichhadformerlyragedinthecity，becamemuchlessfrequent。
　　But，whiletheseepidemicswerethuscheckedinLondon，othersdevelopedbysanitaryignoranceragedfearfullyboththereandelsewhere，andoftheseperhapsthemostfearfulwasthejailfever。Theprisonsofthatperiodwerevilebeyondbelief。Menwereconfinedindungeonsrarelyifeverdisinfectedafterthedeathofpreviousoccupants，andoncorridorsconnectingdirectlywiththefoulestsewers：therewasnoproperdisinfection，ventilation，ordrainage；henceinmostofthelargeprisonsforcriminalsordebtorsthejailfeverwassupreme，andfromthesecentresitfrequentlyspreadthroughtheadjacenttowns。Thiswasespeciallythecaseduringthesixteenthandseventeenthcenturies。IntheBlackAssizeatOxford，in1577，thechiefbaron，thesheriff，andaboutthreehundredmendiedwithinfortyhours。LordBacondeclaredthejailfever“themostperniciousinfectionnexttotheplague。”In1730，attheDorsetshireAssize，thechiefbaronandmanylawyerswerekilledbyit。TheHighSheriffofSomersetalsotookthediseaseanddied。A
　　singleScotchregiment，beinginfectedfromsomeprisoners，lostnolessthantwohundred。In1750thediseasewassovirulentatNewgate，intheheartofLondon，thattwojudges，thelordmayor，sundryaldermen，andmanyothers，diedofit。
　　Itisworthnotingthat，whileeffortsatsanitarydealingwiththisstateofthingswerefew，thetheologicalspiritdevelopedanewandspecialformofprayerforthesufferersandplaceditintheIrishPrayerBook。
　　Theseformsofprayerseemtohavebeenthemainreliancethroughthefirsthalfoftheeighteenthcentury。Butabout1750begantheworkofJohnHoward，whovisitedtheprisonsofEngland，madeknowntheirconditiontotheworld，andneverresteduntiltheyweregreatlyimproved。Thenheappliedthesamebenevolentactivitytoprisonsinothercountries，inthefarEast，andinsouthernEurope，andfinallylaiddownhislife，avictimtodiseasecontractedononeofhismissionsofmercy；butthehygienicreformshebeganweredevelopedmoreandmoreuntilthisfearfulblotuponmoderncivilizationwasremoved。[335]