Wehaveseenthat，closelyconnectedwiththemainlinesofinvestigationinarchaeologyandanthropology，therewereotherresearchesthrowingmuchlightontheentiresubject。InapreviouschapterwesawespeciallythatLafitauandJussieuwereamongthefirsttocollectandcomparefactsbearingonthenaturalhistoryofman，gatheredbytravellersinvariouspartsoftheearth，thuslayingfoundationsforthescienceofcomparativeethnology。Itwassoonseenthatethnologyhadmostimportantbearingsuponthequestionofthematerial，intellectual，moral，andreligiousevolutionofthehumanrace；
　　ineverycivilizednation，therefore，appearedscholarswhobegantostudythecharacteristicsofvariousgroupsofmenasascertainedfromtravellers，andtocomparetheresultsthusgainedwitheachotherandwiththoseobtainedbyarchaeology。
　　Thus，moreandmoreclearbecametheevidencesthatthetendencyoftheracehasbeenupwardfromlowbeginnings。Itwasfoundthatgroupsofmenstillexistedpossessingcharacteristicsofthoseintheearlyperiodsofdevelopmenttowhomthedriftandcavesandshell-heapsandpile-dwellingsbearwitness；groupsofmenusingmanyofthesameimplementsandweapons，buildingtheirhousesinthesameway，seekingtheirfoodbythesamemeans，enjoyingthesameamusements，andgoingthroughthesamegeneralstagesofculture；somebeinginaconditioncorrespondingtotheearlier，sometothelater，ofthoseearlyperiods。
　　Fromallsidesthuscameevidencethatwehavestillupontheearthexamplesofallthemainstagesinthedevelopmentofhumancivilization；thatfromtheperiodwhenmanappearslittleabovethebrutes，andwithlittleifanyreligioninanyacceptedsenseoftheword，theseexamplescanbearrangedinanascendingseriesleadingtothehighestplaneswhichhumanityhasreached；
　　thatphilosophicobserversmayamongtheseexamplesstudyexistingbeliefs，usages，andinstitutionsbackthroughearlierandearlierforms，until，asarule，thewholeevolutioncanbeeasilydivinedifnotfullyseen。Moreover，thebasisofthewholestructurebecamemoreandmoreclear：thefactthat“thelinesofintelligencehavealwaysbeenwhattheyare，andhavealwaysoperatedastheydonow；thatmanhasprogressedfromthesimpletothecomplex，fromtheparticulartothegeneral。”
　　Asthisevidencefromethnologybecamemoreandmorestrong，itssignificancetotheologyarousedattention，andnaturallymostdeterminedeffortsweremadetobreakitsforce。OntheContinentthetwogreatchampionsoftheChurchinthisfieldwereDeMaistreandDeBonald；butthetwoattemptswhichmaybeespeciallyrecalledasthemostinfluentialamongEnglish-speakingpeopleswerethoseofWhately，ArchbishopofDublin，andtheDukeofArgyll。
　　FirstinthecombatagainstthesenewdeductionsofsciencewasWhately。Hewasastrongman，whosebreadthofthoughtandliberalityinpracticedeserveallhonour；buttheseveryqualitiesdrewuponhimthedistrustofhisorthodoxbrethren；
　　and，whilehiswritingswerepowerfulinthefirsthalfofthepresentcenturytobreakdownmanybulwarksofunreason，heseemstohavebeenconstantlyinfearoflosingtouchwiththeChurch，andthereforetohavepromptlyattackedsomescientificreasonings，which，hadhebeenalayman，notholdingabrieffortheChurch，hewouldprobablyhavestudiedwithmorecareandlessprejudice。Hewasnotslowtoseethedeepersignificanceofarchaeologyandethnologyintheirrelationstothetheologicalconceptionof“theFall。”andhesetthebattleinarrayagainstthem。
　　Hiscontentionwas，tousehisownwords，that“nocommunityeverdidorevercanemergeunassistedbyexternalhelpsfromastateofutterbarbarismintoanythingthatcanbecalledcivilization“；andthat，inshort，allimperfectlycivilized，barbarous，andsavageracesarebutfallendescendantsofracesmorefullycivilized。Thisviewwasurgedwithhisusualingenuityandvigour，butthefactsprovedtoostrongforhim：
　　theymadeitclear，first，thatmanyraceswerewithoutsimplepossessions，instruments，andartswhichnever，probably，couldhavebeenlostifonceacquired——as，forexample，pottery，thebowforshooting，variousdomesticatedanimals，spinning，thesimplestprinciplesofagriculture，householdeconomy，andthelike；and，secondly，itwasshownasasimplematteroffactthatvarioussavageandbarbaroustribesHADraisedthemselvesbyadevelopmentofmeanswhichnoonefromoutsidecouldhavetaughtthem；asinthecultivationandimprovementofvariousindigenousplants，suchasthepotatoandIndiancornamongtheIndiansofNorthAmerica；inthedomesticationofvariousanimalspeculiartotheirownregions，suchasthellamaamongtheIndiansofsouthAmerica；inthemakingofsundryfabricsoutofmaterialsandbyprocessesnotfoundamongothernations，suchasthebarkclothofthePolynesians；andinthedevelopmentofweaponspeculiartosundrylocalities，butknowninnoothers，suchastheboomeranginAustralia。
　　MosteffectiveinbringingoutthetruthweresuchworksasthoseofSirJohnLubbockandTylor；andsoconclusiveweretheythattheargumentsofWhatelyweregivenupasuntenablebytheotherofthetwogreatchampionsabovereferredto，andanattemptwasmadebyhimtoformthediminishingnumberofthinkingmensupportingtheoldtheologicalviewonanewlineofdefence。
　　Thissecondchampion，theDukeofArgyll，wasamanofwideknowledgeandstrongpowersindebate，whosehighmoralsensewasamplyshowninhisadhesiontothesideoftheAmericanUnioninthestruggleagainstdisunionandslavery，despitetheoverwhelmingmajorityagainsthiminthehigharistocracytowhichhebelonged。Asanhonestmanandclosethinker，thedukewasobligedtogiveupcompletelythetheologicalviewoftheantiquityofman。ThewholebiblicalchronologyasheldbytheuniversalChurch，“always，everywhere，andbyall。”hesacrificed，andgaveallhispowersinthisfieldt[www.kanbaapp.com]osupportthetheoryof“theFall。”Noblesseoblige：thedukeandhisancestorshadbeenforcenturiesthechiefpillarsoftheChurchofScotland，anditwastoomuchtoexpectthathecouldbreakawayfromatenetwhichformsreallyits“chiefcornerstone。”
　　AcknowledgingtheinsufficiencyofArchbishopWhately’sargument，theduketookthegroundthatthelower，barbarous，savage，brutalracesweretheremainsofcivilizedraceswhich，inthestruggleforexistence，hadbeenpushedanddrivenofftoremoteandinclementpartsoftheearth，wheretheconditionsnecessarytoacontinuanceintheirearlycivilizationwereabsent；that，therefore，thedescendantsofprimeval，civilizedmendegeneratedandsankinthescaleofculture。Tousehisownwords，theweakerraceswere“drivenbythestrongertothewoodsandrocks。”sothattheybecame“mereoutcastsofthehumanrace。”
　　Inanswertothis，whileitwasconceded，first，thattherehavebeenexamplesofweakertribessinkinginthescaleofcultureafterescapingfromthestrongerintoregionsunfavourabletocivilization，and，secondly，thatmanypowerfulnationshavedeclinedanddecayed，itwasshownthatthemeninthemostremoteandunfavourableregionshavenotalwaysbeenthelowestinthescale；thatmenhavebeenfrequentlyfound“amongthewoodsandrocks“inahigherstateofcivilizationthanonthefertileplains，suchexamplesbeingcitedasMexico，Peru，andevenScotland；andthat，whilethereweremanyexamplesofspecialandlocaldecline，overwhelmingmassesoffactspointtoprogressasarule。
　　Theimprobability，nottosayimpossibility，ofmanyoftheconclusionsarrivedatbythedukeappearedmoreandmorestronglyasmorebecameknownofthelowertribesofmankind。Itwasnecessaryonhistheorytosupposemanythingswhichourknowledgeofthehumanraceabsolutelyforbidsustobelieve：
　　forexample，itwasnecessarytosupposethattheAustraliansorNewZealanders，havingoncepossessedsosimpleandconvenientanartasthatofthepotter，hadlosteverytraceofit；andthatthesametribes，havingoncehadsosimpleameansofsavinglabourasthespindleorsmallstickweightedatoneendforspinning，hadgivenitupandgonebacktotwistingthreadswiththehand。Infact，itwasnecessarytosupposethatoneofthemainoccupationsofmanfrom“thebeginning“hadbeentheforgettingofsimplemethods，processes，andimplementswhichallexperienceintheactualworldteachesusareneverentirelyforgottenbypeopleswhohaveonceacquiredthem。
　　Someleadingargumentsofthedukewereoverthrownbysimplestatementsoffact。Thus，hisinstanceoftheEskimoaspushedtothevergeofhabitableAmerica，andthereforelivinginthelowestdepthsofsavagery，which，evenifitweretrue，bynomeansprovedageneralrule，wasdeprivedofitsforcebythesimplefactthattheEskimosarebynomeansthelowestraceontheAmericancontinent，andthatvarioustribesfarmorecentrallyandadvantageouslyplaced，as，forinstance，thoseinBrazil，arereallyinferiortotheminthescaleofculture。
　　Again，hisstatementthat“inAfricathereappeartobenotracesofanytimewhenthenativeswerenotacquaintedwiththeuseofiron。”ismetbythefactthatfromtheNileValleytotheCapeofGoodHopewefind，whereverexaminationhasbeenmade，thesameearlystoneimplementswhichinallotherpartsoftheworldprecedetheuseofiron，someofwhichwouldnothavebeenmadehadtheirmakerspossessediron。Thedukealsotriedtoshowthattherewerenodistinctiveepochsofstone，bronze，andiron，byadducingthefactthatsomestoneimplementsarefoundeveninsomehighcivilizations。Thisisindeedafact。WefindsomefewEuropeanpeasantsto-dayusingstonemallet-heads；butthisprovessimplythattheoldstonemallet-headshavesurvivedasimplementscheapandeffective。
　　TheargumentfromComparativeEthnologyinsupportoftheviewthatthetendencyofmankindisupwardhasreceivedstrengthfrommanysources。ComparativePhilologyshowsthatinthelesscivilized，barbarous，andsavageraceschildishformsofspeechprevail——frequentreduplicationsandthelike，ofwhichwehavesurvivalsinthelaterandeveninthemosthighlydevelopedlanguages。Invariouslanguages，too，wefindrelicsofancientmodesofthoughtinthesimplestwordsandexpressionsusedforarithmeticalcalculations。Wordsandphrasesforthispurposearefrequentlyfoundtobederivedfromthewordsforhands，feet，fingers，andtoes，justasclearlyasinourownlanguagesomeofoursimplestmeasuresoflengthareshownbytheirnamestohavebeenmeasuresofpartsofthehumanbody，asthecubit，thefoot，andthelike，andthereforetodatefromatimewhenexactnesswasnotrequired。Toaddanotheroutofmanyexamples，itisfoundto-daythatvariousrudenationsgothroughthesimplestarithmeticalprocessesbymeansofpebbles。Intoourownlanguage，throughtheLatin，hascomeawordshowingthatourdistantprogenitorsreckonedinthisway：thewordCALCULATE
　　givesusanabsoluteproofofthis。AccordingtothetheoryoftheDukeofArgyll，menagesagousedpebblesCALCULIinperformingthesimplestarithmeticalcalculationsbecauseweto-day“CALCULATE。”Noreductiontoabsurditycouldbemorethorough。Thesimplefactmustbethatwe“calculate“becauseourremoteancestorsusedpebblesintheirarithmetic。
　　ComparativeLiteratureandFolklorealsoshowamongpeoplesofalowcultureto-daychildishmodesofviewingnature，andchildishwaysofexpressingtherelationsofmantonature，suchasclearlysurvivefromaremoteancestry；noteworthyamongthesearethebeliefsinwitchesandfairies，andmultitudesofpopularandpoeticexpressionsinthemostcivilizednations。
　　So，too，ComparativeEthnography，thebasisofEthnology，showsincontemporarybarbariansandsavagesachildishloveofplaythingsandgames，ofwhichwehavemanysurvivals。
　　Allthesefacts，whichwereatfirstunobservedorobservedasmattersofnosignificance，havebeenbroughtintoconnectionwithafactinbiologyacknowledgedalikebyallimportantschools；byAgassizononehandandbyDarwinontheother——namely，asstatedbyAgassiz，that“theyoungstatesofeachspeciesandgroupresembleolderformsofthesamegroup。”
　　or，asstatedbyDarwin，that“intwoormoregroupsofanimals，howevermuchtheymayatfirstdifferfromeachotherinstructureandhabits，iftheypassthroughcloselysimilarembryonicstages，wemayfeelalmostassuredthattheyhavedescendedfromthesameparentform，andarethereforecloselyrelated。”[194]
　　[194]Forthestoneformsgiventoearlybronzeaxes，etc。，seeNilsson，PrimitiveInhabitantsofScandanavia，London，1868，Lubbock’sIntroduction，p。31；andforplates，seeLubbock’sPrehistoricMan，chap。ii；alsoCartailhac，LesAgesPrehistoriquesdel’EspagneetduPortugal，p。227。AlsoKeller，LakeDwellings；alsoTroyon，HabitationsLacustres；alsoBoydDawkins，EarlyManinGreatBritain，p。191；alsoLubbock，p。6；
　　alsoLyell，AntiquityofMan，chap。ii。Forthecranogs，etc。，inthenorthofEurope，seeMunro，AncientScottishLakeDwellings，Edinburgh，1882。FormoundsandgreaterstoneconstructionsintheextremesouthofEurope，seeCartailhac’sworkonSpainandPortugalabovecited，partiii，chap。iii。ForthesourceofMr。