Inthepreviouschapterswehaveseenhowscience，especiallywithintheeighteenthandnineteenthcenturies，hasthoroughlychangedtheintelligentthoughtoftheworldinregardtotheantiquityofmanuponourplanet；andhowthefabricbuiltuponthechronologicalindicationsinoursacredbooks——first，bytheearlyfathersoftheChurch，afterwardbythemedievaldoctors，andfinallybythereformersandmodernorthodoxchronologists——hasvirtuallydisappearedbeforeanentirelydifferentviewforceduponus，especiallybyEgyptianandAssyrianstudies，aswellasbygeologyandarcheology。
　　InthischapterIpurposetopresentsomeoutlinesoftheworkofAnthropology，especiallyasassistedbyEthnology，inshowingwhattheevolutionofhumancivilizationhasbeen。
　　Here，too，thechangefromtheoldtheologicalviewbasedupontheletterofoursacredbookstothemodernscientificviewbaseduponevidenceabsolutelyirrefragableiscomplete。Here，too，weareatthebeginningofavastchangeinthebasisandmodesofthoughtuponman——achangeevenmorestrikingthanthataccomplishedbyCopernicusandGalileo，whentheysubstitutedforauniverseinwhichsunandplanetsrevolvedabouttheearthauniverseinwhichtheearthisbutthemerestgrainoratomrevolvingwithotherworlds，largerandsmaller，aboutthesun；
　　andalltheseformingbutoneamonginnumerablesystems。
　　Eversincethebeginningofman’seffectivethinkinguponthegreatproblemsaroundhim，twoantagonisticviewshaveexistedregardingthelifeofthehumanraceuponearth。Thefirstoftheseisthebeliefthatmanwascreated“inthebeginning“aperfectbeing，endowedwiththehighestmoralandintellectualpowers，butthattherecamea“fall。”and，asitsresult，theentranceintotheworldofevil，toil，sorrow，anddeath。
　　Nothingcouldbemorenaturalthansuchanexplanationoftheexistenceofevil，intimeswhenmensaweverywheremiracleandnowherelaw。Itis，undersuchcircumstances，byfarthemosteasyofexplanations，foritisinaccordancewiththeappearancesofthings：menadopteditjustasnaturallyastheyadoptedthetheorythattheAlmightyhangsupthestarsaslightsinthesolidfirmamentabovetheearth，orhidesthesunbehindamountainatnight，orwheelstheplanetsaroundtheearth，orflingscometsas“signsandwonders“toscareawickedworld，orallowsevilspiritstocontrolthunder，lightning，andstorm，andtocausediseasesofbodyandmind，oropensthe“windowsofheaven“toletdown“thewatersthatbeabovetheheavens。”andthustogiverainupontheearth。
　　Abelief，then，inaprimevalperiodofinnocenceandperfection——moral，intellectual，andphysical——fromwhichmenforsomefaultfell，isperfectlyinaccordancewithwhatweshouldexpect。
　　AmongtheearliestknownrecordsofourracewefindthisviewtakingshapeintheChaldeanlegendsofwarbetweenthegods，andofafallofman；bothofwhichseemednecessarytoexplaintheexistenceofevil。
　　InGreekmythologyperhapsthebest-knownstatementwasmadebyHesiod：tohimitwasrevealed，regardingthemenofthemostancienttimes，thattheywereatfirst“agoldenrace。”that“asgodstheywerewonttolive，withalifevoidofcare，withoutlabourandtrouble；norwaswretchedoldageatallimpending；
　　buteverdidtheydelightthemselvesoutofthereachofallills，andtheydiedasifovercomebysleep；allblessingsweretheirs：ofitsownwillthefruitfulfieldwouldbearthemfruit，muchandample，andtheygladlyusedtoreapthelaboursoftheirhandsinquietnessalongwithmanygoodthings，beingrichinflocksandtruetotheblessedgods。”Buttherecamea“fall。”causedbyhumancuriosity。Pandora，thefirstwomancreated，receivedavasewhich，bydivinecommand，wastoremainclosed；butshewastemptedtoopenit，andtroubles，sorrow，anddiseaseescapedintotheworld，hopealoneremaining。
　　So，too，inRomanmythologicalpoetrythewell-knownpicturebyOvidisbutoneamongthemanyexhibitionsofthissamebeliefinaprimevalgoldenage——aSaturniancycle；oneoftheconstantlyrecurringattempts，souniversalandsonaturalintheearlyhistoryofman，toaccountfortheexistenceofevil，care，andtoilonearthbyexplanatorymythsandlegends。
　　Thisview，growingoutofthemyths，legends，andtheologiesofearlierpeoples，wealsofindembodiedinthesacredtraditionoftheJews，andespeciallyinoneofthedocumentswhichformtheimpressivepoembeginningthebooksattributedtoMoses。AstotheChristianChurch，nowordofitsBlessedFounderindicatesthatitwascommittedbyhimtothistheory，orthatheeventhoughtitworthyofhisattention。How，likesomanyotherdogmasneverdreamedofbyJesusofNazarethandthosewhoknewhimbest，itwasdeveloped，itdoesnotliewithintheprovinceofthischaptertopointout；norisitworthourwhiletodwelluponitsevolutionintheearlyChurch，intheMiddleAges，attheReformation，andinvariousbranchesoftheProtestantChurch：sufficeitthat，thoughamongEnglish-speakingnationsbyfarthemostimportantinfluenceinitsfavourhascomefromMilton’sinspirationratherthanfromthatofoldersacredbooks，nodoctrinehasbeenmoreuniversallyaccepted，“always，everywhere，andbyall。”fromtheearliestfathersoftheChurchdowntothepresenthour。
　　Ontheotherhandappearedatanearlyperiodtheoppositeview——thatmankind，insteadofhavingfallenfromahighintellectual，moral，andreligiouscondition，hasslowlyrisenfromlowandbrutalbeginnings。InGreece，amongthephilosopherscontemporarywithSocrates，wefindCritiasdepictingariseofman，fromatimewhenhewasbeastlikeandlawless，throughaperiodwhenlawsweredeveloped，toatimewhenmoralityreceivedenforcementfromreligion；butamongallthestatementsofthistheorythemostnoteworthyisthatgivenbyLucretiusinhisgreatpoemonTheNatureofThings。Despiteitserrors，itremainsamongthemostremarkableexamplesofpropheticinsightinthehistoryofourrace。TheinspirationofLucretiusgavehimalmostmiraculousglimpsesoftruth；hisviewofthedevelopmentofcivilizationfromtherudestbeginningstotheheightofitsachievementsisawonderfulgrowth，rootedinobservationandthought，branchingforthintoamultitudeofstrikingfactsandfancies；andamongtheseisthestatementregardingthesequenceofinventions：
　　“Man’searliestarmswerefingers，teeth，andnails，Andstonesandfragmentsfromthebranchingwoods；
　　Thencoppernext；andlast，aslatesttraced，Thetyrant，iron。”
　　Thusdidthepoetprophesyoneofthemostfruitfulachievementsofmodernscience：thediscoveryofthatseriesofepochswhichhasbeensocarefullystudiedinourcentury。
　　Verystriking，also，isthestatementofHorace，thoughhisideaisevidentlyderivedfromLucretius。Hedwellsuponman’sfirstconditiononearthaslowandbestial，andpictureshimlurkingincaves，progressingfromtheuseofhisfistsandnails，firsttoclubs，thentoarmswhichhehadlearnedtoforge，and，finally，totheinventionofthenamesofthings，toliterature，andtolaws。[189]
　　[189]ForthepassageinHesiod，asgiven，seetheWorksandDays，lines109-120，inBanks’stranslation。AstoHorace，seetheSatires，i，3，99。AstotherelationofthepoeticaccountoftheFallinGenesistoChaldeanmyths，seeSmith，ChaldeanAccountofGenesis，pp。13，17。ForaveryinstructiveseparationoftheJehovisticandElohisticpartsofGenesis，withtheaccountofthe“Fall“asgivenintheformer，seeLenormant，LaGenese，Paris，1883，pp。166-168；alsoBacon，GenesisofGenesis。
　　OfthelinesofLucretius——
　　“Armaantiqua，manus，ungues，dentesquefuerunt，Etlapides，etitemsylvarumfragminarami，Posteriusferrivisest，aerisquereperta，Sedprioraeriserat，quamferricognitususus“——
　　thetranslationisthatofGood。Foramoreexactprosetranslation，seeMunro’sLucretius，fourthedition，whichismuchmorecareful，atleastintheproof-reading，thanthefirstedition。AsregardsLucretius’spropheitcinsightintosomeofthegreatestconclusiuonsofmodernscience，seeMunro’stranslationandnotes，fourthedition，bookv，notesii，p。335。
　　OntherelationofseveralpassagesinHoracetotheideasofLucretius，seeMunroasabove。ForthepassagefromLuther，seetheTableTalk，Hazlitt’stranslation，p。242。
　　Duringthemediaevalagesoffaiththisviewwasalmostentirelyobscured，andattheReformationitseemedlikelytoremainso。
　　Typicalofthesimplicityofbeliefin“theFall“cherishedamongtheReformersisLuther’sdeclarationregardingAdamandEve。Hetellsus，“theyenteredintothegardenaboutnoon，andhavingadesiretoeat，shetooktheapple；thencamethefall——accordingtoouraccountatabouttwoo’clock。”Butintherevivaloflearningtheoldeclipsedtruthreappeared，andinthefirstpartoftheseventeenthcenturywefindthat，amongthecrimesforwhichVaniniwassentencedatToulousetohavehistonguetornoutandtobeburnedalive，washisbeliefthatthereisagradationextendingupwardfromthelowesttothehighestformofcreatedbeings。
　　Yet，inthesamecentury，thewritingsofBodin，Bacon，Descartes，andPascalwereevidentlyunderminingtheoldideaof“theFall。”Bodinespecially，brilliantaswerehisservicestoorthodoxy，arguedlucidlyagainstthedoctrineofgeneralhumandeterioration。
　　EarlyintheeighteenthcenturyVicopresentedthephilosophyofhistoryasanupwardmovementofmanoutofanimalismandbarbarism。Thisideatookfirmholduponhumanthought，andinthefollowingcenturiessuchmenasLessingandTurgotgavenewforcetoit。
　　TheinvestigationsofthelastfortyyearshaveshownthatLucretiusandHoracewereinspiredprophets：whattheysawbytheexerciseofreasonilluminedbypoeticgenius，hasbeennowthoroughlybaseduponfactscarefullyascertainedandarranged——untilThomsenandNilsson，thenorthernarchaeologists，havebroughtthesepropheciestoevidentfulfilment，bypresentingascientificclassificationdividingtheageofprehistoricmaninvariouspartsoftheworldbetweenanoldstoneperiod，anewstoneperiod，aperiodofbeatencopper，aperiodofbronze，andaperiodofiron，andarrayingvastmassesoffactsfromallpartsoftheworld，fittingthoroughlyintoeachother，strengtheningeachother，andshowingbeyondadoubtthat，insteadofaFALL，therehasbeenaRISEofman，fromtheearliestindicationsintheQuaternary，oreven，possibly，intheTertiaryperiod。[190]
　　[190]ForVanini，seeTopinard，ElementsofAnthropologie，p。52。
　　ForabriefandcarefulsummaryoftheagencyofEccardinGermany，GoguetinFrance，HoareinEngland，andothersinvariouspartsofEurope，asregardsthisdevelopmentofthescientificviewduringtheeighteenthcentury，seeMortillet，LePrehistorique，Paris，1885，chap。i。FortheagencyofBodin，Bacon，Descartes，andPascal，seeFlint，PhilosophyofHistory，introduction，pp。28etseq。Forashortersummary，seeLubbock，PrehistoricMan。Forthestatementsbythenorthernarchaeologists，seeNilsson，Worsaae，andtheothermainworkscitedinthisarticle。ForagenerousstatementregardingthegreatservicesoftheDanisharchaeologistsinthisfield，seeQuatrefages，introductiontoCartailhac，LesAgesPrehistoriquesdel’EspagneetduPortugal。
　　Thefirstblowatthefullydevelopeddoctrineof“theFall“
　　came，aswehaveseen，fromgeology。Accordingtothatdoctrine，asheldquitegenerallyfromitsbeginningsamongthefathersanddoctorsoftheprimitiveChurchdowntoitsculminationinthemindsofgreatProtestantslikeJohnWesley，thestatementinoursacredbooksthat“deathenteredtheworldbysin“wastakenasahistoricfact，necessitatingtheconclusionthat，beforetheserpentpersuadedEvetoeatoftheforbiddenfruit，deathonourplanetwasunknown。Naturally，whengeologyrevealed，inthestrataofaperiodlongbeforethecomingofmanonearth，avastmultitudeofcarnivoroustribesfittedtodestroytheirfellow-creaturesonlandandsea，andwithinthefossilizedskeletonsofmanyofthesethepartiallydigestedremainsofanimals，thisdoctrinewastooheavytobecarried，anditwasquietlydropped。
　　Butaboutthemiddleofthenineteenthcenturythedoctrineoftheriseofmanasopposedtothedoctrineofhis“fall“receivedagreataccessionofstrengthfromasourcemostunexpected。Aswesawinthelastchapter，thefactsprovingthegreatantiquityofmanforeshadowedanewandevenmoreremarkableidearegardinghim。Wesaw，itistrue，thattheopponentsofBoucherdePerthes，whiletheycouldnotdenyhisdiscoveryofhumanimplementsinthedrift，weresuccessfulinsecuringaverdictof“Notprove“asregardedhisdiscoveryofhumanbones；buttheirtriumphwasshort-lived。Manypreviousdiscoveries，littlethoughtofuptothattime，begantobestudied，andotherswereaddedwhichresultednotmerelyinconfirmingthetruthregardingtheantiquityofman，butinestablishinganotherdoctrinewhichtheopponentsofscienceregardedwithvastlygreaterdislike——thedoctrinethatmanhasnotfallenfromanoriginalhighestateinwhichhewascreatedaboutsixthousandyearsago，butthat，fromaperiodvastlyearlierthananywarrantedbythesacredchronologists，hehasbeen，inspiteoflapsesanddeteriorations，rising。
　　Abriefreviewofthisnewgrowthoftruthmaybeuseful。Asearlyas1835Prof。JaegerhadbroughtoutfromaquantityofQuaternaryremainsduguplongbeforeatCannstadt，nearStuttgart，aportionofahumanskull，apparentlyofverylowtype。Abattleragedaboutitforatime，butthisfinallysubsided，owingtouncertaintiesarisingfromthecircumstancesofthediscovery。
　　In1856，intheNeanderthal，nearDusseldorf，amongQuaternaryremainsgatheredonthefloorofagrotto，anotherskullwasfoundbearingthesameevidenceofalowhumantype。AsinthecaseoftheCannstadtskull，thisagainwasfiercelydebated，andfinallythequestionsregardingitwereallowedtoremaininsuspense。Butnewdiscoveriesweremade：atEguisheim，atBrux，atSpy，andelsewhere，humanskullswerefoundofasimilarlylowtype；and，whileeachoftheearlierdiscoverieswasopentodebate，andeither，hadnootherbeendiscovered，mighthavebeenconsideredanabnormalspecimen，thecombinationofalltheseshowedconclusivelythatnotonlyhadaraceofmenexistedatthatremoteperiod，butthatitwasofatypeaslowasthelowest，perhapsbelowthelowest，nowknown。