Averystrikingfeatureinrecordedhistoryhasbeentherecurrenceofgreatpestilences。Variousindicationsinancienttimesshowtheirfrequency，whilethefamousdescriptionoftheplagueofAthensgivenbyThucydides，andthediscussionofitbyLucretius，exemplifytheirseverity。IntheMiddleAgestheyragedfromtimetotimethroughoutEurope：suchplaguesastheBlackDeathandthesweatingsicknesssweptoffvastmultitudes，thebestauthoritiesestimatingthatoftheformer，atthemiddleofthefourteenthcentury，morethanhalfthepopulationofEnglanddied，andthattwenty-fivemillionsofpeopleperishedinvariouspartsofEurope。In1552sixty-seventhousandpatientsdiedoftheplagueatParisalone，andin1580morethantwentythousand。ThegreatplagueinEnglandandotherpartsofEuropeintheseventeenthcenturywasalsofearful，andthatwhichsweptthesouthofEuropeintheearlypartoftheeighteenthcentury，aswellastheinvasionsbythecholeraatvarioustimesduringthenineteenth，whilelessterriblethanthoseofformeryears，haveleftadeepimpressupontheimaginationsofmen。
　　Fromtheearliestrecordswefindsuchpestilencesattributedtothewrathormaliceofunseenpowers。ThishadbeentheprevailingvieweveninthemostculturedagesbeforetheestablishmentofChristianity：inGreeceandRomeespecially，plaguesofvarioussortswereattributedtothewrathofthegods；inJudea，thescripturalrecordsofvariousplaguessentupontheearthbytheDivinefiatasapunishmentforsinshowthecontinuanceofthismodeofthought。Amongmanyexamplesandintimationsofthisinoursacredliterature，wehavetheepidemicwhichcarriedofffourteenthousandsevenhundredofthechildrenofIsrael，andwhichwasonlystayedbytheprayersandofferingsofAaron，thehighpriest；thedestructionofseventythousandmeninthepestilencebywhichKingDavidwaspunishedforthenumberingofIsrael，andwhichwasonlystoppedwhenthewrathofJahvehwasavertedbyburnt-offerings；theplaguethreatenedbytheprophetZechariah，andthatdelineatedintheApocalypse。FromthesesourcesthiscurrentofideaswaspouredintotheearlyChristianChurch，andhenceithasbeenthatduringnearlytwentycenturiessincetheriseofChristianity，anddowntoaperiodwithinlivingmemory，attheappearanceofanypestilencetheChurchauthorities，insteadofdevisingsanitarymeasures，haveverygenerallypreachedthenecessityofimmediateatonementforoffencesagainsttheAlmighty。
　　ThisviewoftheearlyChurchwasenrichedgreatlybyanewdevelopmentoftheologicalthoughtregardingthepowersofSatanandevilangels，thedeclarationofSt。Paulthatthegodsofantiquityweredevilsbeingcitedasitssufficientwarrant。[329]
　　[329]ForplagueduringthePeloponnesianwar，seeThucydides，vol。ii，pp。47-55，andvol。iii，p。87。Forageneralstatementregardingthisandotherplaguesinancienttimes，seeLucretius，vol。vi，pp。1090etseq。；andforatranslation，seevol。i，p。
　　179，inMunro’seditionof1886。ForearlyviewsofsanitaryscienceinGreeceandRome，seeForster’sInquiry，inThePamphleteer，vol。xxiv，p。404。FortheGreekviewoftheinterferenceofthegodsindisease，especiallyinpestilence，seeGrote’sHistoryofGreece，vol。i，pp。251，485，andvol。vi，p。213；seealsoHerodotus，lib。iii，c。xxxviii，andelsewhere。
　　FortheHebrewviewofthesameinterferencebytheAlmighty，seeespeciallyNumbersxi，4-34；alsoxvi，49；ISamuelxxiv；alsoPsalmcvi，29；alsothewell-knowntextsinZechariahandRevelation。ForSt。Paul’sdeclarationthatthegodsoftheheathenaredevils，seeICor。x，20。AstotheearlieroriginoftheplagueinEgypt，seeHaeser，’LehrbuchderGeschichtederMedicinundderepidemischenKrankheiten，Jena，1875-’82，vol。
　　iii，pp。15etseq。
　　Moreover，comets，fallingstars，andearthquakeswerethought，uponscripturalauthority，tobe“signsandwonders“——evidencesoftheDivinewrath，heraldsoffearfulvisitations；andthisbelief，actingpowerfullyuponthemindsofmillions，didmuchtocreateapanic-terrorsuretoincreaseepidemicdiseasewhereveritbrokeforth。
　　Themaincauseofthisimmensesacrificeoflifeisnowknowntohavebeenthewantofhygienicprecaution，bothintheEasterncentres，wherevariousplaguesweredeveloped，andintheEuropeantownsthroughwhichtheyspread。Andherecertaintheologicalreasoningscameintoresisttheevolutionofapropersanitarytheory。OutoftheOrienthadbeenpouredintothethinkingofwesternEuropethetheologicalideathattheabasementofmanaddstothegloryofGod；thatindignitytothebodymaysecuresalvationtothesoul；hence，thatcleanlinessbetokensprideandfilthinesshumility。Livinginfilthwasregardedbygreatnumbersofholymen，whosetanexampletotheChurchandtosociety，asanevidenceofsanctity。St。JeromeandtheBreviaryoftheRomanChurchdwellwithunctiononthefactthatSt。Hilarionlivedhiswholelifelonginutterphysicaluncleanliness；St。AthanasiusglorifiesSt。Anthonybecausehehadneverwashedhisfeet；St。Abraham’smoststrikingevidenceofholinesswasthatforfiftyyearshewashedneitherhishandsnorhisfeet；St。Sylvianeverwashedanypartofherbodysaveherfingers；St。Euphraxiabelongedtoaconventinwhichthenunsreligiouslyabstainedfrombathing。St。MaryofEgyptwaseminentforfilthiness；St。SimnonStyliteswasinthisrespectunspeakable——theleastthatcanbesaidis，thathelivedinordureandstenchintolerabletohisvisitors。TheLivesoftheSaintsdwellwithcomplacencyonthestatementthat，whensundryEasternmonksshowedadispositiontowashthemselves，theAlmightymanifestedhisdispleasurebydryingupaneighbouringstreamuntilthebathwhichithadsuppliedwasdestroyed。
　　ThereligiousworldwasfarindeedfromtheinspiredutteranceattributedtoJohnWesley，that“cleanlinessisnearakintogodliness。”Forcenturyaftercenturytheideaprevailedthatfilthinesswasakintoholiness；and，whilewemaywellbelievethatthedevotionoftheclergytothesickwasonecausewhy，duringthegreaterplagues，theylostsolargeaproportionoftheirnumbers，wecannotescapetheconclusionthattheirwantofcleanlinesshadmuchtodowithit。InFrance，duringthefourteenthcentury，GuydeChauliac，thegreatphysicianofhistime，notedparticularlythatcertainCarmelitemonkssufferedespeciallyfrompestilence，andthattheywereespeciallyfilthy。
　　DuringtheBlackDeathnolessthanninehundredCarthusianmonksfellvictimsinonegroupofbuildings。
　　Naturally，suchanexamplesetbytheveneratedleadersofthoughtexercisedgreatinfluencethroughoutsociety，andallthemorebecauseitjustifiedthecarelessnessandslothtowhichordinaryhumanityisprone。IntheprincipaltownsofEurope，aswellasinthecountryatlarge，downtoarecentperiod，themostordinarysanitaryprecautionswereneglected，andpestilencescontinuedtobeattributedtothewrathofGodorthemaliceofSatan。AstothewrathofGod，anewandpowerfulimpulsewasgiventothisbeliefintheChurchtowardtheendofthesixthcenturybySt。GregorytheGreat。In590，whenhewaselectedPope，thecityofRomewassufferingfromadreadfulpestilence：thepeopleweredyingbythousands；outofoneprocessionimploringthemercyofHeavennolessthaneightypersonsdiedwithinanhour：whattheheatheninanearlierepochhadattributedtoApollowasnowattributedtoJehovah，andchroniclerstellusthatfierydartswereseenflungfromheavenintothedevotedcity。Butfinally，inthemidstofallthishorror，Gregory，attheheadofapenitentialprocession，sawhoveringoverthemausoleumofHadrianthefigureofthearchangelMichael，whowasjustsheathingaflamingsword，whilethreeangelswereheardchantingtheReginaCoeli。ThelegendcontinuesthatthePopeimmediatelybrokeforthintohallelujahsforthissignthattheplaguewasstayed，and，asitshortlyafterwardbecamelesssevere，achapelwasbuiltatthesummitofthemausoleumanddedicatedtoSt。Michael；stilllater，abovethewholewaserectedthecolossalstatueofthearchangelsheathinghissword，whichstillstandstoperpetuatethelegend。
　　ThusthegreatestofRome’sancientfuneralmonumentswasmadetobeartestimonytothismedievalbelief；themausoleumofHadrianbecamethecastleofSt。Angelo。Alegendlikethis，claimingtodatefromthegreatestoftheearlypopes，andvouchedforbysuchanimposingmonument，hadundoubtedlyamarkedeffectuponthedominanttheologythroughoutEurope，whichwasconstantlydevelopingagreatbodyofthoughtregardingtheagenciesbywhichtheDivinewrathmightbeaverted。
　　Firstamongtheseagencies，naturally，wereevidencesofdevotion，especiallygiftsofland，money，orprivilegestochurches，monasteries，andshrines——theseatsoffeticheswhichitwassupposedhadwroughtcuresormightworkthem。Thewholeevolutionofmodernhistory，notonlyecclesiasticalbutcivil，hasbeenlargelyaffectedbythewealthtransferredtotheclergyatsuchperiods。Itwasnotedthatinthefourteenthcentury，afterthegreatplague，theBlackDeath，hadpassed，animmenselyincreasedproportionofthelandedandpersonalpropertyofeveryEuropeancountrywasinthehandsoftheChurch。Welldidagreatecclesiasticremarkthat“pestilencesaretheharvestsoftheministersofGod。”[330]
　　[330]FortriumphantmentionofSt。Hilarion’sfilth，seetheRomanBreviaryforOctober21st；andfordetails，seeS。
　　Hieronymus，VitaS。HilarionisEremitae，inMigne，Patrologia，vol。xxiii。ForAthanasius’sreferencetoSt。Anthony’sfilth，seeworksofSt。AthanasiusintheNiceneandPost-NiceneFathers，secondseries，vol。iv，p。209。Forthefilthinessoftheothersaintsnamed，seecitationsfromtheLivesoftheSaints，inLecky’sHistoryofEuropeanMorals，vol。ii，pp。117，118。ForGuydeChauliac’sobservationonthefilthinessofCarmelitemonksandtheirgreatlossesbypestilence，seeMeryon，HistoryofMedicine，vol。i，p。257。ForthemortalityamongtheCarthusianmonksintimeofplague，seeMrs。Lecky’sveryinterestingVisittotheGrandChartreuse，inTheNineteenthCenturyforMarch，1891。FortheplagueatRomein590，thelegendregardingthefierydarts，mentionedbyPopeGregoryhimself，andthatofthecastleofSt。Angelo，seeGregorovius，GeschichtederStadtRomimMittelalter，vol。ii，pp。26-35；alsoStory，CastleofSt。Angelo，etc。，chap。ii。Fortheremarkthat“pestilencesaretheharvestoftheministersofGod。”seereferencetoCharlevoix，inSouthey，HistoryofBrazil，vol。ii，p。254，citedinBuckle，vol。i，p。130，note。
　　Othermodesofpropitiatingthehigherpowerswerepenitentialprocessions，theparadingofimagesoftheVirginorofsaintsthroughplague-strickentowns，andfetichesinnumerable。Verynotedinthethirteenthandfourteenthcenturiesweretheprocessionsoftheflagellants，troopingthroughvariouspartsofEurope，scourgingtheirnakedbodies，shriekingthepenitentialpsalms，andoftenrunningfromwildexcessesofdevotiontothemaddestorgies。
　　Sometimes，too，plagueswereattributedtothewrathoflesserheavenlypowers。Justas，informertimes，thefuryof“far-dartingApollo“wasfeltwhenhisnamewasnotrespectfullytreatedbymortals，so，in1680，theChurchauthoritiesatRomediscoveredthattheplaguethenragingresultedfromtheangerofSt。Sebastianbecausenomonumenthadbeenerectedtohim。SuchamonumentwasthereforeplacedintheChurchofSt。PeteradVincula，andtheplagueceased。
　　Somuchfortheendeavourtoavertthewrathoftheheavenlypowers。Ontheotherhand，theologicalreasoningnolesssubtlewasusedinthwartingthemaliceofSatan。Thisidea，too，camefromfar。InthesacredbooksofIndiaandPersia，aswellasinourown，wefindthesametheoryofdisease，leadingtosimilarmeansofcure。PerhapsthemostastoundingamongChristiansurvivalsofthistheoryanditsresultantpracticeswasseenduringtheplagueatRomein1522。Inthatyear，atthatcentreofdivineillumination，certainpeople，havingreasoneduponthematter，cametotheconclusionthatthisgreatscourgewastheresultofSatanicmalice；and，inviewofSt。Paul’sdeclarationthattheancientgodsweredevils，andofthetheorythattheancientgodsofRomewerethedevilswhohadthemostreasontopunishthatcityfortheirdethronement，andthatthegreatamphitheatrewasthechosenhauntofthesedemongods，anoxdecoratedwithgarlands，aftertheancientheathenmanner，wastakeninprocessiontotheColosseumandsolemnlysacrificed。
　　Eventhisprovedvain，andtheChurchauthoritiesthenorderedexpiatoryprocessionsandceremoniestopropitiatetheAlmighty，theVirgin，andthesaints，whohadbeenoffendedbythistemporaryefforttobribetheirenemies。
　　Butthissortoftheologicalreasoningdevelopedanideafarmoredisastrous，andthiswasthatSatan，incausingpestilences，usedashisemissariesespeciallyJewsandwitches。TheproofofthisbeliefinthecaseoftheJewswasseeninthefactthattheyescapedwithalesspercentageofdiseasethandidtheChristiansinthegreatplagueperiods。Thiswasdoubtlessdueinsomemeasuretotheirremarkablesanitarysystem，whichhadprobablyoriginatedthousandsofyearsbeforeinEgypt，andhadbeenhandeddownthroughJewishlawgiversandstatesmen。CertainlytheyobservedmorecarefulsanitaryrulesandmoreconstantabstinencefromdangerousfoodsthanwasusualamongChristians；
　　butthepublicatlargecouldnotunderstandsosimpleacause，andjumpedtotheconclusionthattheirimmunityresultedfromprotectionbySatan，andthatthisprotectionwasrepaidandthepestilencecausedbytheirwholesalepoisoningofChristians。Asaresultofthismodeofthought，attemptsweremadeinallpartsofEuropetopropitiatetheAlmighty，tothwartSatan，andtostoptheplaguebytorturingandmurderingtheJews。ThroughoutEuropeduringgreatpestilenceswehearofextensiveburningsofthisdevotedpeople。InBavaria，atthetimeoftheBlackDeath，itiscomputedthattwelvethousandJewsthusperished；inthesmalltownofErfurtthenumberissaidtohavebeenthreethousand；inStrasburg，theRueBruleeremainsasamonumenttothetwothousandJewsburnedthereforpoisoningthewellsandcausingtheplagueof1348；attheroyalcastleofChinon，nearTours，animmensetrenchwasdug，filledwithblazingwood，andinasingledayonehundredandsixtyJewswereburned。