ThenextgreatmanofthatagewhomthetheologicalandecclesiasticalforcesofthetimeturnedfromtherightpathwasVincentofBeauvais。DuringthefirsthalfofthetwelfthcenturyhedevotedhimselftothestudyofNatureinseveralofhermostinterestingfields。Toastronomy，botany，andzoologyhegavespecialattention，butinalargerwayhemadeageneralstudyoftheuniverse，andinaseriesoftreatisesundertooktorevealthewholefieldofscience。ButhisworksimplybecameavastcommentaryontheaccountofcreationgiveninthebookofGenesis。BeginningwiththeworkoftheTrinityatthecreation，hegoesontodetailtheworkofangelsinalltheirfields，andmakesexcursionsintoeverypartofcreation，visibleandinvisible，butalwayswiththemostcompletesubordinationofhisthoughttotheliteralstatementsofScripture。Couldhehavetakenthepathofexperimentalresearch，theworldwouldhavebeenenrichedwithmostpreciousdiscoveries；buttheforcewhichhadgivenwrongdirectiontoAlbertofBollstadt，backedasitwasbythewholeecclesiasticalpowerofhistime，wastoostrong，andinallthelifelabourofVincentnothingappearsofanypermanentvalue。HerearedastructurewhichtheadaptationoffactstoliteralinterpretationsofScriptureandtheapplicationoftheologicalsubtletiestonaturecombinetomakeoneofthemoststrikingmonumentsofhumanerror。[271]
[271]ForVincentdeBeauvais，seeEtudessurVincentdeBeauvais，parl’AbbeBourgeat，chaps。xii，xiii，andxiv；alsoPouchet，HistoiredesSciencesNaturellesauMoyenAge，Paris，1853，pp。470etseq；alsootherhistoriescitedhereafter。
ButthetheologicalspiritofthethirteenthcenturygaineditsgreatestvictoryintheworkofSt。ThomasAquinas。Inhimwasthetheologicalspiritofhisageincarnate。Althoughheyieldedsomewhatatoneperiodtoloveofnaturalscience，itwashewhofinallymadethatgreattreatyorcompromisewhichforagessubjectedscienceentirelytotheology。Heitwaswhorearedthemostenduringbarrieragainstthosewhointhatageandinsucceedingageslabouredtoopenforsciencethepathbyitsownmethodstowarditsownends。
HehadbeenthepupilofAlberttheGreat，andhadgainedmuchfromhim。Throughtheearliersystemsofphilosophy，astheywerethenknown，andthroughtheearliertheologicthought，hehadgonewithgreatlabourandvigour；andallhismightypowers，thusdisciplinedandcultured，hebroughttobearinmakingatrucewhichwastogivetheologypermanentsupremacyoverscience。
Theexperimentalmethodhadalreadybeenpracticallyinitiated：
AlbertofBollstadtandRogerBaconhadbeguntheirworkinaccordancewithitsmethods；butSt。Thomasgaveallhisthoughtstobringingscienceagainundertheswayoftheologicalmethodsandecclesiasticalcontrol。InhiscommentaryonAristotle’streatiseuponHeavenandEarthhegavetotheworldastrikingexampleofwhathismethodcouldproduce，illustratingalltheevilswhichariseincombiningtheologicalreasoningandliteralinterpretationofScripturewithscientificfacts；andthisworkremainstothisdayamonumentofscientificgeniuspervertedbytheology。[272]
[272]Forcitationsshowingthissubordinationofsciencetotheology，seeEicken，chap。vi。
Theecclesiasticalpowerofthetimehailedhimasadeliverer，itwasclaimedthatmiracleswerevouchsafed，provingthattheblessingofHeavenresteduponhislabours，andamongthelegendsembodyingthisclaimisthatgivenbytheBollandistsandimmortalizedbyarenownedpainter。Thegreatphilosopherandsaintisrepresentedinthehabitofhisorder，withbookandpeninhand，kneelingbeforetheimageofChristcrucified，andashekneelstheimagethusaddresseshim：“Thomas，thouhastwrittenwellconcerningme；whatpricewiltthoureceiveforthylabour？”Themyth-makingfacultyofthepeopleatlargewasalsobroughtintoplay。Accordingtoawidespreadandcircumstantiallegend，Albert，bymagicalmeans，createdanandroid——anartificialman，living，speaking，andansweringallquestionswithsuchsubtletythatSt。Thomas，unabletoansweritsreasoning，brokeittopieceswithhisstaff。
HistoriansoftheRomanChurchlikeRohrbacher，andhistoriansofsciencelikePouchet，havefounditconvenienttopropitiatetheChurchbydilatinguponthegloriesofSt。ThomasAquinasinthusmakinganalliancebetweenreligiousandscientificthought，andlayingthefoundationsfora“sanctifiedscience“；buttheunprejudicedhistoriancannotindulgeinthisenthusiasticview：
theresultsbothfortheChurchandforsciencehavebeenmostunfortunate。Itwasawretcheddelayintheevolutionoffruitfulthought，forthefirstresultofthisgreatman’sgreatcompromisewastocloseforagesthatpathinsciencewhichaboveallothersleadstodiscoveriesofvalue——theexperimentalmethod——andtoreopenthatoldpathofmixedtheologyandsciencewhich，asHallamdeclares，“afterthreeorfourhundredyearshadnotuntiedasingleknotoraddedoneunequivocaltruthtothedomainofphilosophy“——thepathwhich，asallmodernhistoryproves，haseversinceledonlytodelusionandevil。[273]
[273]FortheworkofAquinas，seehisLiberdeCaeloetMundo，sectionxx；alsoLifeandLaboursofSt。ThomasofAquin，byArchbishopVaughn，pp。459etseq。Forhislaboursinnaturalscience，seeHoefer，HistoiredelaChimie，Paris，1843，vol。i，p。381。FortheologicalviewsofscienceintheMiddleAges，andrejoicingthereat，seePouchet，Hist。desSci。Nat。auMoyenAge，ubisupra。Pouchetsays：“Engeneralaumilieudumoyenagelessciencessontessentiellementchretiennes，leurbutesttout-a-
faitreligieux，etellessembentbeaucoupmoinss’inquieterdel’avancementintellectueldel’hommequedesonsaluteternel。”
Pouchetcallsthis“conciliation“intoa“harmonieuxensemble“
“laplusglorieusedesconquetesintellectuellesdumoyenage。”
PouchetbelongstoRouen，andtheshadowoftheRouenCathedralseemsthrownoverallhishistory。See，also，l’AbbeRohrbacher，Hist。del’EgliseCatholique，Paris，1858，vol。xviii，pp。421etseq。Theabbedilatesuponthefactthat“theChurchorganizestheagreementofallthesciencesbythelaboursofSt。ThomasofAquinandhiscontemporaries。”ForthecompletesubordinationofsciencetotheologybySt。Thomas，seeEicken，chap。vi。ForthetheologicalcharacterofscienceintheMiddleAges，recognisedbyaProtestantphilosophichistorian，seethewell-knownpassageinGuizot，HistoryofCivilizationinEurope；andbyanotedProtestantecclesiatic，seeBishopHampden’sLifeofThomasAquinas，chaps。xxxvi，xxxvii；seealsoHallam，MiddleAges，chap。ix。FordealingsofPopeJohnXXII，oftheKingsofFranceandEngland，andoftheRepublicofVenice，seeFiguier，L’AlchimieetlaAlchimistes，pp。140，141，where，inanote，thetextofthebullSpondetpariturisgiven。ForpopularlegendsregardingAlbertandSt。Thomas，seeEliphasLevi，Hist。delaMagie，liv。iv，chap。iv。
Thetheologicalpaththusopenedbythesestrongmenbecamethemainpathforscienceduringages，anditledtheworldeverfurtherandfurtherfromanyfruitfulfactorusefulmethod。
RogerBacon’sinvestigationsalreadybegunwerediscredited：
worthlessmixturesofscripturallegendswithimperfectlyauthenticatedphysicalfactstooktheirplace。ThusitwasthatfortwelvehundredyearsthemindsincontrolofEuroperegardedallrealscienceasFUTILE，anddivertedthegreatcurrentofearnestthoughtintotheology。
ThenextstageinthisevolutionwasthedevelopmentofanideawhichactedwithgreatforcethroughouttheMiddleAges——theideathatscienceisDANGEROUS。Thisbeliefwasalsoofveryancientorigin。FromthetimewhentheEgyptianmagiciansmadetheirtremendousthreatthatunlesstheirdemandsweregrantedtheywouldreachouttothefourcornersoftheearth，pulldownthepillarsofheaven，wrecktheabodesofthegodsaboveandcrushthoseofmenbelow，fearoftheserepresentativesofscienceisevidentintheancientworld。
Butdifferencesinthecharacterofmagicwererecognised，somesortsbeingconsideredusefulandsomebaleful。Oftheformerwasmagicusedincuringdiseases，indeterminingtimesauspiciousforenterprises，andevenincontributingtoamusement；ofthelatterwasmagicusedtobringdiseaseanddeathonmenandanimalsortempestsuponthegrowingcrops。
Hencegraduallyaroseageneraldistinctionbetweenwhitemagic，whichdealtopenlywiththemorebeneficentmeansofnature，andblackmagic，whichdealtsecretlywithoccult，malignantpowers。
DowntotheChristianerathefearofmagicrarelyledtoanypersecutionverysystematicorverycruel。WhileinGreeceandRomelawswereattimesenactedagainstmagicians，theywereonlyoccasionallyenforcedwithrigour，andfinally，towardtheendofthepaganempire，thefeelingagainstthemseemeddyingoutaltogether。Astoitsmorekindlyphases，menlikeMarcusAureliusandJuliandidnothesitatetoconsultthosewhoclaimedtoforetellthefuture。Astoblackmagic，itseemedhardlyworthwhiletoenactseverelaws，whencharms，amulets，andevengesturescouldthwartitsworstmachinations。
Moreover，undertheoldempirearealsciencewascomingin，andthoughtwasprogressing。Boththetheoryandpracticeofmagicweremoreandmorehelduptoridicule。EvenasearlyawriterasEnniusridiculedtheideathatmagicians，whoweregenerallypoorandhungrythemselves，couldbestowwealthonothers；Pliny，inhisNaturalPhilosophy，showedatgreatlengththeirabsurditiesandcheatery；othersfollowedinthesamelineofthought，andthewholetheory，exceptamongtheverylowestclasses，seemeddyingout。
ButwiththedevelopmentofChristiantheologycameachange。
TheideaoftheactiveinterferenceofSataninmagic，whichhadcomeintotheHebrewmindwithespecialforcefromPersiaduringthecaptivityofIsrael，hadpassedfromtheHebrewScripturesintoChristianity，andhadbeenmadestillstrongerbyvariousstatementsintheNewTestament。TheologianslaidstressespeciallyuponthefamousutterancesofthePsalmistthat“allthegodsoftheheathenaredevils。”andofSt。Paulthat“thethingswhichtheGentilessacrifice，theysacrificetodevils“；
anditwaswidelyheldthatthesedevilswerenaturallyindignantattheirdethronementandanxioustowreakvengeanceuponChristianity。Magicianswereheldtobeactiveagentsofthesedethronedgods，andthispersuasionwasstrengthenedbysundryoldpractitionersintheartofmagic——impostorswhopretendedtosupernaturalpowers，andwhomadeuseofoldritesandphrasesinheritedfrompaganism。
HenceitwasthatassoonasChristianitycameintopoweritmorethanrenewedtheoldseveritiesagainsttheforbiddenart，andoneofthefirstactsoftheEmperorConstantineafterhisconversionwastoenactamostseverelawagainstmagicandmagicians，underwhichthemainoffendermightbeburnedalive。
Buthere，too，itshouldbenotedthatadistinctionbetweenthetwosortsofmagicwasrecognised，forConstantineshortlyafterwardfounditnecessarytoissueaproclamationstatingthathisintentionwasonlytoprohibitdeadlyandmalignantmagic；
thathehadnointentionofprohibitingmagicusedtocurediseasesandtoprotectthecropsfromhailandtempests。ButasnewemperorscametothethronewhohadnotinthemthatoldleavenofpaganismwhichtothelastinfluencedConstantine，andastheologyobtainedafirmerhold，severityagainstmagicincreased。Tolerationofit，eveninitsmilderforms，wasmoreandmoredenied。Blackmagicandwhitewereclassedtogether。
Thisseveritywentonincreasingandthreatenedthesimplesteffortsinphysicsandchemistry；eventhescienceofmathematicswaslookeduponwithdread。Bythetwelfthandthirteenthcenturies，theoldertheologyhavingarrivedattheclimaxofitsdevelopmentinEurope，terrorofmagicandwitchcrafttookcompletepossessionofthepopularmind。Insculpture，painting，andliteratureitappearedinformsevermoreandmorestriking。Thelivesofsaintswerefilledwithit。
Thecathedralsculptureembodieditineverypart。Thestoriedwindowsmadeitallthemoreimpressive。Themissalpainterswroughtitnotonlyintoprayerbooks，but，despitethefactthathardlyatraceofthebeliefappearsinthePsalms，theyillustrateditinthegreatilluminatedpsaltersfromwhichthenoblestpartoftheservicewassungbeforethehighaltar。Theservicebooksshowedeveryformofagonizingpetitionfordeliveryfromthisdireinfluence，andeveryformofexorcismforthwartingit。
AllthegreattheologiansoftheChurchenteredintothisbeliefandaidedtodevelopit。ThefathersoftheearlyChurchwerefullandexplicit，andthemedievaldoctorsbecamemoreandmoreminuteindescribingtheoperationsoftheblackartandindenouncingthem。Itwasarguedthat，asthedevilafflictedJob，soheandhisminionscontinuetocausediseases；that，asSatanisthePrinceofthepoweroftheair，heandhisminionscausetempests；thatthecasesofNebuchadnezzarandLot’swifeprovethatsorcererscantransformhumanbeingsintoanimalsorevenlifelessmatter；that，asthedevilsofGadarawerecastintoswine，allanimalscouldbeafflictedinthesamemanner；andthat，asChristhimselfhadbeentransportedthroughtheairbythepowerofSatan，soanyhumanbeingmightbethustransportedto“anexceedinghighmountain。”
Thusthehorrorofmagicandwitchcraftincreasedoneveryhand，andin1317PopeJohnXXIIissuedhisbullSpondentpariter，levelledatthealchemists，butreallydealingaterribleblowatthebeginningsofchemicalscience。Thatmanyalchemistswereknavishisnodoubttrue，butnoinfallibilityinseparatingtheevilfromthegoodwasshownbythepapacyinthismatter。InthisandinsundryotherbullsandbriefswefindPopeJohn，byvirtueofhisinfallibilityastheworld’sinstructorinallthatpertainstofaithandmorals，condemningrealscienceandpseudo-sciencealike。Intwoofthesedocuments，supposedtobeinspiredbywisdomfromonhigh，hecomplainsthatbothheandhisflockareindangeroftheirlivesbytheartsofthesorcerers；hedeclaresthatsuchsorcererscansenddevilsintomirrorsandfingerrings，andkillmenandwomenbyamagicword；