Thesameistrueofaloadedgun。Fromthedialecticalstandpoint，thepossibilityofexpressingmotioninitsopposite，inrest，presentsabsolutelynodifficulty。Fromthedialecticalstandpointthewholeantithesis，aswehaveseen，isonlyrelative;thereisnosuchthingasabsoluterest，unconditionalequilibrium。Eachseparatemovementstrivestowardsequilibrium，andthemotionasawholeputsanendagaintotheequilibrium。Whenthereforerestandequilibriumoccurtheyaretheresultoflimitedmotion，anditisself-evidentthatthismotionismeasurablebyitsresult，canbeexpressedinit，andcanberestoredoutofitagaininoneformoranother。ButHerrDühringcannotallowhimselftobesatisfiedwithsuchasimplepresentationofthematter。Asagoodmetaphysicianhefirsttearsopen，betweenmotionandequilibrium，ayawninggulfwhichdoesnotexistinrealityandisthensurprisedthathecannotfindanybridgeacrossthisself-fabricatedgulf。HemightjustaswellmounthismetaphysicalRosinanteandchasetheKantian“thing-in-itself“;foritisthatandnothingelsewhichinthelastanalysisishidingbehindthisundiscoverablebridge。
　　Butwhataboutthemechanicaltheoryofheatandthetied-uporlatentheatwhich“hasremainedastumbling-block“forthistheory？
　　If，undernormalatmosphericpressure，apoundoficeatthetemperatureofthefreezingpointistransformedbyheatintoapoundofwaterofthesametemperature，aquantityofheatdisappearswhichwouldbesufficienttowarmthesamepoundofwaterfrom0°to79。4°C，ortoraisethetemperatureof79。4poundsofwaterbyonedegree。Ifthispoundofwaterisheatedtoboilingpoint，thatis，to100°C，andisthentransformedintosteamof100°C，theamountofheatthatdisappears，bythetimethelastofthewaterhaschangedintosteam，isalmostseventimesgreater，sufficienttoraisethetemperatureof537。2poundsofwaterbyonedegree。
　　Theheatthatdisappearsiscalledtied-up。If，bycooling，thesteamisagaintransformedintowater，andthewater，initsturn，intoice，thesamequantityofheataswaspreviouslytiedupisnowagainsetfree，i。e。，canbefeltandmeasuredasheat。Thissettingfreeofheatonthecondensationofsteamandthefreezingofwateristhereasonwhysteam，whencooledto100°，isonlygraduallytransformedintowater，andwhyamassofwateroffreezingpointtemperatureisonlyverygraduallytransformedintoice。Thesearethefacts。Thequestionis，whathappenstotheheatwhileitistiedup？
　　Themechanicaltheoryofheat，accordingtowhichheatconsistsinagreaterorlesservibration，dependingonthetemperatureandstateofaggregation，ofthesmallestphysicallyactiveparticlesmolecules
　　ofabody——avibrationwhichundercertainconditionscanchangeintoanyotherformofmotion——explainsthattheheatthathasdisappearedhasdonework，hasbeentransformedintowork。Whenicemelts，thecloseandfirmconnectionbetweentheindividualmoleculesisbroken，andtransformedintoaloosejuxtaposition;whenwateratboilingpointbecomessteamastateisreachedinwhichtheindividualmoleculesnolongerhaveanynoticeableinfluenceononeanother，andundertheinfluenceofheatevenflyapartinalldirections。Itisclearthatthesinglemoleculesofabodyareendowedwithfargreaterenergyinthegaseousstatethantheyareinthefluidstate，andinthefluidstateagainmorethaninthesolidstate。
　　Thetied-upheat，therefore，hasnotdisappeared;ithasmerelybeentransformed，andhasassumedtheformofmoleculartension。Assoonastheconditionunderwhichtheseparatemoleculesareabletomaintaintheirabsoluteorrelativefreedominregardtooneanotherceasestoexist——thatis，assoonasthetemperaturefallsbelowtheminimumof100°or0°，asthecasemaybe，thistensionrelaxes，themoleculesagainpresstowardseachotherwiththesameforcewithwhichtheyhadpreviouslyflownapart;
　　andthisforcedisappears，butonlytoreappearasheat，andaspreciselythesamequantityofheatashadpreviouslybeentiedup。Thisexplanationisofcourseahypothesis，asisthewholemechanicaltheoryofheat，inasmuchasnoonehasuptonoweverseenamolecule，nottomentiononeinvibration。
　　Justforthisreasonitiscertaintobefullofdefectsasthisstillveryyoungtheoryisasawhole，butitcanatleastexplainwhathappenswithoutinanywaycomingintoconflictwiththeindestructibilityanduncreatabilityofmotion，anditisevenabletoaccountforthewhereaboutsofheatduringitstransformations。Latent，ortied-up，heatisthereforeinnowayastumbling-blockforthemechanicaltheoryofheat。Onthecontrary，thistheoryprovidesthefirstrationalexplanationofwhattakesplace，anditinvolvesnostumbling-blockexceptinsofarasphysicistscontinuetodescribeheatwhichhasbeentransformedintoanotherformofmolecularenergybymeansoftheterm“tied-up“，whichhasbecomeobsoleteandunsuitable。
　　Theself-equalstatesandconditionsofrestinthesolid，intheliquidandinthegaseousstateofaggregationthereforerepresent，tobesure，mechanicalwork，insofarasmechanicalworkisthemeasureofheat。Boththesolidcrustoftheearthandthewateroftheocean，intheirpresentaggregatestates，representadefinitequantityofheatsetfree，towhichofcoursecorrespondsanequallydefinitequantityofmechanicalforce。Inthetransitionofthegaseousball，fromwhichtheearthhasdeveloped，intotheliquidandsubsequentlyintothelargelysolidaggregatestate，adefinitequantityofmolecularenergywasradiatedasheatintospace。ThedifficultyaboutwhichHerrDühringmumblesinhismysteriousmannerthereforedoesnotexist，andthougheveninapplyingthetheorycosmicallywemaycomeupagainstdefectsandgaps——whichmustbeattributedtoourimperfectmeansofknowledge——wenowherecomeupagainsttheoreticallyinsuperableobstacles。Thebridgefromthestatictothedynamicishere，too，theexternalimpulse——thecoolingorheatingbroughtaboutbyotherbodiesactingonanobjectwhichisinastateofequilibrium。ThefurtherweexplorethisnaturalphilosophyofDühring’s，themoreimpossibleappearallattemptstoexplainmotionoutofimmobilityortofindthebridgeoverwhichthepurelystatic，theresting，canbyitselfpasstothedynamic，tomotion。
　　Withthiswehavefortunatelyridourselvesforatimeoftheself-equalprimordialstate。HerrDühringpassesontochemistry，andtakestheopportunitytorevealtousthreelawsofnature’sinertnesswhichhavesofarbeendiscoveredbyhisphilosophyofreality，viz。:
　　1thequantityofallmatteringeneral，2thatofthesimplechemical
　　elements，and3thatofmechanicalforceareconstant{D。Ph。97}
　　Hence:theuncreatabilityandindestructibilityofmatter，andalsoofitssimplecomponentparts，insofarasitismadeupofsuch，aswellastheuncreatabilityandindestructibilityofmotion——theseoldfactsknowntheworldoverandexpressedmostinadequately——istheonlypositivethingwhichHerrDühringcanprovideuswithasaresultofhisnaturalphilosophyoftheinorganicworld。Weknewallthislongago。Butwhatwedidnotknowwasthattheywere“lawsofinertness“andassuch“schematicpropertiesofthesystemofthings“。WearewitnessingarepetitionofwhathappenedabovetoKant:HerrDühringpicksupsomeoldfamiliarquip，sticksaDühringlabelonit，andcallstheresult:
　　“fromthegrounduporiginalconclusionsandviews……system-creatingideas{525}deep-rootedscience“{200，219;D。C。555-56}。
　　Buttheneednotbyanymeansdespaironthisaccount。Whateverdefectseventhemostdeep-rootedscienceandthebest-orderedsocietymayhave，HerrDühringcanatanyrateassertonethingwithconfidence:
　　“Theamountofgoldexistingintheuniversemustatalltimeshavebeenthesame，anditcanhaveincreasedordiminishedjustaslittleascanmatteringeneral“{D。Ph。96}。
　　UnfortunatelyHerrDühringdoesnottelluswhatwecanbuywiththis“existinggold“。
　　VII。
　　PHILOSOPHYOFNATURE。
　　THEORGANICWORLD“Asingleanduniformladderofintermediatestepsleadsfromthemechanicsofpressureandimpacttothelinkingtogetherofsensationsandideas“{D。Ph。104}。
　　WiththisassuranceHerrDühringsaveshimselfthetroubleofsayinganythingfurtherabouttheoriginoflife，althoughitmightreasonablyhavebeenexpectedthatathinkerwhohadtracedtheevolutionoftheworldbacktoitsself-equalstate，andissomuchathomeonothercelestialbodies，wouldhaveknownexactlywhat’swhatalsoonthispoint。Fortherest，however，theassurancehegivesusisonlyhalfrightunlessitiscompletedbytheHegeliannodallineofmeasurerelationswhichhasalreadybeenmentioned。Inspiteofallgradualness，thetransitionfromoneformofmotiontoanotheralwaysremainsaleap，adecisivechange。Thisistrueofthetransitionfromthemechanicsofcelestialbodiestothatofsmallermassesonaparticularcelestialbody;itisequallytrueofthetransitionfromthemechanicsofmassestothemechanicsofmolecules——
　　includingtheformsofmotioninvestigatedinphysicsproper:heat，light，electricity，magnetism。Inthesameway，thetransitionfromthephysicsofmoleculestothephysicsofatoms——chemistry——inturninvolvesadecidedleap;andthisisevenmoreclearlythecaseinthetransitionfromordinarychemicalactiontothechemismofalbumenwhichwecalllife。[39]Thenwithinthesphereoflifetheleapsbecomeevermoreinfrequentandimperceptible——Onceagain，therefore，itisHegelwhohastocorrectHerrDühring。
　　TheconceptofpurposeprovidesHerrDühringwithaconceptualtransitiontotheorganicworld。Onceagain，thisisborrowedfromHegel，whoinhisLogic——theDoctrineoftheNotion——makesthetransitionfromchemismtolifebymeansofteleology，orthescienceofpurpose。
　　WhereverwelookinHerrDühringwerunintoaHegelian“crudity“，whichhequiteunblushinglydishesouttousashisowndeep-rootedscience。
　　Itwouldtakeustoofarafieldtoinvestigateheretheextenttowhichitislegitimateandappropriatetoapplytheideasofmeansandendtotheorganicworld。Inanycase，eventheapplicationoftheHegelian“innerpurpose“——i。e。，apurposewhichisnotimportedintonaturebysomethirdpartyactingpurposively，suchasthewisdomofprovidence，butliesinthenecessityofthethingitself——constantlyleadspeoplewhoarenotwellversedinphilosophytothoughtlesslyascribingtonatureconsciousandpurposiveactivity。ThatsameHerrDühringwhoisfilledwithboundlessmoralindignationattheslightest“spiritistic“tendencyinotherpeopleassuresus“withcertaintythattheinstinctivesensationswereprimarilycreatedforthesakeofthesatisfactioninvolvedintheiractivity“{D。Ph。158}。
　　Hetellsusthatpoornature“isobligedincessantlytomaintainorderintheworldofobjects“
　　{159}andindoingsoshehastosettlemorethanonebusiness“whichrequiresmoresubtletyonthepartofnaturethanisusuallycreditedtoher“{165}。
　　Butnaturenotonlyknowswhyshedoesonethingoranother;shehasnotonlytoperformthedutiesofahousemaid，shenotonlypossessessubtlety，initselfaprettygoodaccomplishmentinsubjectiveconsciousthought;shehasalsoawill。Forwhattheinstinctsdoinaddition，incidentallyfulfillingrealnaturalfunctionssuchasnutritionpropagation，etc。，“weshouldnotregardasdirectlybutonlyindirectlywilled{169}。
　　Sowehavearrivedataconsciouslythinkingandactingnature，andarethusalreadystandingonthe“bridge“——notindeedfromthestatictothedynamic，butfrompantheismtodeism。OrisHerrDühringperhapsjustforonceindulgingalittlein“natural-philosophicalsemi-poetry“？
　　Impossible！Allthatourphilosopherofrealitycantellusoforganicnatureisrestrictedtothefightagainstthisnatural-philosophicalsemi-poetry，against“charlatanismwithitsfrivoloussuperficialitiesandpseudo-scientificmystifications“，againstthe“poetisingfeatures“
　　{109}ofDarwinism。
　　ThemainreproachlevelledagainstDarwinisthathetransferredtheMalthusianpopulationtheoryfrompoliticaleconomytonaturalscience，thathewasheldcaptivebytheideasofananimalbreeder，thatinhistheoryofthestruggleforexistencehepursuedunscientificsemi-poetry，andthatthewholeofDarwinism，afterdeductingwhathadbeenborrowedfromLamarck，isapieceofbrutalitydirectedagainsthumanity。
　　Darwinbroughtbackfromhisscientifictravelstheviewthatplantandanimalspeciesarenotconstantbutsubjecttovariation。Inordertofollowupthisideaafterhisreturnhometherewasnobetterfieldavailablethanthatofthebreedingofanimalsandplants。ItispreciselyinthisfieldthatEnglandistheclassicalcountry;theachievementsofothercountries，forexampleGermany，fallfarshortofwhatEnglandhasachievedinthisconnection。Moreover，mostofthesesuccesseshavebeenwonduringthelasthundredyears，sothatthereisverylittledifficultyinestablishingthefacts。Darwinfoundthatthisbreedingproducedartificially，amonganimalsandplantsofthesamespecies，differencesgreaterthanthosefoundinwhataregenerallyrecognisedasdifferentspecies。Thuswasestablishedontheonehandthevariabilityofspeciesuptoacertainpoint，andontheotherthepossibilityofacommonancestryfororganismswithdifferentspecificcharacteristics。Darwintheninvestigatedwhethertherewerenotpossiblycausesinnaturewhich——withouttheconsciousintentionofthebreeder——wouldneverthelessinthelongrunproduceinlivingorganismschangessimilartothoseproducedbyartificialselection。
　　Hediscoveredthesecausesinthedisproportionbetweentheimmensenumberofgermscreatedbynatureandtheinsignificantnumberoforganismswhichactuallyattainmaturity。Butaseachgermstrivestodevelop，therenecessarilyarisesastruggleforexistencewhichmanifestsitselfnotmerelyasdirectbodilycombatordevouring，butalsoasastruggleforspaceandlight，eveninthecaseofplants。Anditisevidentthatinthisstrugglethoseindividualswhichhavesomeindividualpeculiarity，howeverinsignificant，thatgivesthemanadvantageinthestruggleforexistencewillhavethebestprospectofreachingmaturityandpropagatingthemselves。Theseindividualpeculiaritieshavethusthetendencytodescendbyheredity，andwhentheyoccuramongmanyindividualsofthesamespecies，tobecomemorepronouncedthroughaccumulatedheredityinthedirectiononcetaken;whilethoseindividualswhichdonotpossessthesepeculiaritiessuccumbmoreeasilyinthestruggleforexistenceandgraduallydisappear。Inthiswayaspeciesisalteredthroughnaturalselection，throughthesurvivalofthefittest。
　　AgainstthisDarwiniantheoryHerrDühringnowsaysthattheoriginoftheideaofthestruggleforexistence，as，heclaims，Darwinhimselfadmitted，hastobesoughtinageneralisationoftheviewsoftheeconomistandtheoreticianofpopulation，Malthus，andthattheideathereforesuffersfromallthedefectsinherentinthepriestlyMalthusianideasofover-population{D。Ph。101}——NowDarwinwouldnotdreamofsayingthattheoriginoftheideaofthestruggleforexistenceistobefoundinMalthus。HeonlysaysthathistheoryofthestruggleforexistenceisthetheoryofMalthusappliedtotheanimalandplantworldasawhole。HowevergreattheblundermadebyDarwininacceptingtheMalthusiantheorysonaivelyanduncritically，neverthelessanyonecanseeatthefirstglancethatnoMalthusianspectaclesarerequiredtoperceivethestruggleforexistenceinnature——thecontradictionbetweenthecountlesshostofgermswhichnaturesolavishlyproducesandthesmallnumberofthosewhicheverreachmaturity，acontradictionwhichinfactforthemostpartfindsitssolutioninastruggleforexistence——oftenofextremecruelty。AndjustasthelawofwageshasmaintaineditsvalidityevenaftertheMalthusianargumentsonwhichRicardobasedithavelongbeenconsignedtooblivion，solikewisethestruggleforexistencecantakeplaceinnature，evenwithoutanyMalthusianinterpretation。Forthatmatter，theorganismsofnaturealsohavetheirlawsofpopulation，whichhavebeenleftpracticallyuninvestigated，althoughtheirestablishmentwouldbeofdecisiveimportanceforthetheoryoftheevolutionofspecies。
　　Butwhowasitthatlentdecisiveimpetustoworkinthisdirectiontoo？
　　NootherthanDarwin。
　　HerrDühringcarefullyavoidsanexaminationofthispositivesideofthequestion。Instead，thestruggleforexistenceisarraignedagainandagain。Itisobvious，accordingtohim，thattherecanbenotalkofastruggleforexistenceamongunconsciousplantsandgood-naturedplant-eaters:
　　“inthepreciseanddefinitesensethestruggleforexistenceisfoundintherealmofbrutalitytotheextentthatanimalsliveonpreyanditsdevourment“{118}。
　　Andafterhehasreducedtheideaofthestruggleforexistencetothesenarrowlimitshecangivefullventtohisindignationatthebrutalityofthisidea，whichhehimselfhasrestrictedtobrutality。ButthismoralindignationonlyreboundsuponHerrDühringhimself，whoisindeedtheonlyauthorofthestruggleforexistenceinthislimitedconceptionandisthereforesolelyresponsibleforit。ItisconsequentlynotDarwinwho“soughtthelawsandunderstandingofallnature’sactionsinthekingdomofthebrutes“{117}，——Darwinhadinfactexpresslyincludedthewholeoforganicnatureinthestruggle——butanimaginarybugbeardressedupbyHerrDühringhimself。
　　Thename:thestruggleforexistence，canforthatmatterbewillinglysacrificedtoHerrDühring’shighlymoralindignation。Thatthefactexistsalsoamongplantscanbedemonstratedtohimbyeverymeadow，everycornfield，everywood;andthequestionatissueisnotwhatitistobecalled，whether“struggleforexistence“or“lackofconditionsoflifeandmechanicaleffects“{118}，buthowthisfactinfluencesthepreservationorvariationofspecies。OnthispointHerrDühringmaintainsanobstinateandself-equalsilence。Thereforeforthetimebeingeverythingmayremainasitwasinnaturalselection。
　　ButDarwinism“producesitstransformationsanddifferencesoutofnothing“{114}。
　　ItistruethatDarwin，whenconsideringnaturalselection，leavesoutofaccountthecauseswhichhaveproducedthealterationsinseparateindividuals，anddealsinthefirstplacewiththewayinwhichsuchindividualdeviationsgraduallybecomethecharacteristicsofarace，varietyorspecies。
　　ToDarwinitwasoflessimmediateimportancetodiscoverthesecauses——whichuptothepresentareinpartabsolutelyunknown，andinpartcanonlybestatedinquitegeneralterms——thantofindarationalforminwhichtheireffectsbecomefixed，acquirepermanentsignificance。ItistruethatindoingthisDarwinattributedtohisdiscoverytoowideafieldofaction，madeitthesoleagentinthealterationofspeciesandneglectedthecausesoftherepeatedindividualvariations，concentratingratherontheforminwhichthesevariationsbecomegeneral;butthisisamistakewhichheshareswithmostotherpeoplewhomakeanyrealadvance。
　　Moreover，ifDarwinproduceshisindividualtransformationsoutofnothing，andinsodoingappliesexclusively“thewisdomofthebreeder“{125}，thebreeder，too，mustproduceoutofnothinghistransformationsinanimalandplantformswhicharenotmerelyimaginarybutreal。Butonceagain，themanwhogavetheimpetustoinvestigatehowexactlythesetransformationsanddifferencesariseisnootherthanDarwin。
　　Inrecenttimestheideaofnaturalselectionwasextended，particularlybyHaeckel，andthevariationofspeciesconceivedasaresultofthemutualinteractionofadaptationandheredity，inwhichprocessadaptationistakenasthefactorwhichproducesvariations，andheredityasthepreservingfactor。ThisisalsonotregardedassatisfactorybyHerrDühring。
　　“Realadaptationtoconditionsoflifewhichareofferedorwithheldbynaturepresupposesimpulsesandactionsdeterminedbyideas。Otherwisetheadaptationisonlyapparent，andthecausalityoperativethereupondoesnotriseabovethelowgradesofthephysical，chemicalandplant-physiological“
　　{D。Ph。115}。
　　OnceagainitisthenamewhichmakesHerrDühringangry。Butwhatevernamehemaygivetotheprocess，thequestionhereiswhethervariationsinthespeciesoforganismsareproducedthroughsuchprocessesornot。
　　AndagainHerrDühringgivesnoanswer。
　　“If，ingrowing，aplanttakesthepathalongwhichitwillreceivemostlight，thiseffectofthestimulusisnothingbutacombinationofphysicalforcesandchemicalagents，andanyattempttodescribeitasadaptation——notmetaphorically，butinthestrictsenseoftheword——
　　mustintroduceaspiritisticconfusionintotheconcepts“{115}。
　　Suchistheseveritymetedouttoothersbytheverymanwhoknowsexactlybywhosewillnaturedoesonethingoranother，whospeaksofnature’ssubtletyandevenofherwill！Spiritisticconfusion，yes——butwhere，inHaeckelorinHerrDühring？
　　Andnotonlyspiritistic，butalsologicalconfusion。WesawthatHerrDühringinsistswithmightandmainonestablishingthevalidityinnatureoftheconceptofpurpose:
　　“Therelationbetweenmeansandenddoesnotintheleastpresupposeaconsciousintention“{102}。
　　What，then，isadaptationwithoutconsciousintention，withoutthemediationofideas，whichhesozealouslyopposes，ifnotsuchunconsciouspurposiveactivity？
　　Ifthereforetree-frogsandleaf-eatinginsectsaregreen，desertanimalssandy-yellow，andanimalsofthepolarregionsmainlysnow-whiteincolour，theyhavecertainlynotadoptedthesecoloursonpurposeorinconformitywithanyideas;onthecontrary，thecolourscanonlybeexplainedonthebasisofphysicalforcesandchemicalagents。Andyetitcannotbedeniedthattheseanimals，becauseofthosecolours，arepurposivelyadaptedtotheenvironmentinwhichtheylive，inthattheyhavebecomefarlessvisibletotheirenemies。Injustthesamewaytheorganswithwhichcertainplantsseizeanddevourinsectsalightingonthemareadaptedtothisaction，andevenpurposivelyadapted。Consequently，ifHerrDühringinsiststhatthisadaptationmustbeeffectedthroughideas，heasmuchassays，onlyinotherwords，thatpurposiveactivitymustalsobebroughtaboutthroughideas，mustbeconsciousandintentional。
　　Andthisbringsus，asisusuallythecaseinhisphilosophyofreality，toapurposivecreator，toGod。
　　“Anexplanationofthiskindusedtobecalleddeism，andwasnotthoughtmuchof“——HerrDühringtellsus——“butonthismatter，too，viewsnowseemtohavebeenreversed“{111}。
　　Fromadaptationwenowpassontoheredity。Herelikewise，accordingtoHerrDühring，Darwinismiscompletelyonthewrongtrack。Thewholeorganicworld，Darwinissaidtohaveasserted，descendedfromoneprimordialbeing，issotospeaktheprogenyofonesinglebeing。Dühringstatesthat，inDarwin’sview，thereisnosuchthingastheindependentparallellinesofhomogeneousproductsofnatureunlessmediatedbycommondescent;
　　andthatthereforeDarwinandhisretrospectivelydirectedviewshadperforcetocometoanendatthepointwherethethreadofbegetting，orotherformofpropagation，breaksoff{111}。
　　TheassertionthatDarwintracedallexistingorganismsbacktooneprimordialbeingis，toputitpolitely，aproductofHerrDühring’s“ownfreecreationandimagination“{43}。DarwinexpresslysaysonthelastpagebutoneofhisOriginofspecies，sixthedition，thatheregards“allbeingsnotasspecialcreations，butasthelinealdescendantsofsomefewbeings“。
　　AndHaeckelevengoesconsiderablyfurther，assuming“aquiteindependentstockforthevegetablekingdom，andasecondfortheanimalkingdom“，andbetweenthetwo“anumberofindependentstocksofProtista，eachofwhich，quiteindependentlyoftheformer，hasdevelopedoutofonespecialarchegoneofthemonerontype“[40]Schöpfungsgeschichte，p。397
　　ThisprimordialbeingwasonlyinventedbyDühringinordertobringitintoasgreatdisreputeaspossiblebydrawingaparallelwiththeprimordialJew{D。Ph。110}Adam，andinthishe——thatistosay，HerrDühring——suffersthemisfortuneofnothavingthefaintestideathatthisprimordialJewhadbeenshownbySmith’sAssyriandiscoveries[41]tohavebeenaprimordialSemite，andthatthewholebiblicalhistoryofcreationandthefloodturnsouttobeapartoftheoldheathenreligiousmythswhichtheJewhaveincommonwiththeBabylonians，ChaldeansandAssyrians。
　　ItiscertainlyabitterreproachagainstDarwin，andoneforwhichhehasnodefence，thathecomestoanendatonceatthepointwherethethreadofdescentbreaksoff。Unfortunatelyitisareproachwhichhasbeenearnedbythewholeofournaturalscience。Wherethethreadofdescentbreaksoffforit，it“ends“。Ithasnotyetsucceededinproducingorganicbeingswithoutdescentfromothers;indeed，ithasnotyetsucceededeveninproducingsimpleprotoplasmorotheralbuminousbodiesoutofchemicalelements。Withregardtotheoriginoflife，therefore，uptothepresent，naturalscienceisonlyabletosaywithcertaintythatitmusthavebeentheresultofchemicalaction。However，perhapsthephilosophyofrealityisinapositiontogivesomehelponthispointasithasatitsdisposalindependentparallellinesofproductsofnaturenotmediatedbycommondescent。Howcanthesehavecomeintoexistence？Byspontaneousgeneration？
　　Butuptonoweventhemostaudaciousadvocatesofspontaneousgenerationhavenotclaimedthatthisproducedanythingbutbacteria，embryonicfungiandotherveryprimitiveorganisms——noinsects，fishes，birdsormammals。
　　Butifthesehomogeneousproductsofnature——organic，ofcourse，ashereweareonlydealingwiththese——arenotconnectedbydescent，theyoreachoftheirancestorsmust，atthepoint“wherethethreadofdescentbreaksoff“，havebeenputintotheworldbyaseparateactofcreation。
　　Sowearriveonceagainatacreatorandatwhatiscalleddeism。
　　HerrDühringfurtherdeclaresthatitwasverysuperficialonDarwin’spart“tomakethemereactofthesexualcompositionofpropertiesthefundamentalprincipleoftheoriginoftheseproperties“{116}。
　　Thisisanotherfreecreationandimaginationofourdeep-rootedphilosopher。
　　Darwindefinitelystatestheopposite:theexpressionnaturalselectiononlyimpliesthepreservationofvariations，nottheiroriginp。
　　63。ThisnewimputationtoDarwinofthingsheneversaidneverthelesshelpsustograspthefollowingdepthofDühringianmentality:
　　“Ifsomeprincipleofindependentvariationhadbeenfoundintheinnerschematismofgeneration，thisideawouldhavebeenquiterational;foritisanaturalideatocombinetheprincipleofuniversalgenesiswiththatofsexualpropagationintoaunity，andtoregardso-calledspontaneousgeneration，fromahigherstandpoint，notastheabsoluteantithesisofreproductionbutjustasaproduction“{116}。
　　AndthemanwhocanwritesuchrubbishisnotashamedtoreproachHegelforhis“jargon“{D。K。G。491}！
　　Butenoughofthepeevish，contradictorygrumblingandnaggingthroughwhichHerrDühringgivesventtohisangeratthecolossalimpetuswhichnaturalscienceowestothedrivingforceoftheDarwiniantheory。NeitherDarwinnorhisfollowersamongnaturalistseverthinkofbelittlinginanywaythegreatservicesrenderedbyLamarck;infact，theyaretheverypeoplewhofirstputhimupagainonhispedestal。ButwemustnotoverlookthefactthatinLamarck’stimesciencewasasyetfarfrombeinginpossessionofsufficientmaterialtohaveenabledittoanswerthequestionoftheoriginofspeciesexceptinananticipatoryway，prophetically，asitwere。Inadditiontotheenormousmassofmaterial，bothofdescriptiveandanatomicalbotanyandzoology，whichhasaccumulatedintheinterveningperiod，twocompletelynewscienceshavearisensinceLamarck’stime，andtheseareofdecisiveimportanceonthisquestion:
　　researchintothedevelopmentofplantandanimalgermsembryologyandresearchintotheorganicremainspreservedinthevariousstrataoftheearth’ssurfacepalaeontology。Thereisinfactapeculiarcorrespondencebetweenthegradualdevelopmentoforganicgermsintomatureorganismsandthesuccessionofplantsandanimalsfollowingeachotherinthehistoryoftheearth。Anditispreciselythiscorrespondencewhichhasgiventhetheoryofevolutionitsmostsecurebasis。Thetheoryofevolutionitselfishoweverstillinaveryearlystage，anditthereforecannotbedoubtedthatfurtherresearchwillgreatlymodifyourpresentconceptions，includingstrictlyDarwinianones，oftheprocessoftheevolutionofspecies。
　　What，ofapositivecharacter，hasthephilosophyofrealitytotellusconcerningtheevolutionoforganiclife？
　　“The……variabilityofspeciesisapresuppositionwhichcanbeaccepted“
　　{D。Ph。115}。Butalongsideitthereholdalso“theindependentparallellinesofhomogeneousproductsofnature，notmediatedbycommondescent“
　　{111}。
　　Fromthisweareapparentlytoinferthattheheterogeneousproductsofnature，i。e。，thespecieswhichshowvariations，descend。fromeachotherbutnotsothehomogeneousproducts。Butthisisnotaltogethercorrecteither;forevenwithspecieswhichshowvariations，“mediationbycommondescentisonthecontraryquiteasecondaryactofnature“{114}。
　　Sowegetcommondescentafterall，butonly“secondclass“。WemustrejoicethatafterHerrDühringhasattributedsomuchtoitthatisevilandobscure，weneverthelessfinditintheendreadmittedbythebackdoor。
　　Itisthesamewithnaturalselection，forafterallhismoralindignationoverthestruggleforexistencethroughwhichnaturalselectionoperateswesuddenlyread:
　　“Thedeeperbasisoftheconstitutionoforganismsisthustobesoughtintheconditionsoflifeandcosmicrelations，whilethenaturalselectionemphasisedbyDarwincanonlycomeinasasecondaryfactor“{115}。
　　Sowegetnaturalselectionafterall，thoughonlysecondclass;andalongwithnaturalselectionalsothestruggleforexistence，andwiththatalsothepriestlyMalthusianoverpopulation！Thatisall，andfortherestHerrDühringrefersustoLamarck。
　　Inconclusionhewarnsusagainstthemisuseoftheterms:metamorphosisanddevelopment。Metamorphosis，hemaintains，is！anunclearconcept{112}，andtheconceptofdevelopmentispermissibleonlyinsofaraslawsofdevelopmentcanbereallyestablished{126}。Inplaceofboththesetermsweshouldusetheterm“composition“{114}，andtheneverythingwouldbeallright。Itisthesameoldstoryoveragain:thingsremainastheywere，andHerrDühringisquitesatisfiedassoonaswejustalterthenames。
　　Whenwespeakofthedevelopmentofthechickenintheeggwearecreatingconfusion，forweareabletoprovethelawsof;developmentonlyinanincompleteway。Butifwespeakofits’“composition“everythingbecomesclear。Weshallthereforenolongersay:Thischildisdevelopingfinelybut:Itiscomposingitselfmagnificently。WecancongratulateHerrDühringonbeingaworthypeeroftheauthoroftheNibelungenringnotonlyinhisnobleself-esteembutalsoinhiscapacityofcomposerofthefuture。[42]
　　VIII。
　　PHILOSOPHYOFNATURE。
　　THEORGANICWORLD
　　Conclusion“Ponder……whatpositiveknowledgeisrequiredtoequipoursectiononnaturalphilosophywithallitsscientificpremises。
　　Itsbasisisprovidedfirstlybyallthefundamentalachievementsofmathematics，andthentheprincipalpropositionsestablishedbyexactscienceinmechanics，physicsandchemistry，aswellasthegeneralconclusionsofnaturalscienceinphysiology，zoologyandsimilarbranchesofinquiry“{D。Ph。517}。
　　SuchistheconfidenceandassurancewithwhichHerrDühringspeaksofthemathematicalandnaturalisticeruditionofHerrDühring。Itisimpossibletodetectfromthemeagresectionconcerned，andstilllessfromitsevenmorepaltryconclusions，whatdeep-rootedpositiveknowledgeliesbehindthem。Inanycase，inordertocreatetheDühringoracleonphysicsandchemistry，itisnotnecessarytoknowanymoreofphysicsthantheequationwhichexpressesthemechanicalequivalentofheat，oranymoreofchemistrythanthatallbodiescanbedividedintoelementsandcombinationsofelements。Moreover，apersonwhocantalkof“gravitatingatoms“{81}，asHerrDühringdoesp。131{D。Ph。}，onlyprovesthatheiscompletely“inthedark“astothedifferencebetweenatomsandmolecules。
　　Asiswellknown，itisonlychemicalaction，andnotgravitationorothermechanicalorphysicalformsofmotion，thatisexplainedbyatoms。Andifanyoneshouldreadasfarasthechapteronorganicnature，withitsvacuous，self-contradictoryand，atthedecisivepoint，oracularlysenselessmeanderingverbiage，anditsabsolutelyfutilefinalconclusion，hewillnotbeabletoavoidformingtheopinion，fromtheverystart，thatHerrDühringisherespeakingofthingsofwhichheknowsremarkablylittle。
　　Thisopinionbecomesabsolutecertaintywhenthereaderreacheshissuggestionthatinthescienceoforganicbeingsbiologythetermcompositionshouldbeusedinsteadofdevelopment{114}。Thepersonwhocanputforwardsuchasuggestionshowsthathehasnotthefaintestsuspicionoftheformationoforganicbodies。
　　Allorganicbodies，excepttheverylowest，consistofcells，smallgranulesofalbumenwhichareonlyvisiblewhenconsiderablymagnified，withanucleusinside。Asarulethecellsalsodevelopanoutermembraneandthecontentsarethenmoreorlessfluid。Thelowestcellularbodiesconsistofasinglecell;theimmensemajorityoforganicbeingsaremulti-cellular，congruouscomplexesofmanycellswhichinlowerorganismsremainofahomogeneoustype，butinhigherorganismsdevelopmoreandmorevariedforms，groupingsandfunctions。Inthehumanbody，forexample，bones，muscles，nerves，tendons，ligaments，cartilages，skin，inaword，alltissuesareeithercomposedofcellsororiginatedfromthem。Butinallorganiccellularstructure，fromtheamoeba，whichisasimpleandmostofthetimeskinlessalbuminousparticlewithanucleusinside，uptoman，andfromthetiniestunicellulardesmidsuptothemosthighlydevelopedplant，themannerinwhichthecellsmultiplyisthesame:byfission。Thecellnucleusfirstbecomesconstrictedinthemiddle，theconstrictionseparatingthetwohalvesofthenucleusgetsmoreandmorepronounced，andatlasttheyseparatefromeachotherandformtwocellnuclei。Thesameprocesstakesplaceinthecellitself;eachofthetwonucleibecomesthecentreofanaccumulationofcellularsubstance，linkedtotheotherbyastripwhichissteadilygrowingnarrower，untilatlastthetwoseparatefromeachotherandcontinuetoexistasindependentcells。Throughsuchrepeatedcellfissionthewholeanimalisgraduallydevelopedinfulloutoftheembryonalvesicleoftheanimalegg，afterithasbeenfertilised，andthereplacementofused-uptissuesiseffectedinthesamewayintheadultanimal。Tocallsuchaprocesscomposition，andtosaythattodescribeitasdevelopmentis“pureimagination“{D。Ph。126}，certainlyindicatesapersonwho——howeverdifficultthismaybetobelieveatthepresentday——knowsabsolutelynothingofthisprocess;hereitispreciselyandexclusivelydevelopmentthatisgoingon，andindeeddevelopmentinthemostliteralsense，andcompositionhasabsolutelynothingtodowithit！
　　LateronweshallhavesomethingmoretosayaboutwhatHerrDühringunderstandsingeneralbylife。Inparticularhisconceptionoflifeisasfollows:
　　“Theinorganicworldtooisasystemofself-executingimpulses;butitisonlyatthepointwheretherebeginsrealdifferentiation，withthecirculationofsubstancesthroughspecialchannelsfromoneinternalpointandaccordingtoagerm-schemetransmissibletoasmallerstructure，thatwemayventuretospeakofreallifeinthenarrowerandstrictersense“
　　{141}。
　　Thissentenceis，inthenarrowerandstrictersense，asystemofself-executingimpulseswhatevertheymaybeofnonsense，evenapartfromitshopelesslyconfusedgrammar。Iflifefirstbeginswhererealdifferentiationcommences，wemustdeclarethatthewholeHaeckeliankingdomofProtistaandperhapsmuchelsearedead，dependingonthemeaningweattachtotheideaofdifferentiation。
　　Iflifefirstbeginswhenthisdifferentiationcanbetransmittedthroughasmallergerm-scheme，thenatleastallorganismsuptoandincludingunicellularonescannotberegardedasliving。Ifthecirculationofsubstancesthroughspecialchannelsisthehallmarkoflife，then，inadditiontotheforegoing，wemustalsostrikefromtheranksofthelivingthewholeofthehigherclassoftheCoelenterataexceptinghowevertheMedusae，thatis，allpolypsandotherzoophytes。[43]Ifthecirculationofsubstancesthroughspecialchannelsfromoneinternalpointistheessentialhallmarkoflife，thenwemustdeclarethatallthoseanimalswhichhavenoheartandthosewhichhavemorethanoneheartaredead。Underthisheadingwouldfall，inadditiontothosealreadyenumerated，allworms，starfishandrotifersAnnuloidaandAnnulosa，Huxley’sclassification[44]，asectionoftheCrustacealobsters，andfinallyevenavertebrateanimal，thelancelettheAmphioxus。Andmoreoverallplants。
　　Inundertaking，therefore，todefinereallifeinthenarrowerandstrictersense，HerrDühringgivesusfourcharacteristicsoflifewhichtotallycontradictoneanother，oneofwhichcondemnstoeternaldeathnotonlythewholevegetablekingdombutalsoabouthalftheanimalkingdom。Reallynoonecansaythathemisleduswhenhepromisedus“fromthegrounduporiginalconclusionsandviews“{525}！
　　Anotherpassageruns:
　　“Innature，too，onesimpletypeisthebasisofallorganisms，fromthelowesttothehighest“，andthistypeis“fullyandcompletelypresentinitsgeneralessenceeveninthemostsubordinateimpulseofthemostundevelopedplant“{305}。
　　Thisstatementisagain“fullandcomplete“nonsense。Themostsimpletypefoundinthewholeoforganicnatureisthecell，anditcertainlyisthebasisofthehigherorganisms。Ontheotherhand，amongthelowestorganismstherearemanywhicharefarbelowthecell——theprotamoeba，asimplealbuminousparticlewithoutanydifferentiationwhatever，andawholeseriesofothermoneraandallbladderseaweedsSiphoneae。Allofthesearelinkedwiththehigherorganismsonlybythefactthattheiressentialcomponentisalbumenandthattheyconsequentlyperformfunctionsofalbumen，i。e。，liveanddie。
　　HerrDühringfurthertellsus:
　　“Physiologically，sensationisboundupwiththepresenceofsomekindofnerveapparatus，howeversimple。Itisthereforecharacteristicofallanimalstructuresthattheyarecapableofsensation，i。e。，ofasubjectivelyconsciousawarenessoftheirstates。Thesharpboundarylinebetweenplantandanimalliesatthepointwheretheleaptosensationtakesplace。Farfrombeingobliteratedbytheknowntransitionalstructures，thatlinebecomesalogicalnecessitypreciselythroughtheseexternallyundecidedorundecidableforms“{D。Ph。141-42}。
　　Andagain:
　　“Ontheotherhand，plantsarecompletelyandforalltimedevoidoftheslightesttraceofsensation，andevenlackanycapacityforit“{140}。
　　Inthefirstplace，HegelsaysNaturphilosophie，§351，Addendumthat“sensationisthedifferentiaspecifica[“specificdifference“]，theabsolutedistinguishingcharacteristicoftheanimal“。
　　SoonceagainwefindaHegelian“crudity“{D。K。G。235}，whichthroughthesimpleprocessofappropriationbyHerrDühringisraisedtothehonourablepositionofafinalandultimatetruth。
　　Inthesecondplace，wehearforthefirsttimehereoftransitionalstructures，externallyundecidedorundecidableformsfinegibberish！
　　betweenplantandanimal。Thattheseintermediateformsexist;thatthereareorganismsofwhichwecannotsayflatlywhethertheyareplantsoranimals;thatthereforewearewhollyunabletodrawasharpdividinglinebetweenplantandanimal——preciselythisfactmakesitalogicalnecessityforHerrDühringtoestablishacriterionofdifferentiationwhichinthesamebreathheadmitswillnotholdwater！Butwehaveabsolutelynoneedtogobacktothedoubtfulterritorybetweenplantsandanimals;
　　arethesensitiveplantswhichattheslightesttouchfoldtheirleavesorclosetheirflowers，aretheinsect-eatingplantsdevoidoftheslightesttraceofsensationanddotheyevenlackanycapacityforit？ThiscannotbemaintainedevenbyHerrDühringwithout“unscientificsemi-poetry“
　　{D。Ph。56，142}。
　　Inthethirdplace，itisonceagainafreecreationandimaginationonHerrDühring’spartwhenheassertsthatsensationisphysiologicallyboundupwiththepresenceofsomekindofnerveapparatus，howeversimple。
　　Notonlyallprimitiveanimals，butalsothezoophytes，oratanyratethegreatmajorityofthem，shownotraceofanerveapparatus。Itisonlyfromthewormsonthatsuchanapparatusisregularlyfound，andHerrDühringisthefirstpersontomaketheassertionthatthoseanimalshavenosensationbecausetheyhavenonerves。Sensationisnotnecessarilyassociatedwithnerves，butundoubtedlywithcertainalbuminousbodieswhichuptonowhavenotbeenmorepreciselydetermined。
　　Atanyrate，HerrDühring’sbiologicalknowledgeissufficientlycharacterisedbythequestionwhichhedoesnothesitatetoputtoDarwin:
　　“Isittobesupposedthatanimalshavedevelopedoutofplants？”{110}。
　　Suchaquestioncouldonlybeputbyapersonwhohasnottheslightestknowledgeofeitheranimalsorplants。
　　OflifeingeneralHerrDühringisonlyabletotellus:
　　“Themetabolismwhichiscarriedoutthroughaplasticallycreatingschematisation“whatintheworldcanthatbe？“remainsalwaysadistinguishingcharacteristicofthereallifeprocess“{141}。
　　Thatisallwelearnaboutlife，whileinthe“plasticallycreatingschematisation“
　　weareleftknee-deepinthemeaninglessgibberishofthepurestDühringjargon。Ifthereforewewanttoknowwhatlifeis，weshallevidentlyhavetolookalittlemorecloselyatitourselves。
　　Thatorganicexchangeofmatteristhemostgeneralandmostcharacteristicphenomenonoflifehasbeensaidtimesoutofnumberduringthelastthirtyyearsbyphysiologicalchemistsandchemicalphysiologists，anditisheremerelytranslatedbyHerrDühringintohisownelegantandclearlanguage。
　　Buttodefinelifeasorganicmetabolismistodefinelifeas——life;
　　fororganicexchangeofmatterormetabolismwithplasticallycreatingschematisationisinfactaphrasewhichitselfneedsexplanationthroughlife，explanationthroughthedistinctionbetweentheorganicandtheinorganic，thatis，thatwhichlivesandthatwhichdoesnotlive。Thisexplanationthereforedoesnotgetusanyfurther。
　　Exchangeofmatterassuchtakesplaceevenwithoutlife。Thereisawholeseriesofprocessesinchemistrywhich，givenanadequatesupplyofrawmaterial，constantlyreproducetheirownconditions，anddosoinsuchawaythatadefinitebodyisthecarrieroftheprocess。Thisisthecaseinthemanufactureofsulphuricacidbytheburningofsulphur。
　　Inthisprocesssulphurdioxide，SO2，isproduced，andwhensteamandnitricacidareadded，thesulphurdioxideabsorbshydrogenandoxygenandisconvertedintosulphuricacid，H2SO4。Thenitricacidgivesoffoxygenandisreducedtonitricoxide;thisnitricoxideimmediatelyabsorbsnewoxygenfromtheairandistransformedintothehigheroxidesofnitrogen，butonlytotransferthisoxygenimmediatelytosulphurdioxideandtogothroughthesameprocessagain;sothattheoreticallyaninfinitelysmallquantityofnitricacidshouldsufficetochangeanunlimitedquantityofsulphurdioxide，oxygenandwaterintosulphuricacid——Exchangeofmatteralsotakesplaceinthepassageoffluidsthroughdeadorganicandeveninorganicmembranes，asinTraube’sartificialcells。[45]Heretooitisclearthatwecannotgetanyfurtherbymeansofexchangeofmatter;forthepeculiarexchangeofmatterwhichistoexplainlifeneedsitselftobeexplainedthroughlife。Wemustthereforetrysomeotherway。
　　Lifeisthemodeofexistenceofalbuminousbodies，andthismodeofexistenceessentiallyconsistsintheconstantself-renewalofthechemicalconstituentsofthesebodies。
　　Thetermalbuminousbodyisusedhereinthesenseinwhichitisemployedinmodernchemistry，whichincludesunderthisnameallbodiesconstitutedsimilarlytoordinarywhiteofegg，otherwisealsoknownasproteinsubstances。Thenameisanunhappyone，becauseordinarywhiteofeggplaysthemostlifelessandpassiveroleofallthesubstancesrelatedtoit，since，togetherwiththeyolk，itismerelyfoodforthedevelopingembryo。Butwhilesolittleisyetknownofthechemicalcompositionofalbuminousbodies，thisnameisbetterthananyotherbecauseitismoregeneral。
　　Whereverwefindlifewefinditassociatedwithanalbuminousbody，andwhereverwefindanalbuminousbodynotinprocessofdissolution，therealsowithoutexceptionwefindphenomenaoflife。Undoubtedly，thepresenceofotherchemicalcombinationsisalsonecessaryinalivingbodyinordertoinduceparticulardifferentiationsofthesephenomenaoflife;
　　buttheyarenotrequisitefornakedlife，exceptinsofarastheyenterthebodyasfoodandaretransformedintoalbumen。Thelowestlivingbeingsknowntousareinfactnothingbutsimpleparticlesofalbumen，andtheyalreadyexhibitalltheessentialphenomenaoflife。
　　Butwhataretheseuniversalphenomenaoflifewhichareequallypresentamongalllivingorganisms？Aboveallthefactthatanalbuminousbodyabsorbsotherappropriatesubstancesfromitsenvironmentandassimilatesthem，whileother，olderpartsofthebodydisintegrateandareexcreted。
　　Othernon-living，bodiesalsochange，disintegrateorenterintocombinationsinthenaturalcourseofevents;butindoingthistheyceasetobewhattheywere。Aweather-wornrockisnolongerarock，metalwhichoxidisesturnsintorust。Butwhatwithnon-livingbodiesisthecauseofdestruction，withalbumenisthefundamentalconditionofexistence。Fromthemomentwhenthisuninterruptedmetamorphosisofitsconstituents，thisconstantalternationofnutritionandexcretion，nolongertakesplaceinanalbuminousbody，thealbuminousbodyitselfcomestoanend，itdecomposes，thatis，dies。Life，themodeofexistenceofanalbuminousbody，thereforeconsistsprimarilyinthefactthateverymomentitisitselfandatthesametimesomethingelse;andthisdoesnottakeplaceastheresultofaprocesstowhichitissubjectedfromwithout，asisthewayinwhichthiscanoccuralsointhecaseofinanimatebodies。Onthecontrary，life，themetabolismwhichtakesplacethroughnutritionandexcretion，isaself-implementingprocesswhichisinherentin，nativeto，itsbearer，albumen，withoutwhichthelattercannotexist。Andhenceitfollowsthatifchemistryeversucceedsinproducingalbumenartificially，thisalbumenmustshowthephenomenaoflife，howeverweakthesemaybe。Itiscertainlyopentoquestionwhetherchemistrywillatthesametimealsodiscovertherightfoodforthisalbumen。
　　Fromthemetabolismwhichtakesplacethroughnutritionandexcretion，astheessentialfunctionofalbumen，andfromitspeculiarplasticityproceedalsoalltheothermostsimplefactorsoflife:irritability，whichisalreadyincludedinthemutualinteractionbetweenthealbumenanditsfood;contractibility，whichisshown，evenataverylowstage，intheconsumptionoffood;thepossibilityofgrowth，whichinthelowestformsincludespropagationbyfission;internalmovement，withoutwhichneithertheconsumptionnortheassimilationoffoodispossible。
　　Ourdefinitionoflifeisnaturallyveryinadequate，inasmuchas，farfromincludingallthephenomenaoflife，ithastobelimitedtothosewhicharethemostcommonandthesimplest。Fromascientificstandpointalldefinitionsareoflittlevalue。Inordertogainanexhaustiveknowledgeofwhatlifeis，weshouldhavetogothroughalltheformsinwhichitappears，fromthelowesttothehighest。Butforordinaryusagesuchdefinitionsareveryconvenientandinplacescannotwellbedispensedwith;moreover，theycandonoharm，providedtheirinevitabledeficienciesarenotforgotten。
　　ButbacktoHerrDühring。Whenthingsarefaringbadlywithhiminthesphereofearthlybiology，heknowswheretofindconsolation;
　　hetakesrefugeinhisstarryheaven。
　　“Itisnotmerelythespecialapparatusofanorganofsensation，butthewholeobjectiveworld，whichisadaptedtotheproductionofpleasureandpain。Forthisreasonwetakeitforgrantedthattheantithesisbetweenpleasureandpain，andmoreoverexactly，intheformwithwhichwearefamiliar，isauniversalantithesis，andmustberepresentedinthevariousworldsoftheuniversebyessentiallyhomogeneousfeelings……
　　Thisconformity，however，isofnolittlesignificance，foritisthekeytotheuniverseofsensations……Hencethesubjectivecosmicworldistousnotmuchmoreunfamiliarthantheobjective。Theconstitutionofbothspheresmustbeconceivedaccordingtooneconcordanttype，andinthiswehavethebeginningsofascienceofconsciousnesswhoserangeiswiderthanmerelyterrestrial“{D。Ph。139-40}。
　　Whatdoafewgrossblundersinterrestrialnaturalsciencemattertothemanwhocarriesinhispocketthekeytotheuniverseofsensations？Allonsdonc！[“Well，really！“]
　　IX。
　　MORALITYANDLAW。
　　ETERNALTRUTHSWerefrainfromgivingsamplesofthemish-mashofplatitudesandoracularsayings，inaword，ofthesimplebalderdashwithwhichHerrDühringregaleshisreadersforfiftyfullpagesasthedeep-rootedscienceoftheelementsofconsciousness。Wewillciteonlythis:
　　“Hewhocanthinkonlybymeansoflanguagehasneveryetlearntwhatismeantbyabstractandpurethought“{D。Ph。189}。
　　Onthisbasisanimalsarethemostabstractandpurestthinkers，becausetheirthoughtisneverobscuredbytheofficiousintrusionoflanguage。
　　InanycaseonecanseefromtheDühringianthoughtsandthelanguageinwhichtheyarecouchedhowlittlesuitedthesethoughtsaretoanylanguage，andhowlittlesuitedtheGermanlanguageistothesethoughts。
　　Atlastthefourthsectionbringsusdeliverance;apartfromtheliquefyingpapofrhetoric，itdoesatleastofferus，hereandthere，somethingtangibleonthesubjectofmoralityandlaw。Rightattheoutset，onthisoccasion，weareinvitedtotakeatriptotheothercelestialbodies:
　　theelementsofmorals“mustoccurinconcordantfashionamongallextra-humanbeingswhoseactivereasonhastodealwiththeconsciousorderingoflifeimpulsesintheformofinstincts……Andyetourinterestinsuchdeductionswillbesmall……Neverthelessitisanideawhichbeneficentlyextendsourrangeofvision，whenwethinkthatonothercelestialbodiesindividualandcommunallifemustbebasedonaschemewhich……
　　isunabletoabrogateorescapefromthegeneralfundamentalconstitutionofarationallyactingbeing“{192-93}。
　　Inthiscase，bywayofexception，thevalidityoftheDühringiantruthsalsoforallotherpossibleworldsisputatthebeginninginsteadoftheendofthechapterconcerned;andforasufficientreason。IfthevalidityoftheDühringianconceptionsofmoralityandjusticeisfirstestablishedforallworlds，itisallthemoreeasybeneficentlytoextendtheirvaliditytoalltimes。Butonceagainwhatisinvolvedisnothinglessthanfinalandultimatetruth{2}。
　　Theworldofmorals，“justasmuchastheworldofgeneralknowledge“，has“itspermanentprinciplesandsimpleelements“。Themoralprinciplesstand“abovehistoryandalsoabovethepresentdifferencesinnationalcharacteristics……Thespecialtruthsoutofwhich，inthecourseofevolution，amorecompletemoralconsciousnessand，sotospeak，consciencearebuiltup，may，insofarastheirultimatebasisisunderstood，claimavalidityandrangesimilartotheinsightsandapplicationsofmathematics，Genuinetruthsareabsolutelyimmutable……sothatitisaltogetherstupidtothinkthatthecorrectnessofknowledgeissomethingthatcanbeaffectedbytimeandchangesinreality“{196}。Hencethecertitudeofstrictknowledgeandtheadequacyofcommoncognitionleavenoroom，whenweareinpossessionofoursenses，fordoubtingtheabsolutevalidityoftheprinciplesofknowledge。“Evenpersistentdoubtisitselfadiseasedconditionofweaknessandonlytheexpressionofhopelessconfusion，whichsometimesseekstocontrivetheappearanceofsomethingstableinthesystematicconsciousnessofitsnothingness。Inthesphereofethics，thedenialofgeneralprinciplesclutchesatthegeographicalandhistoricalvarietyofcustomsandprinciples，andoncetheinevitablenecessityofmoralwickednessandevilisconceded，itbelievesitselfsomuchthemoretobeabovetherecognitionofthegreatimportanceandactualefficacyofconcordantmoralimpulses。
　　Thismordantscepticism，whichisnotdirectedagainstparticularfalsedoctrinesbutagainstmankind’sverycapacitytodevelopconsciousmorality，resolvesitselfultimatelyintoarealNothing，infactintosomethingthatisworsethanpurenihilism{194}……Itflattersitselfthatitcaneasilydominatewithinitsutterchaosofdisintegratedethicalideasandopenthegatestounprincipledarbitrariness。Butitisgreatlymistaken:formerereferencetotheinevitablefateofreasoninerrorandtruthsufficestoshowbythisanalogyalonethatnaturalfallibilitydoesnotnecessarilyexcludetheattainmentofaccuracy“{195}。
　　UptonowwehavecalmlyputupwithallthesepompousphrasesofHerrDühring’saboutfinalandultimatetruths，thesovereigntyofthought，absolutecertaintyofknowledge，andsoforth，becauseitisonlyatthepointwhichwehavenowreachedthatthemattercanbesettled。Uptothispointithasbeenenoughtoenquirehowfartheseparateassertionsofthephilosophyofrealityhad“sovereignvalidity“and“anunconditionalclaimtotruth“{2};nowwecometothequestionwhetherany，andifsowhich，productsofhumanknowledgeevercanhavesovereignvalidityandanunconditionalclaimtotruth。WhenIsay“ofhumanknowledge“
　　Idonotusethephrasewiththeintentionofinsultingtheinhabitantsofothercelestialbodies，whomIhavenothadthehonourofknowing，butonlyforthereasonthatanimalsalsohaveknowledge，thoughitisinnowaysovereign。AdogacknowledgeshismastertobehisGod，thoughthismastermaybethebiggestscoundrelonearth。
　　Ishumanthoughtsovereign？Beforewecanansweryesornowemustfirstenquire:whatishumanthought？Isitthethoughtoftheindividualman？No。Butitexistsonlyastheindividualthoughtofmanymilliardsofpast，presentandfuturemen。If，then，Isaythatthetotalthoughtofallthesehumanbeings，includingthefutureones，whichisembracedinmyidea，issovereign，abletoknowtheworldasitexists，ifonlymankindlastslongenoughandinsofarasnolimitsareimposedonitsknowledgebyitsperceptiveorgansortheobjectstobeknown，thenIamsayingsomethingwhichisprettybanaland，inaddition，prettybarren。
　　Forthemostvaluableresultfromitwouldbethatitshouldmakeusextremelydistrustfulofourpresentknowledge，inasmuchasinallprobabilitywearejustaboutatthebeginningofhumanhistory，andthegenerationswhichwillputusrightarelikelytobefarmorenumerousthanthosewhoseknowledgewe——oftenenoughwithaconsiderabledegreeofcontempt——havetheopportunitytocorrect。
　　HerrDühringhimselfproclaimsittobeanecessitythatconsciousness，andthereforealsothoughtandknowledge，canbecomemanifestonlyinaseriesofindividualbeings。Wecanonlyascribesovereigntytothethoughtofeachoftheseindividualsinsofaraswearenotawareofanypowerwhichwouldbeabletoimposeanyideaforciblyonhim，whenheisofsoundmindandwideawake。Butasforthesovereignvalidityoftheknowledgeobtainedbyeachindividualthought，weallknowthattherecanbenotalkofsuchathing，andthatallpreviousexperienceshowsthatwithoutexceptionsuchknowledgealwayscontainsmuchmorethatis-capableofbeingimproveduponthanthatwhichcannotbeimprovedupon，oriscorrect。
　　Inotherwords，thesovereigntyofthoughtisrealisedinaseriesofextremelyunsovereignly-thinkinghumanbeings;theknowledgewhichhasanunconditionalclaimtotruthisrealisedinaseriesofrelativeerrors;
　　neithertheonenortheothercanbefullyrealisedexceptthroughanunendingdurationofhumanexistence。
　　Hereonceagainwefindthesamecontradictionaswefoundabove，betweenthecharacterofhumanthought，necessarilyconceivedasabsolute，anditsrealityinindividualhumanbeingsallofwhomthinkonlylimitedly。
　　Thisisacontradictionwhichcanberesolvedonlyinthecourseofinfiniteprogress，inwhatis——atleastpracticallyforus——anendlesssuccessionofgenerationsofmankind。Inthissensehumanthoughtisjustasmuchsovereignasnotsovereign，anditscapacityforknowledgejustasmuchunlimitedaslimited。Itissovereignandunlimitedinitsdisposition，itsvocation，itspossibilitiesanditshistoricalultimategoal;itisnotsovereignanditislimitedinitsindividualrealisationandinrealityatanyparticularmoment。
　　Itisjustthesamewitheternaltruths。Ifmankindeverreachedthestageatwhichitshouldworkonlywitheternaltruths，withresultsofthoughtwhichpossesssovereignvalidityandanunconditionalclaimtotruth，itwouldthenhavereachedthepointwheretheinfinityoftheintellectualworldbothinitsactualityandinitspotentialityhadbeenexhausted，andthusthefamousmiracleofthecounteduncountablewouldhavebeenperformed。
　　Butarethereanytruthswhicharesosecurelybasedthatanydoubtofthemseemstoustobetantamounttoinsanity？Thattwicetwomakesfour，thatthethreeanglesofatriangleareequaltotworightangles，thatParisisinFrance，thatamanwhogetsnofooddiesofhunger，andsoforth？Aretherethenneverthelesseternaltruths，finalandultimatetruths{D。Ph。2}？
　　Certainlythereare。Wecandividethewholerealmofknowledgeinthetraditionalwayintothreegreatdepartments。Thefirstincludesallsciencesthatdealwithinanimatenatureandaretoagreaterorlesserdegreesusceptibleofmathematicaltreatment:mathematics，astronomy，mechanics，physics，chemistry。Ifitgivesanyoneanypleasuretousemightywordsforverysimplethings，itcanbeassertedthatcertainresultsobtainedbythesesciencesareeternaltruths，finalandultimatetruths;
　　forwhichreasonthesesciencesareknownastheexactsciences。
　　Butveryfarfromalltheirresultshavethisvalidity。Withtheintroductionofvariablemagnitudesandtheextensionoftheirvariabilitytotheinfinitelysmallandinfinitelylarge，mathematics，usuallysostrictlyethical，fellfromgrace;itateofthetreeofknowledge，whichopeneduptoitacareerofmostcolossalachievements，butatthesametimeapathoferror。Thevirginstateofabsolutevalidityandirrefutableproofofeverythingmathematicalwasgoneforever;therealmofcontroversywasinaugurated，andwehavereachedthepointwheremostpeopledifferentiateandintegratenotbecausetheyunderstandwhattheyaredoingbutfrompurefaith，becauseuptonowithasalwayscomeoutright。Thingsareevenworsewithastronomyandmechanics，andinphysicsandchemistryweareswampedbyhypothesesasifattackedbyaswarmofbees。Anditmustofnecessitybeso。Inphysicswearedealingwiththemotionofmolecules，inchemistrywiththeformationofmoleculesoutofatoms，andiftheinterferenceoflightwavesisnotamyth，wehaveabsolutelynoprospectofeverseeingtheseinterestingobjectswithourowneyes。Astimegoeson，finalandultimatetruthsbecomeremarkablyrareinthisfield。
　　Weareevenworseoffingeologywhich，byitsnature，hastodealchieflywithprocesseswhichtookplacenotonlyinourabsencebutintheabsenceofanyhumanbeingwhatever。Thegleaninghereoffinalandultimatetruthsisthereforeaverytroublesomebusiness，andthecropisextremelyscanty。
　　Theseconddepartmentofscienceistheonewhichcoverstheinvestigationoflivingorganisms。Inthisfieldthereissuchamultiplicityofinterrelationshipsandcausalitiesthatnotonlydoesthesolutionofeachquestiongiverisetoahostofotherquestions，buteachseparateproblemcaninmostcasesonlybesolvedpiecemeal，throughaseriesofinvestigationswhichoftenrequirecenturies;andbesides，theneedforasystematicpresentationofinterconnectionsmakesitnecessaryagainandagaintosurroundthefinalandultimatetruthswithaluxuriantgrowthofhypotheses。WhatalongseriesofintermediariesfromGalentoMalpighiwasnecessaryforcorrectlyestablishingsuchasimplematterasthecirculationofthebloodinmammals，howslightisourknowledgeoftheoriginofbloodcorpuscles，andhownumerousarethemissinglinkseventoday，forexample，tobeabletobringthesymptomsofadiseaseintosomerationalrelationshipwithitscause！Andoftenenoughdiscoveries，suchasthatofthecell，aremadewhichcompelustorevisecompletelyallformerlyestablishedfinalandultimatetruthsintherealmofbiology，andtoputwholepilesofthemonthescrap-heaponceandforall。Anyonewhowantstoestablishreallygenuineandimmutabletruthsherewillthereforehavetobecontentwithsuchplatitudesas:allmenaremortal，allfemalemammalshavelactealglands，andthelike;hewillnotevenbeabletoassertthatthehigheranimalsdigestwiththeirstomachsandintestinesandnotwiththeirheads，forthenervousactivity，whichiscentralisedinthehead，isindispensabletodigestion。
　　Buteternaltruthsareinanevenworseplightinthethird，thehistorical，groupofsciences，whichstudyintheirhistoricalsequenceandintheirpresentresultantstatetheconditionsofhumanlife，socialrelationships，formsoflawandgovernment，withtheiridealsuperstructureintheshapeofphilosophy，religion，art，etc。Inorganicnatureweareatleastdealingwithasuccessionofprocesseswhich，sofarasourimmediateobservationisconcerned，recurwithfairregularitywithinverywidelimits。
　　OrganicspecieshaveonthewholeremainedunchangedsincethetimeofAristotle。Insocialhistory，however，therepetitionofconditionsistheexceptionandnottherule，oncewepassbeyondtheprimitivestateofman，theso-calledStoneAge;andwhensuchrepetitionsoccur，theyneverariseunderexactlysimilarcircumstances。Such，forexample，istheexistenceofanoriginalcommonownershipofthelandamongallcivilisedpeoples，orthewayitwasdissolved。Inthesphereofhumanhistoryourknowledgeisthereforeevenmorebackwardthanintherealmofbiology。
　　Furthermore，whenbywayofexceptiontheinnerconnectionbetweenthesocialandpoliticalformsofexistenceinanyepochcomestobeknown，thisasaruleoccursonlywhentheseformshavealreadybyhalfoutlivedthemselvesandarenearingextinction。Therefore，knowledgeishereessentiallyrelative，inasmuchasitislimitedtotheinvestigationofinterconnectionsandconsequencesofcertainsocialandstateformswhichexistonlyinaparticularepochandamongparticularpeoplesandarebytheirverynaturetransitory。Anyonethereforewhoheresetsouttohuntdownfinalandultimatetruths，genuine，absolutelyimmutabletruths，willbringhomebutlittle，apartfromplatitudesandcommonplacesofthesorriestkind——forexample，that，generallyspeaking，mencannotliveexceptbylabour;thatuptothepresenttheyforthemostparthavebeendividedintorulersandruled;
　　thatNapoleondiedonMay5，1821，andsoon。
　　Nowitisaremarkablethingthatitispreciselyinthisspherethatwemostfrequentlyencountertruthswhichclaimtobeeternal，finalandultimateandalltherestofit。Thattwicetwomakesfour，thatbirdshavebeaks，andsimilarstatements，areproclaimedaseternaltruthsonlybythosewhoaimatdeducing，fromtheexistenceofeternaltruthsingeneral，theconclusionthattherearealsoeternaltruthsinthesphereofhumanhistory——eternalmorality，eternaljustice，andsoon——whichclaimavalidityandscopesimilartothoseoftheinsightsandapplicationsofmathematics。Andthenwecanconfidentlyrelyonthissamefriendofhumanitytakingthefirstopportunitytoassureusthatallpreviousfabricatorsofeternaltruthshavebeentoagreaterorlesserextentassesandcharlatans，thattheyallfellintoerrorandmademistakes;butthattheirerrorandtheirfallibilityareinaccordancewithnature’slaws，andprovetheexistenceoftruthandaccuracypreciselyinhiscase;
　　andthathe，theprophetwhohasnowarisen，hasinhisbag，allready-made，finalandultimatetruth，eternalmoralityandeternaljustice。Thishasallhappenedsomanyhundredsandthousandsoftimesthatwecanonlyfeelastonishedthatthereshouldstillbepeoplecredulousenoughtobelievethis，notofothers，ohno！butofthemselves。Neverthelesswehaveherebeforeusatleastonemoresuchprophet，whoalso，quiteintheaccustomedway，fliesintohighlymoralindignationwhenotherpeopledenythatanyindividualwhatsoeverisinapositiontodeliverthefinalandultimatetruth。Suchadenial，orindeedmeredoubtofit，isweakness，hopelessconfusion，nothingness，mordantscepticism，worsethanpurenihilism，utterchaosandothersuchpleasantries。Aswithallprophets，insteadofcriticalandscientificexaminationandjudgmentoneencountersmoralcondemnationoutofhand。
　　Wemighthavemadementionabovealsoofthescienceswhichinvestigatethelawsofhumanthought，i。e。，logicanddialectics。Inthese，however，eternaltruthsdonotfareanybetter。HerrDühringdeclaresthatdialecticsproperispurenonsense;andthemanybookswhichhavebeenandarestillbeingwrittenonlogicprovideabundantproofthathere，too，finalandultimatetruthsaremuchmoresparselysownthansomepeoplebelieve。