St。ThomasAquinasinsistedthattheforcesofthebodyareindependentofitsphysicalorganization，andthatthereforetheseforcesaretobestudiedbythescholasticphilosophyandthetheologicalmethod，insteadofbyresearchesintothestructureofthebody；asaresultofthis，mingledwithsurvivalsofvariouspagansuperstitions，wehaveinanatomyandphysiologysuchdoctrinesastheincreaseanddecreaseofthebrainwiththephasesofthemoon，theebbandflowofhumanvitalitywiththetidesoftheocean，theuseofthelungstofantheheart，thefunctionoftheliverastheseatoflove，andthatofthespleenasthecentreofwit。
　　Closelyconnectedwiththesemethodsofthoughtwasthedoctrineofsignatures。ItwasreasonedthattheAlmightymusthavesethissignuponthevariousmeansofcuringdiseasewhichhehasprovided：henceitwasheldthatbloodroot，onaccountofitsredjuice，isgoodfortheblood；liverwort，havingaleafliketheliver，curesdiseasesoftheliver；eyebright，beingmarkedwithaspotlikeaneye，curesdiseasesoftheeyes；celandine，havingayellowjuice，curesjaundice；bugloss，resemblingasnake’shead，curessnakebite；redflannel，lookinglikeblood，curesblood-taints，andthereforerheumatism；bear’sgrease，beingtakenfromananimalthicklycoveredwithhair，isrecommendedtopersonsfearingbaldness。[308]
　　[308]Forasummaryofthesuperstitionswhicharoseunderthetheologicaldoctrineofsignatures，seeDr。Eccles’sadmirablelittletractontheEvolutionofMedicalScience，p。140；seealsoScoffern，ScienceandFolkLore，p。76。
　　Stillanothermethodevolvedbythistheologicalpseudosciencewasthatofdisgustingthedemonwiththebodywhichhetormented——hencethepatientwasmadetoswalloworapplytohimselfvariousunspeakableordures，withsuchmedicinesastheliversoftoads，thebloodoffrogsandrats，fibresofthehangman’srope，andointmentmadefromthebodyofgibbetedcriminals。Manyoftheseweresurvivalsofheathensuperstitions，buttheologicreasoningwroughtintothemanorthodoxsignificance。AsanexampleofthismixtureofheathenwithChristianmagic，wemaycitethefollowingfromamedievalmedicalbookasasalveagainst“nocturnalgoblinvisitors“：
　　“Takehopplant，wormwood，bishopwort，lupine，ash-throat，henbane，harewort，viper’sbugloss，heathberryplant，cropleek，garlic，grainsofhedgerife，githrife，andfennel。Putthesewortsintoavessel，setthemunderthealtar，singoverthemninemasses，boiltheminbutterandsheep’sgrease，addmuchholysalt，strainthroughacloth，throwthewortsintorunningwater。Ifanyilltemptingoccurtoaman，oranelforgoblinnightvisitorscome，smearhisbodywiththissalve，andputitonhiseyes，andcensehimwithincense，andsignhimfrequentlywiththesignofthecross。Hisconditionwillsoonbebetter。”[309]
　　[309]ForalistofunmentionableorduresusedinGermanyneartheendoftheseventeenthcentury，seeLammert，VolksmedizinundmedizinischerAberglaubeinBayern，Wurzburg，1869，p。34，note。
　　FortheEnglishprescriptiongiven，seeCockayne，Leechdoms，Wort-cunning，andStar-craftofEarlyEngland，intheMasteroftheRolls’series，London，1865，vol。ii，pp。345andfollowing。
　　StillanotheroftheseprescriptionsgivenbyCockaynecoversthreeorfouroctavopages。Forveryfulldetailsofthissortofsacredpseudo-scienceinGermany，withaccountsofsurvivalsofitatthepresenttime，seeWuttke，Prof。derTheologieinHalle，DerDeutscheVolksaberglaubederGegenwart，Berlin，1869，passim。ForFrance，seeRambaud，HistoiredelaCivilisationfrancaise，pp。371etseq。
　　Astosurgery，thissameamalgamationoftheologywithsurvivalsofpaganbeliefscontinuedtochecktheevolutionofmedicalsciencedowntothemodernepoch。ThenominalhostilityoftheChurchtothesheddingofbloodwithdrew，aswehaveseen，fromsurgicalpracticethegreatbodyofhereducatedmen；hencesurgeryremaineddowntothefifteenthcenturyadespisedprofession，itspracticecontinuedlargelyinthehandsofcharlatans，anddowntoaveryrecentperiodthename“barber-surgeon“wasasurvivalofthis。Insuchsurgery，theapplicationofvariousorduresrelievedfractures；thetouchofthehangmancuredsprains；thebreathofadonkeyexpelledpoison；frictionwithadeadman’stoothcuredtoothache。[310]
　　[310]OnthelowestateofsurgeryduringtheMiddleAges，seethehistoriesofmedicinealreadycited，andespeciallyKotelmann，GesundheitspflegeimMittelalter，Hamburg，1890，pp。
　　216etseq。
　　TheenormousdevelopmentofmiracleandfetichcuresintheChurchcontinuedduringcenturyaftercentury，andhereprobablylaythemaincausesofhostilitybetweentheChurchontheonehandandthebettersortofphysiciansontheother；namely，inthefactthattheChurchsupposedherselfinpossessionofsomethingfarbetterthanscientificmethodsinmedicine。UndertheswayofthisbeliefanaturalandlaudablevenerationfortherelicsofChristianmartyrswasdevelopedmoreandmoreintopurefetichism。
　　Thusthewaterinwhichasinglehairofasainthadbeendippedwasusedasapurgative；waterinwhichSt。Remy’sringhadbeendippedcuredfevers；wineinwhichthebonesofasainthadbeendippedcuredlunacy；oilfromalampburningbeforethetombofSt。Gallcuredtumours；St。Valentinecuredepilepsy；St。
　　Christopher，throatdiseases；St。Eutropius，dropsy；St。Ovid，deafness；St。Gervase，rheumatism；St。Apollonia，toothache；
　　St。Vitus，St。Anthony，andamultitudeofothersaints，themaladieswhichbeartheirnames。Evenaslateas1784wefindcertainauthoritiesinBavariaorderingthatanyonebittenbyamaddogshallatonceputupprayersattheshrineofSt。Hubert，andnotwastehistimeinanyattemptsatmedicalorsurgicalcure。[311]InthetwelfthcenturywefindanotedcureattemptedbycausingtheinvalidtodrinkwaterinwhichSt。Bernardhadwashedhishands。Flowerswhichhadrestedonthetombofasaint，whensteepedinwater，weresupposedtobeespeciallyefficaciousinvariousdiseases。Thepulpiteverywheredweltwithunctionontherealityoffetichcures，andamongthechoicestoriescollectedbyArchbishopJacquesdeVitryfortheuseofpreacherswasonewhich，judgingfromitsfrequentrecurrenceinmonkishliterature，musthavesunkdeepintothepopularmind：
　　“Twolazybeggars，oneblind，theotherlame，trytoavoidtherelicsofSt。Martin，borneaboutinprocession，sothattheymaynotbehealedandlosetheirclaimtoalms。Theblindmantakesthelamemanonhisshoulderstoguidehim，buttheyarecaughtinthecrowdandhealedagainsttheirwill。”[312]
　　[311]SeeBaas，p。614；asloBiedermann。
　　[312]Fortheefficacyofflowers，seetheBollandistLivesoftheSaints，citedinFort，p。279；alsopp。457，458。Forthestoryofthoseunwillinglycured，seetheExemplaofJacquesdeVitry，editedbyProf。T。F。Crane，ofCornellUniversity，London，1890，pp。52，182。
　　VeryimportantalsothroughouttheMiddleAgeswerethemedicalvirtuesattributedtosaliva。TheuseofthisremedyhadearlyOrientalsanction。ItisclearlyfoundinEgypt。Plinydevotesaconsiderablepartofoneofhischapterstoit；Galenapprovedit；Vespasian，whenhevisitedAlexandria，issaidtohavecuredablindmanbyapplyingsalivatohiseves；butthegreatexampleimpressedmostforciblyuponthemedievalmindwastheuseofitascribedinthefourthGospeltoJesushimself：thenceitcamenotonlyintoChurchceremonial，butlargelyintomedicalpractice。[313]
　　[313]Astotheuseofsalivainmedicine，seeStory，CastleofSt。Angelo，andOtherEssays，London，1877，pp。208andelsewhere。ForPliny，Galen，andothers，seethesame，p。211；
　　seealsothebookofTobit，chap。xi，2-13。ForthecaseofVespasian，seeSuetonius，LifeofVespasian；alsoTacitus，Historiae，lib。iv，c。81。ForitsusebySt。FrancisXavier，seeColeridge，LifeandLettersofSt。FrancisXavier，London，1872。
　　Asthetheologicalatmospherethickened，nearlyeverycountryhaditslonglistofsaints，eachwithaspecialpoweroversomeoneorganordisease。Theclergy，havinggreatinfluenceoverthemedicalschools，conscientiouslymixedthisfetichmedicinewiththebeginningsofscience。Inthetenthcentury，evenattheSchoolofSalerno，wefindthatthesickwerecurednotonlybymedicine，butbytherelicsofSt。Matthewandothers。
　　Humannature，too，asserteditself，thenasnow，bymakingvariouspiouscuresfashionableforatimeandthenallowingthemtobecomeunfashionable。JustasweseetherelicsofSt。CosmoandSt。DamianingreatvogueduringtheearlyMiddleAges，butoutoffashionandwithoutefficacyafterward，sowefindinthethirteenthcenturythatthebonesofSt。Louis，havingcomeintofashion，wroughtmultitudesofcures，whileinthefourteenth，havingbecomeunfashionable，theyceasedtoact，andgaveplaceforatimetotherelicsofSt。RochofMontpellierandSt。
　　CatherineofSienna，whichintheirturnwroughtmanycuresuntiltheytoobecameoutofdateandyieldedtoothersaints。JustsoinmoderntimesthehealingmiraclesofLaSalettehavelostprestigeinsomemeasure，andthoseofLourdeshavecomeintofashion。[314]
　　[314]Foroneoftheselistsofsaintscuringdiseaes，seePettigrew，OnSuperstitionsconnectedwithMedicine；foranother，seeJacob，SuperstitionsPopulaires，pp。96-100；alsoRydberg，p。
　　69；alsoMaury，Rambaud，andothers。Foracomparisonoffashionsinmiracleswithfashionsinmodernhealingagents，seeLittre，MedecineetMedecins，pp。118，136andelsewhere；alsoSprengel，vol。ii，p。143。
　　Evensuchseriousmattersasfractures，calculi，anddifficultparturition，inwhichmodernsciencehasachievedsomeofitsgreatesttriumphs，werethendealtwithbyrelics；andtothishourtheexvotoshangingatsuchshrinesasthoseofSt。
　　GenevieveatParis，ofSt。AntonyatPadua，oftheDruidimageatChartres，oftheVirginatEinsiedelnandLourdes，ofthefountainatLaSalette，aresurvivalsofthissameconceptionofdiseaseanditscure。
　　So，too，withamultitudeofsacredpools，streams，andspotsofearth。InIreland，hardlyaparishhasnothadonesuchsacredcentre；inEnglandandScotlandtherehavebeenmany；andaslateas1805theeminentDr。Milner，oftheRomanCatholicChurch，gaveacarefulandearnestaccountofamiraculouscurewroughtatasacredwellinFlintshire。InallpartsofEuropethepiousresorttowellsandspringscontinuedlongafterthecloseoftheMiddleAges，andhasnotentirelyceasedto-day。
　　Itisnotatallnecessarytosupposeintentionaldeceptionintheoriginandmaintenanceofallfetichcures。AlthoughtwodifferentjudicialinvestigationsofthemodernmiraclesatLaSalettehaveshowntheirorigintaintedwithfraud，andthoughtherecentrestorationoftheCathedralofTrondhjemhasrevealedthefactthatthehealingpowersofthesacredspringwhichoncebroughtsuchgreatrevenuestothatshrinewereassistedbyangelicvoicesspokenthroughatubeinthewalls，notunlikethepiousmachinerydiscoveredintheTempleofIsisatPompeii，thereislittledoubtthatthegreatmajorityoffountainandevenshrinecures，suchastheyhavebeen，haveresultedfromanaturallaw，andthatbeliefinthemwasbasedonhonestargumentfromScripture。Forthetheologicalargumentwhichthusstoodinthewayofsciencewassimplythis：iftheAlmightysawfittoraisethedeadmanwhotouchedthebonesofElisha，whyshouldhenotrestoretolifethepatientwhotouchesatColognethebonesoftheWiseMenoftheEastwhofollowedthestaroftheNativity？IfNaamanwascuredbydippinghimselfinthewatersoftheJordan，andsomanyothersbygoingdownintothePoolofSiloam，whyshouldnotmenstillbecuredbybathinginpoolswhichmenequallyholywithElishahaveconsecrated？IfonesickmanwasrestoredbytouchingthegarmentsofSt。Paul，whyshouldnotanothersickmanberestoredbytouchingtheseamlesscoatofChristatTreves，orthewinding-sheetofChristatBesancon？Andoutofalltheseinquiriescameinevitablythatquestionwhoselogicalanswerwasespeciallyinjurioustothedevelopmentofmedicalscience：Whyshouldmenseektobuildupscientificmedicineandsurgery，whenrelics，pilgrimages，andsacredobservances，accordingtoanoverwhelmingmassofconcurrenttestimony，havecuredandarecuringhostsofsickfolkinallpartsofEurope？[315]
　　[315]Forsacredfountainsinmoderntimes，seePettigrew，asabove，p。42；alsoDalyell，DarkerSuperstitionsofScotland，pp。
　　82andfollowing；alsoMontalembert，LesMoinesd’Occident，tomeiii，p。323，note。ForthoseinIreland，withmanycuriousdetails，seeS。C。Hall，Ireland，itsSceneryandCharacter，London，1841，vol。i，p。282，andpassim。ForthecaseinFlintshire，seeAuthenticDocumentsrelativetotheMiraculousCureofWinifredWhite，oftheTownofWolverhampton，atHolywell，Flintshire，onthe28thofJune，1805，byJohnMilner，D。D。，VicarApostolic，etc。，London，1805。ForsacredwellsinFrance，seeChevart，HistoiredeChartres，vol。i，pp。84-89，andFrenchlocalhistoriesgenerally。ForsuperstitionsattachingtospringsinGermany，seeWuttke，Volksaberglaube，Sections12and356。Foroneofthemostexquisitelywroughtworksofmodernfiction，showingperfectlytherecentevolutionofmiraculouspowersatafashionablespringinFrance，seeGustaveDroz，Autourd’uneSource。ThereferencetotheoldpiousmachineryatTrondhjemisbaseduponpersonalobservationbythepresentwriterinAugust，