wasatokenofDivinewrathprovokedbytheSt。Bartholomewmassacre。
AstotheStuartperiod，ArchbishopSpottiswoodeseemstohavebeenactiveincarryingthesuperstitionfromthesixteenthcenturytotheseventeenth，andArchbishopBramhallcitesScriptureinsupportofit。Rathercuriously，whilethediaryofArchbishopLaudshowssomuchsuperstitionregardingdreamsasportents，itshowslittleornoneregardingcomets；butBishopJeremyTaylor，strongashewas，evidentlyfavouredtheusualview。JohnHowe，theeminentNonconformistdivineinthelatterpartofthecentury，seemstohaveregardedthecometsuperstitionasalmostafundamentalarticleofbelief；helamentsthetotalneglectofcometsandportentsgenerally，declaringthatthisneglectbetokenswantofreverencefortheRuleroftheworld；heexpressescontemptforscientificinquiryregardingcomets，insiststhattheymaybenaturalbodiesandyetsupernaturalportents，andendsbysaying，“Iconceiveitverysafetosupposethatsomeveryconsiderablething，eitherinthewayofjudgmentormercy，mayensue，accordingasthecryofperseveringwickednessorofpenitentialprayerismoreorlessloudatthattime。”[99]
[99]ForLiturgicalServicesoftheReignofQueenElizabeth，seeParkerSocietyPublications，pp。569，570。ForStrype，seehisEcclesiasticalMemorials，vol。iii，parti，p。472；alsoseehisAnnalsofthereformation，vol。ii，partii，p。151；andhisLifeofSirThomasSmith，pp。161，162。ForSpottiswoode，seeHistoryoftheChurchofScotlandEdinburghreprint，1851，vol。i，pp。
185，186。ForBramhall，seehisWorks，Oxford，1844，vol。iv，pp。60，307，etc。ForJeremyTaylor，seehisSermonsontheLifeofChrist。ForJohnHowe，seehisWorks，London，1862，vol。iv，pp。140，141。
TheReformedChurchofScotlandsupportedthesuperstitionjustasstrongly。JohnKnoxsawincometstokensofthewrathofHeaven；otherauthoritiesconsideredthem“awarningtothekingtoextirpatethePapists“；andaslateas1680，afterHalleyhadwonhisvictory，cometswereannouncedonhighauthorityintheScottishChurchtobe“prodigiesofgreatjudgmentontheselandsforoursins，forneverwastheLordmoreprovokedbyapeople。”
Whilesuchwastheviewoftheclergyduringthesixteenthandseventeenthcenturies，thelaitygenerallyaccepteditasamatterofcourse，Amongthegreatleadersinliteraturetherewasatleastgeneralacquiescenceinit。BothShakespeareandMiltonrecogniseit，whethertheyfullyacceptitornot。ShakespearemakestheDukeofBedford，lamentingatthebierofHenryV，say：
“Comets，importingchangeoftimeandstates，Brandishyourcrystaltressesinthesky；
Andwiththemscourgethebadrevoltingstars，ThathaveconsenteduntoHenry’sdeath。”
Milton，speakingofSatanpreparingforcombat，says：
“Ontheotherside，Incensedwithindignation，Satanstood。
Unterrified，andlikeacometburned，ThatfiresthelengthofOphiuchushugeInthearcticsky，andfromitshorridhairShakespestilenceandwar。”
WedoindeedfindthatinsomemindsthediscoveriesofTychoBraheandKeplerbegintotakeeffect，for，in1621，BurtoninhisAnatomyofMelancholyalludestothemaschangingpublicopinionsomewhatregardingcomets；and，justbeforethemiddleofthecentury，SirThomasBrowneexpressesadoubtwhethercometsproducesuchterribleeffects，“sinceitisfoundthatmanyofthemareabovethemoon。”[100]YetevenaslateasthelastyearsoftheseventeenthcenturywehaveEnglishauthorsofmuchpowerbattlingforthissupposedscripturalviewandamongthenaturalandtypicalresultswefind，in1682，RalphThoresby，aFellowoftheRoyalSociety，terrifiedatthecometofthatyear，andwritinginhisdiarythefollowingpassage：“Lord，fitusforwhateverchangesitmayportend；for，thoughIamnotignorantthatsuchmeteorsproceedfromnaturalcauses，yetaretheyfrequentlyalsothepresagesofimminentcalamities。”
InterestingisittonoteherethatthiswasHalley’scomet，andthatHalleywasatthisverymomentmakingthosescientificstudiesuponitwhichweretofreethecivilizedworldforeverfromsuchterrorsasdistressedThoresby。
[100]ForJohnKnox，seehisHistoireoftheReformationofReligionwithintheRealmofScotlandEdinburgh，1732，lib。iv；
alsoChambers，DomesticAnnalsofScotland，vol。ii，pp410-412。
ForBurton，seehisAnatomyofMelancholy，partii，sect2。ForBrowne，seetheVulgarandCommonErrors，bookvi，chap。xiv。
Thebeliefincometsaswarningsagainstsinwasespeciallyoneofthoseheld“always，everywhere，andbyall。”andbyEasternChristiansaswellasbyWestern。OneofthemoststrikingscenesinthehistoryoftheEasternChurchisthatwhichtookplaceatthecondemnationofNikon，thegreatPatriarchofMoscow。Turningtowardhisjudges，hepointedtoacometthenblazinginthesky，andsaid，“God’sbesomshallsweepyouallaway！”
OfallcountriesinwesternEurope，itwasinGermanyandGermanSwitzerlandthatthissuperstitiontookstrongesthold。Thatsamedepthofreligiousfeelingwhichproducedinthosecountriesthemostterriblegrowthofwitchcraftpersecution，broughtsuperstitiontoitshighestdevelopmentregardingcomets。NocountrysufferedmorefromitintheMiddleAges。AttheReformationLutherdeclaredstronglyinfavourofit。InoneofhisAdventsermonshesaid，“Theheathenwritethatthecometmayarisefromnaturalcauses，butGodcreatesnotonethatdoesnotforetokenasurecalamity。”Againhesaid，“WhatevermovesintheheaveninanunusualwayiscertainlyasignofGod’swrath。”
Andsometimes，yieldingtoanotherphaseofhisbelief，hedeclaredthemworksofthedevil，anddeclaimedagainstthemas“harlotstars。”[101]
[101]ForThoresby，seehisDiary，London，1830。Halley’sgreatserviceisdescribedfurtheroninthischapter。ForNikon’sspeech，seeDeanStanley’sHistoryoftheEasternChurch，p。485。ForverystrikingexamplesofthismediaevalterrorinGermany，seeVonRaumer，GeschichtederHohenstaufen，vol。vi，p。
538。FortheReformationperiod，seeWolf，Gesch。d。Astronomie；
alsoPraetorius，Ueberd。CometsternErfurt，1589，inwhichtheabovesentencesofLutherareprintedonthetitlepageasepigraphs。For“Huren-Sternen。”seethesermonofCelichius，describedlater。
Melanchthon，too，invariouslettersreferstocometsasheraldsofHeaven’swrath，classingthem，withevilconjunctionsoftheplanetsandabortivebirths，amongthe“signs“referredtoinScripture。Zwingli，boldestofthegreaterReformersinshakingofftraditionalbeliefs，couldnotshakeoffthis，andinsistedthatthecometof1531betokenedcalamity。Arietus，aleadingProtestanttheologian，declared，“Theheavensaregivenusnotmerelyforourpleasure，butalsoasawarningofthewrathofGodforthecorrectionofourlives。”Lavaterinsistedthatcometsaresignsofdeathorcalamity，andcitedproofsfromScripture。
CatholicandProtestantstrovetogetherforthegloryofthisdoctrine。ItwasmaintainedwithespecialvigourbyFromundus，theeminentprofessorandDoctorofTheologyattheCatholicUniversityofLouvain，whosostronglyopposedtheCopernicansystem；atthebeginningoftheseventeenthcentury，evensogiftedanastronomerasKepleryieldedsomewhattothebelief；
andneartheendofthatcenturyVoigtdeclaredthatthecometof1618clearlypresagedthedownfalloftheTurkishEmpire，andhestigmatizedas“atheistsandEpicureans“allwhodidnotbelievecometstobeGod’swarnings。[102]
[102]ForMelanchthon，seeWolf，ubisupra。ForZwingli，seeWolf，p。235。ForArietus，seeMadler，GeschichtederHimmelskunde，vol。ii。ForKepler’ssuperstition，seeWolf，p。
281。ForVoight，seeHimmels-ManatenReichstage，Hamburg，1676。
ForbothFromundusandVoigt，seealsoMadler，vol。ii，p。399，andLecky，RationalisminEurope，vol。i，p。28。
II。THEOLOGICALEFFORTSTOCRUSHTHESCIENTIFICVIEW。
Outofthisbeliefwasdevelopedagreatseriesofeffortstomaintainthetheologicalviewofcomets，andtoputdownforeverthescientificview。Theseeffortsmaybedividedintotwoclasses：thosedirectedtowardlearnedmenandscholars，throughtheuniversities，andthosedirectedtowardthepeopleatlarge，throughthepulpits。Astothefirstofthese，thatlearnedmenandscholarsmightbekeptinthepathsof“sacredscience“and“soundlearning。”especialpainswastakentokeepallknowledgeofthescientificviewofcometsasfaraspossiblefromstudentsintheuniversities。EventotheendoftheseventeenthcenturytheoathgenerallyrequiredofprofessorsofastronomyoveralargepartofEuropepreventedtheirteachingthatcometsareheavenlybodiesobedienttolaw。Effortsjustasearnestweremadetofastenintostudents’mindsthetheologicaltheory。Twoorthreeexamplesoutofmanymayserveastypes。FirstofthesemaybenamedtheteachingofJacobHeerbrand，professorattheUniversityofTubingen，whoin1577illustratedthemoralvalueofcometsbycomparingtheAlmightysendingacomet，tothejudgelayingtheexecutioner’sswordonthetablebetweenhimselfandthecriminalinacourtofjustice；and，again，tothefatherorschoolmasterdisplayingtherodbeforenaughtychildren。A
littlelaterwehaveanotherchurchmanofgreatimportanceinthatregion，Schickhart，headpastorandsuperintendentatGoppingen，preachingandpublishingacometsermon，inwhichhedenouncesthosewhostareatsuchwarningsofGodwithoutheedingthem，andcomparesthemto“calvesgapingatanewbarndoor。”
Stilllater，attheendoftheseventeenthcentury，wefindConradDieterich，directorofstudiesattheUniversityofMarburg，denouncingallscientificinvestigationofcometsasimpious，andinsistingthattheyareonlytoberegardedas“signsandwonders。”[103]
[103]Fortheeffectoftheanti-Pythagoreanoath，seeProwe，Copernicus；alsoMadlerandWolf。ForHeerbrand，seehisVondemerschrockenlichenWunderzeichen，Tubingen，1577。ForSchickart，seehisPredigtvomWunderzeichen，Stuttgart，1621。ForDeiterich，seehissermon，describedmorefullybelow。
Theresultsofthisecclesiasticalpressureuponscienceintheuniversitieswerepainfullyshownduringgenerationaftergeneration，asregardsbothprofessorsandstudents；andexamplesmaybegiventypicalofitseffectsuponeachofthesetwoclasses。
ThefirstoftheseisthecaseofMichaelMaestlin。HewasbybirthaSwabianProtestant，waseducatedatTubingenasapupilofApian，and，afteraperiodoftravel，wassettledasdeaconinthelittleparishofBacknang，whenthecometof1577gavehimanoccasiontoapplyhisastronomicalstudies。Hisminuteandaccurateobservationofitistothisdayoneofthewondersofscience。Itseemsalmostimpossiblethatsomuchcouldbeaccomplishedbythenakedeye。HisobservationsagreedwiththoseofTychoBrahe，andwonforMaestlintheprofessorshipofastronomyintheUniversityofHeidelberg。Nomanhadsoclearlyprovedthesupralunarpositionofacomet，orshownsoconclusivelythatitsmotionwasnoterratic，butregular。Theyoungastronomer，thoughApian’spupil，wasanavowedCopernicanandthedestinedmasterandfriendofKepler。Yet，inthetreatiseembodyinghisobservations，hefeltitnecessarytosavehisreputationfororthodoxybycallingthecometa“newandhorribleprodigy。”andbygivingachapterof“conjecturesonthesignificationofthepresentcomet。”inwhichheprovesfromhistorythatthisvarietyofcometbetokenspeace，butpeacepurchasedbyabloodyvictory。Thathereallybelievedinthistheologicaltheoryseemsimpossible；theveryfactthathisobservationshadsettledthesupralunarcharacterandregularmotionofcometsprovesthis。ItwasahumiliationonlytobecomparedtothatofOsianderwhenhewrotehisgrovellingprefacetothegreatbookofCopernicus。Maestlinhadhisreward：when，afewyears，laterhisoldteacher，Apian，wasdrivenfromhischairatTubingenforrefusingtosigntheLutheranConcord-Book，Maestlinwaselectedtohisplace。
Notlessstrikingwastheeffectofthistheologicalpressureuponthemindsofstudents。NoteworthyasanexampleofthisisthebookoftheLeipsiclawyer，Buttner。Fromnolessthaneighty-sixbiblicaltextsheprovestheAlmighty’spurposeofusingtheheavenlybodiesfortheinstructionofmenastofutureevents，andthenproceedstoframeexhaustivetables，fromwhich，thetimeandplaceofthecomet’sfirstappearancebeingknown，itssignificationcanbededuced。Thismanualhegaveforthasatriumphofreligiousscience，underthenameoftheCometHour-Book。[104]
[104]ForMaestlin，seehisObservatioetDemonstrationCometae，Tubingen，1578。ForButtner，seehisCometenStundbuchlein，Leipsic，1605。
ThesamedevotiontotheportenttheoryisfoundintheuniversitiesofProtestantHolland。Strikingisittoseeinthesixteenthcentury，afterTychoBrahe’sdiscovery，theDutchtheologian，GerardVossius，ProfessorofTheologyandEloquenceatLeyden，lendinghisgreatweighttothesuperstition。”Thehistoryofalltimes。”hesays，“showscometstobethemessengersofmisfortune。Itdoesnotfollowthattheyareendowedwithintelligence，butthatthereisadeitywhomakesuseofthemtocallthehumanracetorepentance。”ThoughfamiliarwiththeworksofTychoBrahe，hefindsit“hardtobelieve“thatallcometsareethereal，andadducesseveralhistoricalexamplesofsublunaryones。
NorwasthisattempttoholdbackuniversityteachingtotheoldviewofcometsconfinedtoProtestants。TheRomanChurchwas，ifpossible，morestrenuousinthesameeffort。Afewexampleswillserveastypes，representingtheorthodoxteachingatthegreatcentresofCatholictheology。
OneoftheseisseeninSpain。TheeminentjuristTorreblancawasrecognisedasacontrollingauthorityinalltheuniversitiesofSpain，andfromtheseheswayedintheseventeenthcenturythethoughtofCatholicEurope，especiallyastowitchcraftandtheoccultpowersinNature。Helaysdowntheoldcometarysuperstitionasoneofthefoundationsoforthodoxteaching：
Beggingthequestion，afterthefashionofhistime，hearguesthatcometscannotbestars，becausenewstarsalwaysbetokengood，whilecometsbetokenevil。
ThesameteachingwasgivenintheCatholicuniversitiesoftheNetherlands。Fromundus，atLouvain，theenemyofGalileo，steadilycontinuedhiscrusadeagainstallcometaryheresy。[105]