ThebeliefthateverycometisaballoffireflungfromtherighthandofanangryGodtowarnthegrovellingdwellersofearthwasreceivedintotheearlyChurch,transmittedthroughtheMiddleAgestotheReformationperiod,andinitstransmissionwasmadeallthemorepreciousbysupposedtextualproofsfromScripture。ThegreatfathersoftheChurchcommittedthemselvesunreservedlytoit。InthethirdcenturyOrigen,perhapsthemostinfluentialoftheearlierfathersoftheuniversalChurchinallquestionsbetweenscienceandfaith,insistedthatcometsindicatecatastrophesandthedownfallofempiresandworlds。
Bede,sojustlyreveredbytheEnglishChurch,declaredintheeighthcenturythat“cometsportendrevolutionsofkingdoms,pestilence,war,winds,orheat“;andJohnofDamascus,hiseminentcontemporaryintheEasternChurch,tookthesameview。
RabanusMaurus,thegreatteacherofEuropeintheninthcentury,anauthoritythroughouttheMiddleAges,adoptedBede’sopinionfully。St。ThomasAquinas,thegreatlightoftheuniversalChurchinthethirteenthcentury,whoseworksthePopenowreigningcommendsasthecentreandsourceofalluniversityinstruction,acceptedandhandeddownthesameopinion。ThesaintedAlberttheGreat,themostnotedgeniusofthemedievalChurchinnaturalscience,receivedanddevelopedthistheory。
Thesemenandthosewhofollowedthemfoundeduponscripturaltextsandtheologicalreasoningsasystemthatforseventeencenturiesdefiedeveryadvanceofthought。[93]
[93]ForOrigen,sehisDePrincip。,vol。i,p。7;alsoMaury,Leg。pieuses,p。203,note。ForBedeandothers,seeDeNat。,vol。xxiv;Joh。Dam。,DeFid。Or。,vol。ii,p。7;Maury,LaMagieetl’Astronomie,pp。181,182。ForAlbertusMagnus,seehisOpera,vol。i,tr。iii,chaps。x,xi。AmongthetextsofScriptureonwhichthisbeliefrestedwasespeciallyJoelii,30,31。
Themainevilsthencearisingwerethree:theparalysisofself-help,thearousingoffanaticism,andthestrengtheningofecclesiasticalandpoliticaltyranny。Thefirsttwooftheseevils——theparalysisofself-helpandthearousingoffanaticism——areevidentthroughoutalltheseages。AttheappearanceofacometweconstantlyseeallChristendom,frompopetopeasant,insteadofstrivingtoavertwarbywisestatesmanship,insteadofstrivingtoavertpestilencebyobservationandreason,insteadofstrivingtoavertfaminebyskilfuleconomy,whiningbeforefetiches,tryingtobribethemtoremovethesesignsofGod’swrath,andplanningtowreakthissupposedwrathofGoduponmisbelievers。
Astothethirdoftheseevils——thestrengtheningofecclesiasticalandcivildespotism——examplesappearoneveryside。Itwasnaturalthathierarchsandmonarchswhosebirthswereannouncedbystars,orwhosedeathswereannouncedbycomets,shouldregardthemselvesasfarabovethecommonherd,andshouldbesoregardedbymankind;passiveobediencewasthusstrengthened,andthemostmonstrousassumptionsofauthoritywereconsideredsimplyasmanifestationsoftheDivinewill。
ShakespearemakesCalphurniasaytoCaesar:
“Whenbeggarsdie,therearenocometsseen;
Theheavensthemselvesblazeforththedeathofprinces。”
Galeazzo,thetyrantofMilan,expressingsatisfactiononhisdeathbedthathisapproachingendwasofsuchimportanceastobeheraldedbyacomet,isbutatypeofmanythusencouragedtopreyuponmankind;andCharlesV,oneofthemostpowerfulmonarchstheworldhasknown,abdicatingunderfearofthecometof1556,takingrefugeinthemonasteryofSanYuste,andgivingupthebestofhisvastrealmstosuchascribblingbigotasPhilipII,furnishesanexampleevenmorestriking。[94]
[94]ForCaesar,seeShakespeare,JuliusCaesar,actii,sc。2。
ForGaleazzo,seeGuillemin,WorldofComets,p。19。ForCharlesV,seeProf。Wolf’sessayintheMonatschriftdeswissenschaftlichenVereins,Zurich,1857,p。228。
Butfortheretentionofthisbelieftherewasamoralcause。
MyriadsofgoodmenintheChristianChurchdowntoarecentperiodsawintheappearanceofcometsnotmerelyanexhibitionof“signsintheheavens“foretoldinScripture,butalsoDivinewarningsofvastvaluetohumanityasincentivestorepentanceandimprovementoflife-warnings,indeed,sopreciousthattheycouldnotbesparedwithoutdangertothemoralgovernmentoftheworld。AndthisbeliefintheportentouscharacterofcometsasanessentialpartoftheDivinegovernment,being,asitwasthought,infullaccordwithScripture,wasmadeforcenturiesasourceofterrortohumanity。Tosaynothingofexamplesintheearlierperiods,cometsinthetenthcenturyespeciallyincreasedthedistressofallEurope。InthemiddleoftheeleventhcenturyacometwasthoughttoaccompanythedeathofEdwardtheConfessorandtopresagetheNormanconquest;thetravellerinFranceto-daymayseethisbeliefasitwasthenwroughtintotheBayeuxtapestry。[95]
[95]Forevidencesofthiswidespreadterror,seechroniclesofRaoulGlaber,GuillaumedeNangis,WilliamofMalmesbury,FlorenceofWorcester,OrdericusVitalis,etal。,passim,andtheAnglo-SaxonChronicleintheRollsSeries。ForverythrillingpicturesofthishorrorinEngland,seeFreeman,NormanConquest,vol。iii,pp。640-644,andWilliamRufus,vol。ii,p。118。FortheBayeautapestry,seeBruce,BayeuxTapestryElucidated,plateviiandp。86;alsoGuillemin,WorldofComets,p。24。Thereisalargephotographiccopy,intheSouthKensingtonMuseumatLondon,oftheoriginal,wrought,asisgenerallybelieved,bythewifeofWilliamtheConquerorandherladies,andisstillpreservedinthetownmuseumatBayeux。
NearlyeverydecadeofyearsthroughouttheMiddleAgessawEuropeplungedintoalarmbyappearancesofthissort,buttheculminationseemstohavebeenreachedin1456。AtthattimetheTurks,afteralongeffort,hadmadegoodtheirfootinginEurope。Alargestatesmanshiporgeneralshipmighthavekeptthemout;but,whiledifferentreligiousfactionsweredisputingoverpettyshadesofdogma,theyhadadvanced,hadtakenConstantinople,andwereevidentlysecuringtheirfoothold。Nowcamethefullbloomofthissuperstition。Acometappeared。ThePopeofthatperiod,CalixtusIII,thoughamanofmorethanordinaryability,wassaturatedwiththeideasofhistime。
Alarmedatthismonster,ifwearetobelievethecontemporaryhistorian,thisinfallibleheadoftheChurchsolemnly“decreedseveraldaysofprayerfortheavertingofthewrathofGod,thatwhatevercalamityimpendedmightbeturnedfromtheChristiansandagainsttheTurks。”And,thatallmightjoindailyinthispetition,therewasthenestablishedthatmiddayAngeluswhichhaseversincecalledgoodCatholicstoprayeragainstthepowersofevil。Then,too,wasincorporatedintoalitanytheplea。”FromtheTurkandthecomet,goodLord,deliverus。”Neverwaspapalintercessionlesseffective;fortheTurkhasheldConstantinoplefromthatdaytothis,whiletheobstinatecomet,beingthatnowknownunderthenameofHalley,hasreturnedimperturbablyatshortperiodseversince。[96]
[96]Theusualstatementis,thatCalixtusexcommunicatedthecometbyabull,andthisisacceptedbyArago,Grant,Hoefer,Guillemin,Watson,andmanyhistoriansofastronomy。HencetheparallelismadeonanotedoccasionbyPresidentLincoln。Nosuchbull,however,istobefoundinthepublishedBulleria,andthatestablishingtheAngelusasgivenbyRaynaldusintheAnnalesEccl。containsnomentionofthecomet。ButtheauthorityofPlatinainhisVitaePontificum,Venice,1479,subCalistusIIIwhowasnotonlyinRomeatthetime,butwhenhewrotehishistory,archivistoftheVatican,isfinalastothePope’sattitude。Platina’sauthoritywasneverquestioneduntilmodernsciencechangedtheideasoftheworld。TherecentattemptofPastorinhisGeschichtederPapstetopooh-poohdownthewholematteristooevidentanevasiontocarryweightwiththosewhoknowhoweventhemostcarefulhistorieshavetobemodifiedtosuittheviewsofthecensorshipatRome。
Butthesuperstitionwentstillfurther。Itbecamemoreandmoreincorporatedintowhatwasconsidered“scripturalscience“and“soundlearning。”Theencyclopedicsummaries,inwhichthescienceoftheMiddleAgesandtheReformationperiodtookform,furnishabundantproofsofthis。
Yetscientificobservationwasslowlyunderminingthisstructure。
TheinspiredprophecyofSenecahadnotbeenforgotten。Evenasfarbackastheninthcentury,inthemidstofthesacredlearningsoabundantatthecourtofCharlemagneandhissuccessors,wefindascholarprotestingagainsttheaccepteddoctrine。InthethirteenthcenturywehaveamildquestionbyAlberttheGreatastothesupposedinfluenceofcometsuponindividuals;buttheprevailingtheologicalcurrentwastoostrong,andhefinallyyieldedtoitinthisasinsomanyotherthings。
So,too,inthesixteenthcentury,wehaveCopernicusrefusingtoaccepttheusualtheory,ParacelsuswritingtoZwingliagainstit,andJuliusCaesarScaligerdenouncingitas“ridiculousfolly。”[97]
[97]Astoencyclopedicsummaries,seeVincentofBeauvais,SpeculumNaturale,andthevariouseditionsofReisch’sMargaritaPhilosophica。ForCharlemagne’stime,seeChampion,LaFinduMonde,p。156;Leopardi,ErroriPopolari,p。165。AstoAlberttheGreat’squestion,seeHeller,GeschichtederPhysik,vol。i,p。188。Astoscepticisminthesixteenthcentury,seeChampion,LaFinduMonde,pp。155,156;andforScaliger,Dudith’sbook,citedbelow。
Atfirstthisscepticismonlyarousedthehorroroftheologiansandincreasedthevigourofecclesiastics;bothassertedthetheologicaltheoryofcometsallthemorestrenuouslyasbasedonscripturaltruth。DuringthesixteenthcenturyFrancefelttheinfluenceofoneofhergreatestmenonthesideofthissuperstition。JeanBodin,sofarbeforehistimeinpoliticaltheories,wasonlythoroughlyabreastofitinreligioustheories:thesamereverenceforthemereletterofScripturewhichmadehimsofatallypowerfulinsupportingthewitchcraftdelusion,ledhimtosupportthistheologicaltheoryofcomets——butwithadifference:hethoughtthemthesoulsofmen,wanderinginspace,bringingfamine,pestilence,andwar。
NotlessstrongwasthesamesuperstitioninEngland。Baseduponmediaevaltheology,itoutlivedtherevivaloflearning。Fromamultitudeofexamplesafewmaybeselectedastypical。EarlyinthesixteenthcenturyPolydoreVirgil,anecclesiasticoftheunreformedChurch,alludes,inhisEnglishHistory,tothepresageofthedeathoftheEmperorConstantinebyacometastoasimplematteroffact;andinhisworkonprodigieshepushesthissuperstitiontoitsmostextremepoint,exhibitingcometsasprecedingalmosteveryformofcalamity。
In1532,justatthetransitionperiodfromtheoldChurchtothenew,Cranmer,pavingthewaytohisarchbishopric,writesfromGermanytoHenryVIII,andsaysofthecometthenvisible:“Whatstrangethingsthesetokensdosignifytocomehereafter,Godknoweth;fortheydonotlightlyappearbutagainstsomegreatmatter。”
TwentyyearslaterBishopLatimer,inanAdventsermon,speaksofeclipses,ringsaboutthesun,andthelike,assignsoftheapproachingendoftheworld。[98]
[98]ForBodin,seeTheatr。,lib。ii,citedbyPingre,vol。i,p。
45;alsoavaguecitationinBaudrillart,BodinetsonTemps,p。
360。ForPolydoreVirgil,seeEnglishHistory,p。97inCamdenSocietyPublications。ForCranmer,seeRemains,vol。ii,p。535
inParkerSocietyPublications。ForLatimer,seeSermons,secondSundayinAdvent,1552。
In1580,underQueenElizabeth,therewassetforthan“orderofprayertoavertGod’swrathfromus,threatenedbythelateterribleearthquake,tobeusedinallparishchurches。”Inconnectionwiththistherewasalsocommendedtothefaithful“agodlyadmonitionforthetimepresent“;andamongthethingsreferredtoasevidenceofGod’swratharecomets,eclipses,andfallsofsnow。
ThisviewheldswayintheChurchofEnglandduringElizabeth’swholereignandfarintotheStuartperiod:Strype,theecclesiasticalannalist,givesampleevidenceofthis,andamongthemorecuriousexamplesisthesurmisethatthecometof1572