Medicalscience，tryingtoadvance，waslikeashipbecalmedintheSargassoSea：boththeatmosphereaboutitandthemediumthroughwhichitmustmoveresistedallprogress。Insteadofrelianceuponobservation，experience，experiment，andthought，attentionwasturnedtowardsupernaturalagencies。[299]
[299]ForthemysticismwhichgraduallyenvelopedtheSchoolofAlexandria，seeBarthelemySaint-Hilaire，Del’Ecoled’Alexandrie，Paris，1845，vol。vi，p。161。FortheeffectofthenewdoctrinesontheEmpireoftheEast，seeSprengel，vol。
ii，p。240。Astothemorecommonmiraclesofhealingandtheacknowledgmentofnon-ChristianmiraclesofhealingbyChristianfathers，seeFort，p。84。
IV。THEATTRIBUTIONOFDISEASETOSATANICINFLUENCE——
“PASTORALMEDICINE“CHECKSSCIENTIFICEFFORT。
EspeciallyprejudicialtoatruedevelopmentofmedicalscienceamongthefirstChristianswastheirattributionofdiseasetodiabolicinfluence。Aswehaveseen，thisideahadcomefromfar，and，havingprevailedinChaldea，Egypt，andPersia，hadnaturallyenteredintothesacredbooksoftheHebrews。
Moreover，St。Paulhaddistinctlydeclaredthatthegodsoftheheathenweredevils；andeverywheretheearlyChristianssawindiseasethemalignantworkofthesedethronedpowersofevil。
TheGnosticandManichaeanstruggleshadripenedthetheologicideathat，althoughattimesdiseasesarepunishmentsbytheAlmighty，themainagencyinthemisSatanic。ThegreatfathersandrenownedleadersoftheearlyChurchacceptedandstrengthenedthisidea。Origensaid：“Itisdemonswhichproducefamine，unfruitfulness，corruptionsoftheair，pestilences；theyhoverconcealedincloudsintheloweratmosphere，andareattractedbythebloodandincensewhichtheheathenoffertothemasgods。”St。Augustinesaid：“AlldiseasesofChristiansaretobeascribedtothesedemons；chieflydotheytormentfresh-baptizedChristians，yea，eventheguiltless，newborninfants。”Tertullianinsistedthatamalevolentangelisinconstantattendanceuponeveryperson。GregoryofNazianzusdeclaredthatbodilypainsareprovokedbydemons，andthatmedicinesareuseless，butthattheyareoftencuredbythelayingonofconsecratedhands。St。NilusandSt。GregoryofTours，echoingSt。Ambrose，gaveexamplestoshowthesinfulnessofresortingtomedicineinsteadoftrustingtotheintercessionofsaints。St。Bernard，inalettertocertainmonks，warnedthemthattoseekrelieffromdiseaseinmedicinewasinharmonyneitherwiththeirreligionnorwiththehonourandpurityoftheirorder。Thisviewevenfounditswayintothecanonlaw，whichdeclaredthepreceptsofmedicinecontrarytoDivineknowledge。Asarule，theleadersoftheChurchdiscouragedthetheorythatdiseasesareduetonaturalcauses，andmostofthemdeprecatedaresorttosurgeonsandphysiciansratherthantosupernaturalmeans。[300]
[300]ForChaldean，Egyptian，andPersianideasastothediabolicoriginofdisease，seeauthoritiesalreadycited，especiallyMasperoandSayce。ForOrigen，seetheContraCelsum，lib。viii，chap。xxxi。ForAugustine，seeDeDivinationeDaemonum，chap。iiip。585ofMigne，vol。xl。ForTurtullianandGregoryofNazianzus，seecitationsinSprengelandinFort，p。6。ForSt。Nilus，seehislife，intheBollandiseActaSanctorum。ForGregoryofTours，seehisHistoriaFrancorum，lib。v，cap。6，andhisDeMirac。S。Martini，lib。ii，cap。60。
IowethesecitationstoMr。LeaHistoryoftheInquisitionoftheMiddleAges，vol。iii，p。410，note。FortheletterofSt。
BernardtothemonksofSt。Anastasius，seehisEpistolainMigne，tom。182，pp。550，551。Forthecanonlaw，seeunderDeConsecratione，dist。v，c。xxi，“Contrariasuntdivinaecognitionipraeceptamedicinae：ajejuniorevocant，lucubrarenonsinunt，abomniintentionemeditiationisabducunt。”FortheturningoftheGreekmythologyintoademonologyaslargelyduetoSt。Paul，seeICorinthiansx，20：“ThethingswhichtheGentilessacrifice，theysacrificetodevils，andnottoGod。”
Outoftheseandsimilarconsiderationswasdevelopedthevastsystemof“pastoralmedicine。”sopowerfulnotonlythroughtheMiddleAges，buteveninmoderntimes，bothamongCatholicsandProtestants。Astoitsresults，wemustbearinmindthat，whilethereisnoneedtoattributethemassofstoriesregardingmiraculouscurestoconsciousfraud，therewaswithoutdoubt，atalaterperiod，nosmalladmixtureofbeliefbiasedbyself-interest，withmuchpiousinventionandsuppressionoffacts。EnormousrevenuesflowedintovariousmonasteriesandchurchesinallpartsofEuropefromrelicsnotedfortheirhealingpowers。Everycathedral，everygreatabbey，andnearlyeveryparishchurchclaimedpossessionofhealingrelics。While，undoubtedly，achildlikefaithwasatthebottomofthisbelief，therecameoutofitunquestionablyagreatdevelopmentofthemercantilespirit。Thecommercialvalueofsundryrelicswasoftenveryhigh。Intheyear1056aFrenchrulerpledgedsecuritiestotheamountoftenthousandsolidifortheproductionoftherelicsofSt。JustandSt。Pastor，pendingalegaldecisionregardingtheownershipbetweenhimandtheArchbishopofNarbonne。TheEmperorofGermanyononeoccasiondemanded，asasufficientpledgefortheestablishmentofacitymarket，thearmofSt。George。ThebodyofSt。SebastianbroughtenormouswealthtotheAbbeyofSoissons；Rome，Canterbury，Treves，Marburg，everygreatcity，drewlargerevenuesfromsimilarsources，andtheVenetianRepublicventuredveryconsiderablesumsinthepurchaseofrelics。
Naturally，then，corporations，whetherlayorecclesiastical，whichdrewlargerevenuefromrelicslookedwithlittlefavouronasciencewhichtendedtodiscredittheirinvestments。
Nowhere，perhaps，inEuropecanthephilosophyofthisdevelopmentoffetichismbebetterstudiedto-daythanatCologne。Atthecathedral，preservedinamagnificentshrinesinceaboutthetwelfthcentury，aretheskullsoftheThreeKings，orWiseMenoftheEast，who，guidedbythestarofBethlehem，broughtgiftstotheSaviour。Theserelicswereanenormoussourceofwealthtothecathedralchapterduringmanycenturies。Butotherecclesiasticalbodiesinthatcitywerebothpiousandshrewd，andsowefindthatnotfaroff，atthechurchofSt。Gereon，acemeteryhasbeendugup，andthebonesdistributedoverthewallsastherelicsofSt。GereonandhisThebanbandofmartyrs！Again，attheneighbouringchurchofSt。
Ursula，wehavethelaterspoilsofanothercemetery，coveringtheinteriorwallsofthechurchasthebonesofSt。Ursulaandhereleventhousandvirginmartyrs：thefactthatmanyofthem，asanatomistsnowdeclare，arethebonesofMENdoesnotappearintheMiddleAgestohavediminishedtheirpowerofcompetingwiththerelicsattheothershrinesinhealingefficiency。
Noerrorinthechoiceofthesehealingmeansseemstohavediminishedtheirefficacy。WhenProf。Buckland，theeminentosteologistandgeologist，discoveredthattherelicsofSt。
RosaliaatPalermo，whichhadforagescureddiseasesandwardedoffepidemics，werethebonesofagoat，thisfactcausednottheslightestdiminutionintheirmiraculouspower。
Otherdevelopmentsoffetichcurewerenolessdiscouragingtotheevolutionofmedicalscience。VeryimportantamongthesewastheAgnusDei，orpieceofwaxfromthePaschalcandles，stampedwiththefigureofalambandconsecratedbythePope。In1471
PopePaulIIexpatiatedtotheChurchontheefficacyofthisfetichinpreservingmenfromfire，shipwreck，tempest，lightning，andhail，aswellasinassistingwomeninchildbirth；
andhereservedtohimselfandhissuccessorsthemanufactureofit。Evenaslateas1517PopeLeoXissued，foraconsideration，ticketsbearingacrossandthefollowinginscription：“ThiscrossmeasuredfortytimesmakestheheightofChristinhishumanity。Hewhokissesitispreservedforsevendaysfromfalling-sickness，apoplexy，andsuddendeath。”
Naturally，thebeliefthussanctionedbysuccessiveheadsoftheChurch，infallibleinallteachingregardingfaithandmorals，createdademandforamuletsandcharmsofallkinds；andunderthisinfluencewefindareversiontooldpaganfetiches。
Nothing，onthewhole，stoodmoreconstantlyinthewayofanyproperdevelopmentofmedicalsciencethanthesefetichcures，whoseefficacywasbasedontheologicalreasoningandsanctionedbyecclesiasticalpolicy。ItwouldbeexpectingtoomuchfromhumannaturetoimaginethatpontiffswhoderivedlargerevenuesfromthesaleoftheAgnusDei，orpriestswhoderivedbothwealthandhonoursfromcureswroughtatshrinesundertheircare，orlaydignitarieswhohadinvestedheavilyinrelics，shouldfavourthedevelopmentofanysciencewhichunderminedtheirinterests。[301]
[301]SeeFort’sMedicalEconomyduringtheMiddleAges，pp。211-
213；alsotheHandbooksofMurrayandBaedekerforNorthGermany，andvarioushistoriesofmedicinepassim；alsoCollindePlancyandscoresofothers。ForthediscoverythattherelicsofSt。
RosariaatPalermoaresimplythebonesofagoat，seeGordon，LifeofBuckland，pp。94-96。ForanaccountoftheAgnesDei，seeRydberg，pp。62，63；andfor“ConceptionBillets。”pp。64and65。ForLeoX’stickets，seeHausserprofessoratHeidelberg，PeriodofReformation，Englishtranslation，p。17。
V。THEOLOGICALOPPOSITIONTOANATOMICALSTUDIES。
Yetamoreseriousstumbling-block，hinderingthebeginningsofmodernmedicineandsurgery，wasatheoryregardingtheunlawfulnessofmeddlingwiththebodiesofthedead。Thistheory，likesomanyotherswhichtheChurchcherishedaspeculiarlyitsown，hadreallybeeninheritedfromtheoldpagancivilizations。SostrongwasitinEgyptthattheembalmerwasregardedasaccursed；tracesofitappearinGreco-Romanlife，andhenceitcameintotheearlyChurch，whereitwasgreatlystrengthenedbytheadditionofperhapsthemostnobleofmysticideas——therecognitionofthehumanbodyasthetempleoftheHolySpirit。HenceTertulliandenouncedtheanatomistHerophilusasabutcher，andSt。Augustinespokeofanatomistsgenerallyinsimilarterms。
Butthisnoblerconceptionwasalloyedwithamedievalsuperstitionevenmoreeffective，whentheformulaknownastheApostles’Creedhad，initsteachingsregardingtheresurrectionofthebody，supplantedthedoctrinelaiddownbySt。Paul。
ThencecameadreadofmutilatingthebodyinsuchawaythatsomeinjurymightresulttoitsfinalresurrectionattheLastDay，andadditionalreasonsforhinderingdissectionsinthestudyofanatomy。
Totheseargumentsagainstdissectionwasnowaddedanother——onewhichmaywellfilluswithamazement。ItistheremarkoftheforemostofrecentEnglishphilosophicalhistorians，thatofallorganizationsinhumanhistorytheChurchofRomehascausedthegreatestspillingofinnocentblood。Nooneconversantwithhistory，eventhoughheadmitallpossibleextenuatingcircumstances，andhonourtheolderChurchforthegreatserviceswhichcanundoubtedlybeclaimedforher，candenythisstatement。Strangeisit，then，tonotethatoneofthemainobjectionsdevelopedintheMiddleAgesagainstanatomicalstudieswasthemaximthat“theChurchabhorsthesheddingofblood。”
Onthisground，in1248，theCouncilofLeMansforbadesurgerytomonks。Manyothercouncilsdidthesame，andattheendofthethirteenthcenturycamethemostseriousblowofall；forthenitwasthatPopeBonifaceVIII，withoutanyofthatforesightofconsequenceswhichmightwellhavebeenexpectedinaninfallibleteacher，issuedadecretalforbiddingapracticewhichhadcomeintouseduringtheCrusades，namely，theseparationofthefleshfromthebonesofthedeadwhoseremainsitwasdesiredtocarrybacktotheirowncountry。
TheidealyingatthebottomofthisinterdictionwasinallprobabilitythatwhichhadinspiredTertulliantomakehisbitterutteranceagainstHerophilus；but，bethatasitmay，itsooncametobeconsideredasextendingtoalldissection，andtherebysurgeryandmedicinewerecrippledformorethantwocenturies；
itwastheworstblowtheyeverreceived，foritimpresseduponthemindoftheChurchthebeliefthatalldissectionissacrilege，andledtoecclesiasticalmandateswithdrawingfromthehealingartthemostthoughtfulandcultivatedmenoftheMiddleAgesandgivingupsurgerytothelowestclassofnomadiccharlatans。
SodeeplywasthisidearootedinthemindoftheuniversalChurchthatforoverathousandyearssurgerywasconsidereddishonourable：thegreatestmonarchswereoftenunabletosecureanordinarysurgicaloperation；anditwasonlyin1406thatabetterbeginningwasmade，whentheEmperorWenzelofGermanyorderedthatdishonourshouldnolongerattachtothesurgicalprofession。[302]
[302]Astoreligiousscruplesagainstdissection，andabhorrenceoftheParaschites，orembalmer，seeMasperoandSayce，TheDawnofCivilization，p。216。FordenunciationofsurgerybytheChurchauthorities，seeSprengel，vol。ii，pp。432-435；alsoFort，pp。452etseq。；andforthereasoningwhichledtheChurchtoforbidsurgerytopriests，seeespeciallyFredault，HistoiredelaMedecine，p。200。AstothedecretalofBonifaceVIII，theusualstatementisthatheforbadealldissections。Whileitwasundoubtedlyconstrueduniversallytoprohibitdissectionsforanatomicalpurposes，itsdeclaredintentwasasstatedinthetext；thatitwasconstantlyconstruedagainstanatomicalinvestigationscannotforamomentbedenied。ThisconstructionistakenforgrantedinthegreatHistoireLitterairedelaFrance，foundedbytheBenedictines，certainlyaveryhighauthorityastothemaincurrentofopinionintheChurch。ForthedecretalofBonifaceVIII，seetheCorpusJurisCanonici。I
havealsousedtheeditionofParis，1618，whereitmaybefoundonpp。866，867。Seealso，inspiteofthespecialpleadingofGiraldi，theBenedictineHist。Lit。delaFrance，tomexvi，p。