THEinstrumentsofantiquityemployedintheartofwritingbelongtotwoofthemostdistantepochs。
　　Inthefirstperiod，inscriptionswereengraved，carvedorimpressedwithsharpinstruments，andofpatternscharacteristicofagravingtool，chiselorotherformwhichcouldbeadaptedtoparticularsubstanceslikestone，leaves，metalorivoryplates，waxorclaytablets，cylindersandprisms。
　　TheancientAssyriansevenusedknivesorstampsforimpressingtheircuneiformwritinguponcylindersorprismsofsoftclaywhichwereoftenglazedbysubsequentbakingsinkilns。
　　Theotherperiodwasthatinwhichwrittencharactersweremadewithliquidsorpaintsofanykindorcolor。Theliquidsinkswereusedinconnectionwithapenmanufacturedfromareedcalamus，whilethepaintswere“painted“onthevarioussubstanceswithabrush。Thewritingexecutedwithbothoftheseinstrumentswasonmaterialslikethebarkoftrees，cloth，skins，papyrus，vellum，etc。
　　Theancientaswellasmodernpens，thoughofmanysortsandkinds，aretobeclassifiedundertwogeneralheads，thosewhichscratchandthosewhichuseanink。
　　Thereisnoauthoritytodisputethegenerallyconcededfactthatthe“scratching“instrumentwasthefirstoneused。Itsmostpopularformseemstohavebeenthestylusorbodkin，whichwasmadeofavarietyofmaterials，suchasiron，ivory，bone，mineralsoranyotherhardsubstance，whichcouldbesufficientlysharpenedatoneendtoindentthevariousmaterialsemployedinconnectionwithitsuse。Theotherendwasflattenedforerasingmarksmadeonwaxandsmoothingit。FromittheItalianstillettotookitsorigin。
　　Thestylusisbestdescribedinthefollowinglines：
　　“Myheadisflatandsmooth，butsharpmyfoot，Andbyman’shandtodifferentusesput；
　　Forwhatmyfootperformswithartandcare，Myheadmakesvoid，suchoppositestheyare。”
　　Relativetotheemploymentofmarkinginstrumentswhichbelongtothemostvenerableantiquity，NoelHumphreysobserves：
　　“Beforethegrowthofwealthandluxuryhadtaughtnationstoraisemagnificenttemplesandstatelypalaces，whosewallsthehieroglyphicsculptorcoveredwithrecordsofthepompandprideofprinces，morepurelynationalmemorialshadfoundtheirplaceuponthenativerock，themostconvenientsurfacesofwhichweresmoothedforthispurpose。Wherenosuchrockexistedinthesituationrequired，amassivestonewasraisedbyartificialmeansandtherecord，whetherreferringtoavictory，anewboundary，oranyothereventofnationalinterestwasengraveduponit。SuchmemorialshavebeendescribedbyHebrewwritersasaumadorammod，literally，thelipsofthepeople，or，thewordsofthepeople，butactuallymeaningapillar。Recordsinthisformandtheearlynametheyboreaccountforthestrangelegendsofmediaevaltimesreferringtospeakingstones——anamebywhichsuchmonumentswereprobablystillcalledlongaftertimehadeffacedthespeakingrecord，andtheoriginalpurportofthedefacedstonewasforgotten。Insemi-barbarousepochs，liketheerawhichfollowedthepartialextinctionofRomancivilization，popularcuriosityandsuperstitioncombinedwouldseektogiveameaningtothenameofsuch’speakingstones，’andasanexampleofthelegendswhichthusarose，theitinerariumcambriaeofGeraldusmaybecited，inwhichastoneismentionedatSt。David’sasthe’speakingstone’
　　lechlavarwhichwassaidtocalloutwhenadeadbodywasplaceduponit。ThemostremarkablerockinscriptionsstillremainingarethoseofAssyriaandPersia，butmanynationaltabletsofmorerecentdatearestillinexistence。FortheexecutionofsuchrecordsandthoseofthepalacesofEgyptandAssyria，somekindofsteelpointmusthavebeenused，asnosoftersubstancewouldhaveservedtoengravethemingraniticandbasalticslabswiththesharpnesstheystillexhibit，whichprovesthattheartofhardeningsteel，longthoughtacomparativelymoderninvention，wasknowntotheancientpeopleofAsiaandAfrica。”
　　Alistofthevariousdevicesofdifferentcountries，bywhichcharacterscouldbelegiblyportrayedwithascratchingimplement，isbestrecapitulatedbyMr。
　　Knight，whopresentstheminthefollowingorder：
　　“Thetabulaorwoodenboardsmearedwithwax，uponwhichaletterwaswrittenbyastylus。
　　“TheAthenianscratchedhisvoteuponashellasdidtheloutwhenhevotedtoostracizeAristides。
　　“TherecordsofNinevahwereinscribedupontabletsofclay，whichwerethenbaked。
　　“ThelawsofRomewereengravedonbrassandlaidupintheCapitol。
　　“Thedecaloguewasgravenuponthetablesofstone。
　　“TheEgyptiansusedpapyrusandgranite。
　　“TheBurmese，tabletsofivoryandleaves。
　　“Plinymentionssheetsoflead，booksoflinen，andwaxedtabletsofwood。
　　“TheHebrewsusedlinenandskins。
　　“ThePersians，Mexicans，andNorthAmericanIndiansusedskins。
　　“TheGreeks，preparedskinscalledmembrana。
　　“ThepeopleofPergamus，parchmentandvellum。
　　“TheHindoos，palm-leaves。”
　　ThewrittendeedsofbiblicaltimewerekeptinvariousstylesofpotteryJeremiahxxxii。14。HandwritingontileswascommoninEgypt，AssyriaandPalestineEzekieliv。I。Suchhandwritingswereontabletsofterra-cottaorcommonbakedclaybricks。
　　Oneofthekindwasfashionedbyinscribingdirectlywitha“stylus“ontheclay，beforebaking。Another，were“moulds“madefromolderinscriptionsorduplicatesfromthefirstkind。
　　TheHebrewtermsepher，translatedintoEnglishmeansa“book。”andsomeauthoritiesclaimitisderivedfromthesamerootastheGreek，astone，whichwouldseemtopointtoengravedstonesastheearliestkindsofrecords。IndeednearlyallthepassagesintheFiveBooksofMoses，inwhichwritingismentioned，refertorecordsofthiskind，ortotabletsofleadorwood，occasionallydescribedascoatedwithwax。
　　Longbeforetheuseofpapyrus，oranylikesubstancewasknownasamaterialforwritingon，thinbrickswerefrequentlyutilizedforsuchpurposes。
　　TheChinesewroteonslipsofbamboowhichhadbeenpreviouslyscrapedtobeafterwardssubmittedtointenseheatwhichsohardenedthem，thatagraverwouldcutlineswiththesamefacility，ascouldbeaccomplishedonsoftmetallikelead。Thesebambootabletswerejoinedtogetherbymeansofcordsmadeofbarkandwhenfoldedformeda“book。”Differentnationsadoptedothermodesintheirpreparationofsurfacestoengraveon。Manyoriginalspecimenshavecomedowntouswhichpresentdefiniteevidenceofthevarietyofmaterialsandmethodsemployedintheirmanufacture。
　　Hilprecht，“ExplorationsinBibleLands。”1903，mentionsmanydiscoveriesofsuchspecimens。Hesaysthatmorethanfourthousandclaytabletswerediscoveredduringtheexcavationsof1889and1900。
　　Theserelicscallattentiononlytoaveryfewdiscoveriesofthischaracter。TherewereotherexplorerswhoprecededHilprechtinthisdirection，andwhowithhimhavethussecuredtangibleevidencewhichfullyconfirmsallthathasbeensaidabouttheemploymentofthemostancientofwritinginstruments，the“stylus。”
　　Thediamondisalsotobeclassifiedundertheheadof“scratchingimplements“andmanyhistoricalincidentsarerecordedofitsuse。OneofthemostinterestingrelatestoSirWalterRaleighandQueenElizabethandtobefoundinScott’s“Kenilworth。”
　　SirWalter，usinghisdiamondring，wroteonapaneofglassinhersummer-houseatGreenwich：
　　“FainwouldIclimb，butthatIfeartofall。”
　　ThemaidenQueenaddingthewords：
　　“Ifthymindfailthee，donotclimbatall。”
　　Biblicalmentionofthediamond，employedasapen，isfoundinJeremiahxvii。1。
　　“ThesinofJudahiswrittenwithapenofiron，andwiththepointofadiamond。”
　　Ithasnotalwaysbeenpossibletodecipherandinterpretthecharactervaluesofthemostancienthieroglyphicsorpicturewritingsinscribedonbricks，stoneandmetalslabs，andtheEgyptianmonuments。Themeanstodosowerefurnishedastheresultofaveryfortunateaccidentor“find。”
　　AFrenchartilleryofficerin1799whileexcavatingthefoundationsforafortificationneartheRosettamouthoftheNile，foundacuriousblacktabletofstone。Onitwereengravedthreeinscriptions，eachofdifferentcharactersanddialects。
　　Thefirstofthethreeinscriptionswasinhieroglyphic，thenunreadable；thesecondindemoticorshorterscript，alsounknown，andthethirdinalivinglanguagepertainingtothetimeofPtolemyEpiphanes，whoreignedabout200B。C。
　　ThisrelicofantiquityiscalledtheRosettastone。
　　JeanFrancoisChampollion，whowithDr。ThomasYoungstudiedtheintricaciesofthesewritings，firstestablishedthefactthatthethreeinscriptionsonthisstoneweretranslationsofeachother。Dr。Young’sinvestigationscausedhimtostudythelanguageincludedinthesecondinscription，andmadehisdeductions，itissaid，“bydintofthousandsofscientificguesses，allbutafewofwhichwereeliminatedbytestswhichheinventedandapplied；heatlastdiscoveredandputtogetherthesetoffundamentalprinciplesthatgoverntheancientwritings。”
　　Champollion，however，beganatthebottomandhavingsuccessfullytranslatedtheLIVINGlanguage，establisheda“key“oralphabet。Henceitbecamepossible，althoughrequiringsomeyears，tosolvethemysteryofwritingsof4000ormoreyearsold。
　　Champollionpursuedhisdiscoveriessothoroughlyinthisdirectionastobeabletocompletein1829anEgyptianvocabularyandgrammar。
　　TheRosettastoneafterremaininginthepossessionoftheFrenchformanyyearswascapturedbytheEnglishonthedefeatoftheFrenchforcesinEgyptandisnowintheBritishmuseum。
　　Aswritingwithliquidcolorsonpapyrusoranalogousmaterialswhichcouldbeusedintheformofrolls，graduallycameintovogue，thecalamusorreedpen，pencilbrushhairpencil，orthejuncas，apenformedfromakindofcane，weremoreorlessemployed。
　　The“calamus“followedthe“brush。”justasphonographicwritingwhichdenotesarbitrarysoundsorthelanguageofsymbols，cameafterthepictureorideographicwriting。
　　Theplaceswherethecalamusgrewandthemodesofpreparingthemarevariouslydiscussedbydifferentancientandmodernwriters。SomeclaimthatthebestreedsforpenpurposesformerlygrewnearMemphisontheNile，nearCnidusofCaria，inAsiaMinor，andinArmenia。ThosegrowninItalywereestimatedtohavebeenofbutpoorquality。Chardincallsattentiontoakindtobefound，“inalargefenortractofsoggylandsuppliedwithwaterbytheriverHelle，aplaceinArabiaformedbytheunitedarmsoftheEuphratesandTigris。TheyarecutinMarch，tiedinbundles，laidsixmonthsinamanureheap，wheretheyassumeabeautifulcolor，mottledyellowandblack。”TournefortsawthemgrowingintheneighborhoodofTeflisinGeorgia。Millerdescribesthecaneas“growingnohigherthanaman，thestemthreeorfourlinesinthicknessandsolidfromoneknottoanother，exceptingthecentralwhitepith。”Theincipientfermentationinthemanureheapdriesupthepithandhardensthecane。Thepenswereaboutthesizeofthelargestswan’squills。
　　Theywerecutandslitlikeaquillpenbutwithmuchlargernibs。
　　InthefarEastthecalamusisstillused，thebestbeinggatheredinthemonthofMarch，nearAurac，onthePersianGulf，andstillpreparedaftertheoldmethodofimmersingthemforaboutsixmonthsinfermentingmanurewhichcoatsthemwithasortofdarkvarnishandthedarkertheircolorthemoretheyareprized。
　　The“brush“alsoholdsitscareerofusefulness，moreespeciallyinChinaandJapan。
　　TheearliestexamplesofreedpenwritingaretheancientrollsofpapyruswhichhavebeenfoundburiedwiththeEgyptiandead。SomeoftheseoldrelicsofantiquityareclaimedtohavebeenpreparedfullytwentycenturiesormorebeforetheChristianera。
　　The“reed“penforinkwritingheldalmostundisputedswayuntilthesixthcenturyaftertheChristianera，whenthequillpennacameintovogue。
　　ReedpenspreservedinexcellentconditionwerefoundintheruinsofHerculaneum。
　　“Whenhehadfinished，hedriedthebamboo-penonhishair，andreplaceditbehindhisear，saying，’Yakpose’Thatiswell。’Temouchu’Restinpeace，wereplied；and，afterpolitelyputtingoutourtongues，withdrew。”AbbeHueatLha-Ssa。
　　CHAPTERXXVI。
　　INKUTENSILSQUILLPENSTEELPEN。
　　THEQUILLPENTHEMOSTSUCCESSFULANDFITTINGOF
　　ALLWRITINGINSTRUMENTS——TENDENCYTO“WEAR“
　　OUT——THESOMETIMESAFFECTIONFOROLDPENS——DR。
　　HOLLAND’SLINESONTHEPEN——SELECTIONOFQUILLS
　　TOBEMADEINTOPENS——METHODOFPREPARING
　　THEM——BYRON’SESTIMATIONOFHISQUILLPEN——ITS
　　INVENTIONBEFORETHESIXTHCENTURYUNCERTAIN——
　　EMPLOYMENTOFTHEREEDANDQUILLPEN
　　TOGETHERUNTILTHETWELFTHCENTURY——WHEN
　　THESTEELPENCAMEINTOVOGUE——WHOWASITS
　　INVENTOR——SOMEOBSERVATIONSABOUTIT——QUANTITY
　　OFMATERIALSIXTYYEARSAGOCONSUMEDINPEN
　　MANUFACTURE——AFEWREMARKSABOUTGOLD，FOUNTAIN
　　ANDSTYLOGRAPHICPENS——MORESTEELUSEDIN
　　THEMANUFACTUREOFPENSTHANINTHATOFSWORDS
　　ANDGUNS——POETICALLINESABOUTTHEPEN。
　　THEquillsbelongingtothefeathersofbirdsseemtohavebeenthemostsuccessfulandfittingofallmaterialsforpens，for，thoughsteelandothermetalsarenowusedforthispurposetoanimmenseextent，thereisapowerofadaptationinaquillpenwhichhasneveryetbeenequalledinmetal。Quills，however，likeotherthings，haveatendencyto“wearout。”andthetroubleresultingfromthenecessityoffrequentlymendingquillpensandadesiretowritewithmorerapidityhavebeenthemaincausesoftheintroductionofsteelsubstitutes。Akindofaffectionhasoftenbeenfeltbyanauthororofficial，ortheiradmirers，forthepenwithwhichhehaswrittenanylargeorcelebratedworkorsignedsomeimportantdocument；
　　oldworn-outpens，aswellasnewones，havebeenpreservedasmemorialsinconnectionwithsuchmatters，andDr。Holland，whotranslatedPliny’s“NaturalHistory“inthesixteenthcentury，recordedanexploitconnectedwithitinthefollowinglines：
　　“WithonesolepenIwrotethisbook，Madeofagraygoose-quill：
　　ApenitwaswhenitItookApenIleaveitstill。”
　　Thequillsemployedforpensweregenerallythoseofthegoose，althoughthecrow，theswan，andotherbirdsyieldedfeatherswhichwereoccasionallyavailableforthispurpose。Eachwingproducedaboutfivegoodquills，butthenumberthusyieldedwassosmallthatthegeeserearedinEnglandcouldnotfurnishnearlyenoughforthedemand，hencetheimportationofgoosequillsfromtheContinentwasverylarge。
　　Theprocesssurroundingthemanufactureofaquillpenprovesofconsiderableinterest。
　　“Thegeesearepluckedoftheirfeathersthreeorfourtimesayear，thefirsttimeforthesakebothofthequillsandthefeathers，buttheothertimesforthefeathersonly。Thepenquillsaregenerallytakenfromtheendsofthewings。Whenpluckedthequillsarefoundtobecoveredwithamembranousskin，resultingfromadecayofakindofsheathwhichhadenvelopedthem；theinteriorvascularmembrane，too，resultingfromthedecayofthevascularpith，adheressostronglytothebarrelofthequillastobewithdifficultyseparated，while，atthesametime，thebarrelitselfisopaque，soft，andtough。Toremovethesevariousdefectsthequillsundergoseveralprocesses。Inthefirstinstance，asameansofremovingthemembraneousskin，thequillsareplungedintoheatedsand，thehightemperatureofwhichcausestheexternalskinofthebarreltocrackandpeeloff，andtheinternalmembranetoshrivelup。Theoutermembraneisthenscrapedoffwithasharpinstrument，whiletheinnermembraneremainsinastatetobeeasilydetached。Forthefinestquillstheheatingisrepeatedtwoorthreetimes。Theheatofthesand，byconsumingordryingupthenaturalmoistureofthebarrel，rendersitharderandmoretransparent。Inordertogivethebarrelayellowcolor，andatendencytosplitmorereadilyandclearly，itisdippedinweaknitricacid，butthiswasconsideredtorenderthequillmorebrittleandlessdurable，andwasthereforeasacrificeofutilityforthesakeofappearance。”
　　“Oh！nature’snoblestgift——mygraygoosequill！
　　Slaveofmythoughts，obedienttomywill，Tornfromthyparentbirdtoformapen，Thatmightyinstrumentoflittlemen！“
　　BYRON。
　　Tolocateanexactperiodfortheinventionofthequillpenisimpossible。Itcouldhardlyhavebeeninusebeforethefourthcentury，probablynotearlierthantwocenturieslater。SomewritershaveassumedthatitwasemployedbytheRomans，butasnodistinctmentionismadeofthembyearlyclassicalauthorswemustaccepttheonlyinformationathand。
　　IsidorediedA。D。636andcontemporariesstatethatthequillsofbirdscameintouseaspensonlyinthesixthcentury。Itisalsoknown，St。Brovverusbeingtheauthority，thatinhistimeseventhcentury
　　thecalamusorreedpenandthequillpenwereemployedtogether，thecalamusbeingusedinthewritingoftheuncialinchlettersandcapitals，andthequillforsmallerletters。MentionisalsomadebymanywritersofthefivecenturieswhichfollowedIsidore’stimeofthecalamus，indicatingthatnotwithstandingithadbeensupersededbythequillitwasstillafavoritewritingimplementinsomeplaces。
　　Theuseofthe“steelpen“didnotspringimmediatelyfromthatofthe“quillpen。”Therewereseveralintermediatestagesadoptedbeforethefitnessofsteelforthispurposewassufficientlyknown，Fromabout1800to1835thenumberofproposedsubstitutesforthequillpenwasveryconsiderable。
　　Hornpens，tortoise-shellpens，nibsofdiamondorrubyimbeddedintortoiseshell，nibsofrubysetinfinegold，nibsofrhodiumandofiridiumimbeddedingold，——
　　allhavebeenadoptedatdifferenttimes，butmostofthemhavebeenfoundtoocostlyforgeneraladoption。
　　Steelisprovedtobesufficientlyelasticanddurabletoformverygoodpens，andtheingenuityofmanufacturershasbeenexertedtogivetosuchpensasmanyaspossibleofthegoodqualitiespossessedbythequillpen。
　　Theoriginalflexibleironpenofmoderntimeswasanexperimentalaffairprobably，beingmentionedbyChamberlayneasfarbackas1685。
　　ThefirststeelpensinregularuseweremadebyWise，inLondon，in1803，andformanyyearsthereafter。
　　Hispenwasmadewithabarrel，bywhichitwasslippeduponastraighthandle。Initsportableformitwasmountedinabonecaseforthepocket。
　　Prejudice，however，wasstrongagainstthem，andupto1835orthereaboutsquillsmaintainedtheirfullsway，andmuchlateramongtheold-fashionedfolks。
　　Tohim，however，isduethecreditofbeingtheinventorofthemodernsteelpen。
　　IthasbeenthethoughtofsomepeoplethatGillottwastheprogenitorofthesteelpen，buthewasnot。
　　Arnoux，aFrenchmechanic，mademetallicpenswithsideslitsin1750。SamuelHarrison，anEnglishman，madeasteelpenforDr。Priestlyin1780。PeregrineWilliamson，anativeofNewYork，whileengagedasajewelerinthecityofBaltimore，madesteelpensin1800。
　　Perry’sfirstpenswereofsteel，rolledfromwire，thematerialcostingsevenshillingsapound。Fiveshillingseachwaspaidtheworkmanformakingthem；
　　thiswasafterwardreducedtothirty-sixshillingspergross，whichpricewascontinuedforseveralyears。
　　ItwasJosephGillott，however，originallyaSheffieldcutler，andafterwardsaworkmaninlightsteelarticles，asbuckles，chains，andotherarticlesofthatclass，whoin1822gaveimpulsetothesteel-penmanufacture。
　　Previoustohisenteringthebusinessthepenswerecutoutwithshearsandfinishedwiththefile。Gillottadaptedthestampingpresstotherequirementsofthemanufacture，ascuttingouttheblanks，formingtheslits，bendingthemetal，andimpressingthemaker’snameonthepens。Healsodevisedimprovedmodesofpreparingthemetalfortheactionofthepress，tempering，cleansing，andpolishing，and，inshort，manylittledetailsofmanufacturenecessarytogivethemtherequiredflexibilitytoenablethemtocompetewiththequillpen。Onegreatdifficultytobeovercomewastheirextremehardnessandstiffness；
　　thiswaseffectedbymakingslitsatthesideinadditiontothecentralone，whichhadpreviouslybeensolelyused。Afurtherimprovement，thatofcrossgrindingthepoints，wassubsequentlyadopted。Thefirstgrossofpenswiththreeslitswassoldforsevenpounds。In1830thepricewas$2。00；in1832，$1。50；
　　in1861，12cents，andacommonvarietyfor4centsagross。About9，300tonsofsteelareannuallyconsumed，thenumberofpensproducedinEnglandalonebeingabout8，000，000，000。
　　Bramahpatentedquillnibsmadebysplittingquillsandcuttingthesemicylindersintosectionswhichwereshapedintopensandadaptedtobeplacedinaholder。Thesewere，perhaps，thefirstnibs，theprogenitorsofahostofsteel，gold，andotherpens。
　　HawkinsandMordan，in1823，madenibsofhornandtortoiseshell，insteadofquill。Thetortoiseshellbeingsoftened，pointsofrubyanddiamondwereimbedded。
　　Metallicpointswerealsocementedtotheshellnibs。
　　Doughty，about1825，madegoldpenswithrubypoints。
　　Goldpenswithrhodiumoriridiumpointswereintroducedsoonafterwards。
　　Mordan’sobliquepen，Englishpatent，1831，wasdesignedtopresentthenibsintherightdirectionwhilepreservingthecustomarypositionsofthepenandhand。
　　Thefountainpencarriesasupplyofink，fedgraduallytothepointoftheinstrument。ThefirstmadebySchefferwasintroducedabout1835byMordan。
　　Thepressureofthethumbonastudinaholdercausedacontinuoussupplyofinktoflowfromthereservoirtothepen。
　　The“stylographic“isareservoirpenshapedlikeapencil，inwhichtheflowofinkisregulatedbypressureofastyleorfineneedlewithbluntpointuponthepaper。Itmustbeheldinaverticalposition。
　　Allmarksmadewithone，bothupanddownstrokes，areequalinwidth。
　　Goldpensarenowusuallytippedwithiridium，makingwhatarecommonlyknownasdiamondpoints。
　　“Theiridiumforthispurposeisfoundinsmallgrainsofplatinum，slightlyalloyedwiththislattermetal。Thegoldforpensisalloyedwithsilvertoaboutsixteencaratsfineness，rolledintothinstrips，fromwhichtheblanksarestruck。Theundersideofthepointisnotchedbyasmallcircularsawtoreceivetheiridiumpoint，whichisselectedwiththeaidofamicroscope。Afluxofboraxandablowpipesecureittoitsplace。Thepointisthengroundonacopperwheelofemery。Thepen-blankisnextrolledtotherequisitethinnessbythemeansofrollersespeciallyadaptedforthepurpose，andtemperedbyblowsfromahammer。Itisthentrimmedaroundtheedges，stamped，andformedinapress。
　　Theslitisnextcutthroughthesolidiridiumpointbymeansofathincopperwheelfedwithfineemery，andasawextendstheaperturealongthepenitself。
　　Theinsideedgesoftheslitaresmoothedandpolishedbytheemerywheel；burnishingandhammeringproducetheproperdegreeofelasticity。”
　　Itisassertedthatmoresteelisusedinthemanufactureofpensthaninalltheswordsandgunsintheworld。Thisfactpartlyverifiestheoldsaying，“Thepenismightierthanthesword。”
　　“Threethingsbearmightyswaywithmen，TheSword，theSceptre，andthePen；
　　Whocantheleastofthesecommand，InthefirstrankofFamewillstand。”
　　CHAPTERXXVII。
　　SUBSTITUTESFORINKUTENSILS“LEAD“ANDOTHER
　　PENCILS。
　　“BLACK-LEAD“PENCILSANEXCELLENTPENSUBSTITUTE
　　UNDERCERTAINCONDITIONS——ITSCOMPOSITION——
　　“BLACK-LEAD“CONTAINSNOLEAD，HENCE
　　THENAMEISMISAPPLIED——THEDISCOVERYOFITS
　　PRINCIPALSOURCEOFSUPPLYANACCIDENT——A
　　DESCRIPTIONOFHOWITISMINED——TREATMENT
　　BEFOREBEINGINTRODUCEDINTOTHEGROOVED
　　WOOD——USEOFREDANDBLACKCHALKPENCILS
　　INGERMANY，1450——THEIRUSEINMEXICOINEARLY
　　TIMES——WHOMANUFACTURESLEADPENCILS——EMPLOYMENT
　　OFTHECOMPOSITIONOFLEADANDTIN
　　INMEDIAEVALTIMES——BAVARIANGOVERNMENTIN
　　1816AMANUFACTUREROFLEADPENCILS。
　　THEblack-leadpencil，undermanycircumstances，isaveryusefulsubstituteforthepen，inthatitrequiresnoliquidinkformarkingthecharactersonpaperorothermaterials。Thepeculiarsubstancewhichfillsthecentralchannelofthestickofcedarhasthepropertyofmarkingwhenittouchespaper；
　　and，asthemarksthusmadearesusceptibletoeasyremoval，apencilofthiskindisavailableforpurposeswhichwouldnotbeansweredbytheuseofpenandink。
　　Thesubstancemisnamed“black-lead“containsNO
　　LEADandisacarburetofiron，beingcomposedofcarbonandiron。ItgenerallyoccursinMountaindistricts，insmallkidney-shapedpieces，varyinginsizefromthatofapeaupwards，whichareinterspersedamongvariousstrata，andismetwithindifferentpartsoftheworld。
　　Itsprincipalsourceofsupplyuntilabout1845，whenitbecameexhausted，wastheBorrowdalemineinCumberland，England，whichwasdiscoveredin1564。About1852anumberofmineswereopenedcontainingthissubstanceinSiberiaandfromwhichplacethebestproductsarenowobtained。
　　TheaccidentaldiscoveryofthismineralatBorrowdalewasduringthereignofQueenElizabethwhomademanyinquiriesaboutit。Thenameofthismineralwaslocallyknownaswadgraphite。Sovaluablewasitregardedthatitcommandedaveryhighprice，andthispriceactedasininducementtotheworkmenandotherstopilferpiecesfromthemine。Foranumberofyearsscenesofgreatcommotiontookplace，arisingoutofthesedepredations；andtheresultwasthattheproprietorsadoptedsuchstringentrulesthathardlyanythingwasknownoftheinternaleconomyoftheminetillaboutsixtyyearsago，whenMr。Parkesgaveadescriptionofit，fromwhichImaycondenseafewparticulars。
　　Themineisinthemidstofamountainabouttwothousandfeethigh，whichrisesatinangleofabout45degrees；and，asthatpartoftheminewhichhasbeenworkedduringthelastcenturyisnearthemiddleofthemountain，thepresententranceisaboutathousandfeetfromthesummit。Theopeningbywhichtheworkmenenterdescendsbyaflightofsteps；andinordertoguardthetreasurewithin，theproprietorshaveerectedastrongbrickbuildingoffourrooms，oneofwhichisimmediatelyovertheentranceintothemine。Thisentranceissecuredbyatrap-door，andtheroomconnectedwithitservesasadressing-roomforthemenwhentheyenterandleavethemine。Themenworkingangs，whichrelieveeachothereverysixhours，andwhenthehourofreliefcomes，astewardorforemanattendsthedressing-
　　roomtoseethemenchangetheirdressesastheycomeuponebyoneoutofthemine。Theclothesareexaminedbythestewardtoseethatnoblack-leadisconcealedinthem；andwhenthemenhavedressedtheyleavethemine，makingroomforanothergang，whochangetheirclothes，enterthemine，andarefastenedinforsixhours。Inoneofthefourroomsofwhichthehouseconsiststhereisatable，atwhichmenareemployedinsortinganddressingthemineral。Thisisnecessary，becauseitisusuallydividedintotwoqualities，thefinestofwhichhavegenerallypiecesofiron-
　　oreorotherimpurityattachedtothem，whichmustbedressedoff。Thesemen，whoarestrictlywatchedwhileatwork，putthedressedblack-leadintocasksholdingaboutonehundred-weighteach，inwhichstateitleavesthemine。Thecasksareconveyeddownthesideofthemountaininacuriousmanner。Eachcaskisfixeduponalightsledgewithtwowheels，andaman，whoiswellusedtotheprecipitouspath，walksdowninfrontofthesledge，takingcarethatitdoesnotacquiremomentumenoughtooverpowerhim。Whenthecaskhasbeenthusguidedsafelytothebottom，themancarriesthesledgeuphilluponhisshoulders，andpreparesforanotherdescent。
　　Uptoaboutthemiddleoftheeighteenthcenturytheminewasopenedonlyonceinsevenyears，thequantitytakenoutateachtimeofopeningbeingsuchaswasdeemedsufficienttoservethemarketforsevenyears；
　　butwhen，atalaterperiod，itwasfoundthatthedemandwasincreasingandthesupplydecreasing，itwasdeemednecessarytoworktheminesixorsevenweekseveryyear。Duringthetimeofworking，themineisguardednightandday；andwhenaquantitysufficientforoneyear’sconsumptionhasbeentakenout，themineissecureduntilthefollowingyear。
　　Severalhundredcartloadsofrubbisharewheeledintothemine，soastoblockuptheentrancecompletely；
　　andthisrubbishactsasadamtopreventthespringsandlandwatersfromflowingout，sothattheminegraduallybecomesflooded。
　　WhentheYear’sminingisconcluded，thebarrelsofblack-leadarebroughttomarket，andthemodeofeffectingthesaleswasdescribedbyDr。Faradaysomeyearsagotobeasfollows：AmarketisheldonthefirstMondayofeverymonthatahouseinLondon，wherethebuyers，whoaregenerallyonlysevenoreightinnumber，examineeachpiecewithasharpinstrumenttoascertainitshardness，thosewhicharetoosoftbeingrejected。Thepersonwhohasthefirstchoicepays45s。perpound，theothers30s。
　　But，asthereisnoadditionmadetothefirstquantityinthemarket，theresidualportionsareexaminedoverandoveragainuntiltheyareexhausted。AtonetimetheannualsalewassaidtoamounttothevalueofL40，000perannum，butithasbeengreatlyreducedsince。
　　Amodeofapplyingmanufacturingprocessestothepreparationofblack-leadisdescribedbyDr。
　　UreasbeingadoptedinParis。Themineral，beingreducedtoafinepowder，ismixedwithverypurepowderedclay，andthetwoarecalcinedinacrucibleatawhiteheat；theproportionofclayemployedisgreaterasthepencilisrequiredtobeharder，theaveragebeingequalpartsofboth。Theingredientsaregroundwithamulleronaporphyryslabandthenmadeintoballs，whicharepreservedinamoistatmosphereintheformofpaste。Thepasteispressedintogroovescutinasmoothboard，andanotherboard，previouslygreased，ispresseddownuponit。Whenthepastehashadtimetodry，themouldorgroovedboardisputintoamoderatelyheatedoven，bywhichthepaste，nowintheformofsquarepencils，shrinkssufficientlytofalloutofthegrooves。Inordertogivesoliditytothepencilstheyaresetuprightinacrucibleandsurroundedwithpoundedcharcoal，finesand，orsiftedashes；thecrucible，beingcovered，isexposedtoadegreeofheatproportionatetothehardnessrequiredinthepencils，theharderpencilsrequiringthehigherdegreeofheat。Someofthepencilsareshapedinacuriousmanner：modelsofthepencils，madeofiron，arestuckuprightuponanirontray，havingedgesraisedashighastheintendedlengthofthepencils；andametallicalloy，madeoftin，lead，antimonyandbismuthispouredintothesheet-irontray。Whenthealloyhascooled，itisinvertedandshakenofffromthemodel-rods，soastoformamassofmetalperforatedthroughoutwithtubularcavitiescorrespondinginsizewiththeintendedpencilpieces；thepencilpasteisintroducedbypressureintothesecavities，andwhennearlydrythepiecesshrinksufficientlytobeeasilyremovedfromthecavities。
　　Thepencilsjustdescribedarealikethroughoutalltheirthickness，butinthemajorityofEnglishpencilsthereisawoodenholdertocontainanarrowfilamentofblackleadrunningdownthemiddle。Solongagoastheyear1618thismodewasadopted；forSirJohnPettus，whowasdeputygovernoroftheBorrowdalemineunderCharlesII，inhis“FletaMinor。”while，speakingofblack-leadsays，that“Oflateitiscuriouslyformedintocasesofdealorcedarandsosoldasdrypencils，somethingmoreusefulthanpenandink。”Inageneralwaymodernblack-leadpencils，aremadebysawingcedarfirstintolongplanks，andthenintosmallerrods；groovesarecutoutbymeansofacuttingmachinemovedbyafly-
　　wheeltosuchadepthaswillreceiveasmalllayerofblack-lead；thepiecesofthemineralarecutintothinslabsandthenintorodsthesamesizeasthegrooves，intowhichtheyareinserted；thetwohalvesofthecasearethengluedtogether，andthewholeisturnedintoacylindricalformbymeansofaguage。
　　Thekindofpencilcalled“crayon“isamixtureofsomekindofearthwithacoloringsubstance。
　　Theearthemployedissometimeschalk，andatothertimespipe-clay，gypsum，starch-flour，orochre。Thecoloringsubstanceisyellowochre，mineralyellow，chrome，redchalk，vermilion，indigo——indeed，anyoftheusualdrycolors，accordingtothetintrequired。
　　Besidestheearthandthecolor，thereisagummyliquidrequiredtocombinethemtogether；gumarabic，gumtragacanth，andinsomecasesoil，wax，orsuet，areusedasthethirdingredient。Thecrayonsherealludedtoareemployedratherfordrawingthanforwriting，buttheyobviouslybelongtotheclassofpencilsintheirmodeofaction。
　　Theancientsdrewlinesandletterswithwoodenstyles，andafterwardanalloyofleadandtinwasused。Plinyreferstotheuseofleadforrulinglinesonpapyrus。LaMoinecitesadocumentof1387
　　ruledwithgraphite。SlipsofgraphiteinwoodenstickspencilsarementionedbyGesner，ofZurich，in1565；hecreditsEnglandwiththeproduction。TheyaredoubtlesstheproductoftheBorrowdalemine，thenlatelydiscovered。Intheearlypartoftheseventeenthcenturyblack-leadpencilsaredistinctlydescribedbyseveralwriters。TheyarenoticedbyAmbrosinus，1648；spokenofbyPettus，in1683，asinclosedinfirorcedar。
　　RedandblackchalkpencilswereusedinGermanyin1450；infact，fragmentsofchalk，charcoal，andshapedsticksofcoloredmineralshadbeeninusesincetimesprevioustoallhistoricmention。
　　WhenCortezlandedinMexico，in1520，hefoundtheAztecsusinggraphitecrayons，whichwereprobablymadefromamineralfoundinSonora。
　　ThefirmofA。W。Faberarethelargestmanufacturersofleadpencilsintheworld。Theyhavecompiledahistoryofthisimplementofhandwritingwhichtheyhavepermittedmetouseinthestorywhichfollows。
　　Theleadpencilisaninventionofmoderntimes，anditsintroductionmaydeservedlyberankedwiththelargenumberoftechnicalinnovationsinwhichmoreespeciallythelastthreecenturieshavebeensorich；norcanitbedeniedthatpencilshaveplayedanimportantpartinthediffusionofartsandsciencesandinfacilitatingstudyandintellectualintercourse。
　　Totheclassicagesandtheirartthepencil，andingeneraleveryapplicationofleadasawritingmaterial，wasentirelyunknown，anditwasnottilltheadventofthemiddleagesthatitbegantobeusedforthispurpose。Thislead，i。e。metalliclead，however，wasinnowayequivalenttothegraphiteorblack-leadofourpencils，whichareonlyhonoredwiththeprefixof“lead。”owingtotheleadencolorofthewritingdonewiththem。
　　Moreover，inthosedays，leadwasusedexclusivelyforrulingandinnowayforwritingordrawing；itwasemployedintheformofround，sharp-edgeddiscs，similartothosewhich，itissaid，werealreadyusedforthesamepurposeinancientclassictimes。Itisonlywiththedevelopmentandgrowthofmodernpaintingthattracesofpencil-likedrawingsfirstbegintobemet。Atsoearlyaperiodevenasthefourteenthcentury，mentionismadebythemastersofthattime，moreespeciallybythebrothersVanEyck，andagaininthefifteenthcenturybyMenlinkandothers，ofstudiesorcompositionswhichweremadewithaninstrumentsimilartoaleadpencil，uponapaperwithchalkpreparedsurface。
　　Thistypeofdrawingwascommonlyclassedas“silver-
　　style。”aterm，however，whichwasnodoubterroneous，astherecouldbenoquestionoftheuseofpuresilverinthisconnection。
　　InthesamewayitisalsoreportedofthelatermediaevalItalianartiststhattheydrewtheirsubjectsin“silver-style。”uponplanishedfig-treewood，thesurfaceofwhichhadbeenpreparedwiththepowderobtainedfromcalcinedbones，——amethod，however，whichseemsonlytohavebeenemployedinexceptionalinstances。
　　Butinthefourteenthcentury，drawingswerefrequentlydoneinItalywithpencilsconsistingofamixturecastfromleadandtin；thesedrawingscouldeasilybeerasedwithbreadcrumbs。
　　Petrarch’s“Laura“wasportrayedinthismannerbyoneofhiscontemporaries，andthemethodwasstillinvogueinthedaysofMichaelAngelo。FromItalythesepencilssubsequentlyfoundtheirwaytoGermany，butitisnotapparentunderwhatparticularname。InItalyitselftheywerecalled“stili。”theequivalentofthewordstylus。Atnotime，however，dothesevarietiesseemtohavebeenthepredominatingmaterialusedfordrawingpurposes。
　　Inconjunctionwiththese，penswereusedforwritinganddrawing，andatthezenithoftheartperiodofthosedaysblackandredcrayonswerealsousedonalargescale。TheItaliansimportedthebestqualitiesofredcrayonsfromGermany，thebestblackchalkbeingobtainedfromSpain。
　　Vasariwritesofacertainsixteenthcenturyartist，thathewasequallyskillfulinhandlingthestylusorthepen，blackchalkorredcrayon。
　　Itwasthisperiodwhichwitnessedthediscoveryofplumbago，amineralwhichwassoonworkedupintoanentirelynewmaterialforwritinganddrawing，——
　　theleadpencil。
　　Thisdiscovery，whichwasdestinedtoconfersuchgreatbenefitsnotonlyuponpracticallife，butalsouponart，wasmadeinEnglandduringthereignofQueenElizabeth，forintheyear1564thecelebratedblack-leadminesofBorrowdale，inCumberland，werediscovered。Withtheopeningofthismine，thefirstmaterialstepsweretakentoimplantonEnglishsoilaleadpencilindustrywhichinthecourseoftimewastoassumeimportantdimensions。
　　ThefirstleadpencilsaresupposedtohavebeenmanufacturedinEnglandinthesecondhalfofthesixteenthcentury。Therawplumbago，or“wad。”asitwaslocallytermed，wassubjectedtothefollowingtreatment：“Onreachingthesurfaceitwassawnintostripsoftherequiredsize，andthese，withoutanyfurthermanipulation，wereinsertedintothewood。
　　Strangethoughitmayappear，theleadpencilsfirstmanufacturedinthismannerareacknowledgedtohavebeenthebest——andevenatthebeginningofthepresentcenturytheyremainedunsurpasseduponthescoreofthesoftnessandfinetoneofthelead。AlthoughtheCumberlandleadpencilswereingreatdemandowingtothefactthattheywerethefirsttosuccessfullymeetalong-feltwant，theyneverthelessowedtheirpermanentandwide-spreadreputation——
　　moreespeciallyinartisticcircles——totheirexcellentquality。
　　Towardstheendofthelastcenturytheblack-leadpencilindustrywasintroducedintoFrance，wherewithsomerestrictionsitsoondeveloped。
　　Withtheremovalofallrestrictionsonindustrialfreedomin1795，theideawasentertainedofusingclayasabindingmediumforblack-lead。Thismethodofferedseveraladvantages，fornotonlydidtheadditionofclaycauseasavingofalargepercentageofthevaluablemineral，butitgreatlyfacilitatedthemethodofmanufacture，sothatleadpencilscouldnowbeofferedatgreatlyreducedprices。
　　BytheseimprovementsanewerainthemanufactureofleadpencilswasbeguninFrance。Still，thereremainedmuchtobedoneinthefieldofblack-
　　leadpencilmakinginordertodojusticetotheincreasingdemandsofartandtherequirementsofmorecivilizedlife。
　　Itistrue，differentkindsofleadpencilsofvariousdegreeswereproduced，buttheydidnotcomplybyalongwaywiththedifferentusesforwhichtheywereneeded。Themanipulationofthebrittlematerialrequirednotonlydeepstudy，butalsoconscientiousandskillfulworkmen，inordertoimpartthenecessarystandardofperfectiontotheleadpencil。
　　AmongthevariousGermanindustriesthemanufactureofblack-leadpencilsoccupiedbutaverymodestplace。
　　ThefirsttracesofitsexistencearetobefoundatStein，avillagenotfarfromNuremberg。Asfarbackastheyear1726thechurchregistersmentionmarriagesbetween“black-leadpencilmakers。”and，atalaterdatereferencesarefoundinthesameregistersto“black-leadcutters“ofbothsexes。
　　Themanufactureofblack-leadpencils，however，occupiedapositionontheverylowestrungoftheindustrialladder。
　　ButistimeproceededtheBavariangovernmentdirectedtheirattentiontothisbranchofindustry，anddidallintheirpowertoencourageit；and，asearlyastheyear1766，aCountvonKronsfeldobtainedaconcessiontoestablishaleadpencilfactoryatJettenbach。Lateron，intheyear1816，theBavariangovernmentestablishedaroyalleadpencilmanufactoryatObernzellHafnerzell，andintroducedintoittheFrenchprocess，describedabove，ofusingclayasabindingmediumforgraphite。
　　CHAPTERXXVIII。
　　ANCIENTINKBACKGROUNDSTHEORIGINOFPAPYRUS。
　　FROMWHENCECOMESTHENAMEPAPER——FIRSTCENTURY
　　COMMENTABOUTIT——KNIGHT’SCOMMENTSMORETHAN
　　1，800YEARSLATER——PAPYRUSANEGYPTIAN
　　REED——NAMESBESTOWEDBYANCIENTWRITERS——THE
　　SAMENAMESASEMPLOYEDINMODERNTIMES——LEAVES
　　OFPLANTSPRECEDEDTHEINVENTIONOFPAPYRUS——
　　WHENITWASTHATROLLEDRECORDSCAMEINTO
　　VOGUE——VARRO’SESTIMATIONASTOTHEORIGINALUSE
　　OFPAPYRUSNOTCORRECT——REALFACTSRESPECTING
　　THEINTRODUCTIONOFPAPYRUSBEYONDTHELIMITSOF
　　EGYPT——CHARACTEROFMATERIALSEMPLOYEDBYTHE
　　GREEKSBEFORETHATEPOCH——EMPLOYMENTOFIT
　　FORLITERARYPURPOSES——ADOPTIONOFPARCHMENT
　　ANDVELLUM——PAPYRUSMSS。EMPLOYEDINTHEFORM
　　OFROLLSANDTHEREASONFORSAME——ANCIENT
　　MANUFACTUREOFPAPYRUSINEGYPT——SOMEOFTHENAMES
　　USEDTODESIGNATEDIFFERENTKINDS——PLINY’S
　　DESCRIPTIONOFTHEMANUFACTUREOFPAPYRUSANDHIS
　　MISINFORMATIONABOUTIT——WHEREITFLOURISHED
　　BEST——PAPYRUSASKNOWNTOTHEHEBREWSANDITS
　　BIBLICALMENTION——MANUFACTUREOFPAPYRUSIN
　　THEANCIENTCITYOFMEMPHIS——CHARACTERISTICSOF
　　THEPAPEREMPLOYEDBYTHEMEXICANS——MR。HARRIS’S
　　DISCOVERYOFANCIENTFRAGMENTSOFPAPYRUS——
　　THESTORYABOUTITASTOLDBYTHELONDON
　　ATHENaeUM——DATESOFTHEOLDESTKNOWNSPECIMENS
　　OFGREEKPAPYRI——DATEOFTHEFIRSTDISCOVERY
　　OFGREEKPAPYRI——USEOFOTHERPLIABLEMATERIALS
　　WITHPAPYRUS——HOWTHEYWEREPREPARED
　　FORWRITINGPURPOSES——DOUBTSASTOTIMETHAT
　　ROLLEDRECORDSSUPERSEDEDTABLETFORMS——SUGGESTIONS
　　BYNOELHUMPHREYS——VIEWSENTERTAINED
　　BYEARLIERWRITERS。
　　THEnamepaperisderivedfrompapyrus，areedgrowninEgypt，whosestalkfurnishedforsomanycenturiestheprincipalmaterialforwritingupontothepeopleofthatcountryandthoseborderingontheMediterraneanSea。InthefirstcenturyoftheChristianeratheyoungerPlinyremarks：
　　“Alltheusagesofcivilizedlifedependinaremarkabledegreeupontheemploymentofpaper。
　　Atallevents，theremembranceofpastevents。”
　　AstatementwhichhascausedMr。Knighttomakethefollowingcomment：
　　“Thisobservation，undoubtedlytrue1，800yearsago，ismuchmoreremarkablysonow；indeed，inconsideringthatpaperaswenowunderstanditwasentirelyunknowntoEuropeinthetimeofPliny，theexpressionofthegreatdependenceuponwhatseemstoussofragileandinefficientasubstituteforrealpaperappearsstrange。”
　　Mr。KnightalsosaysthattheGreeknamepapuros，mentionedbyTheophrastus，acontemporaryofAristotleandAlexander，wasprobablytheEgyptiannameofthereedwithaGreektermination。ItwasalsocalledbiblosbyHomerandHerodotus，whenceourtermbible。Thetermvolumen，ascroll，indicatestheearlyformofabookofbark，papyrus，skin，orparchment，asthetermliberLatin，abook，ortheinnerbarkofatreedoestheuseofthebarkitself。Hencealsoourtermslibraryandlibrarian。“Book“isalsoderivedfromtheDanishwordbog，thebarkofthebeech。
　　PlinyquotingVarro，whoprecededhimsometwocenturies，assertsthatbeforetheinventionofpapyrus，thelargeleavesofcertainplantswerepreparedsothattheycouldbewrittenupon。Henceoriginatesourterm“leaves“ofabookwhichintheLatinformfoliumhasalsogivenusthemoderntermfolio。
　　When，however，thereedpenandthepencilbrushandtheirkindredsubstancesdenominatedcoloredliquidsorinks，cameintovogue，somematerialonwhichcharacterscouldbeinscribedandpreservedintheshapeofcontinuousrollsforrecordandotherusesbecamenecessary。Thepapyrusplantseemstohavemeteveryrequirement。Itisanoteworthyfactthatallinformationwhichcanbederivedfromanysource，specificallycallsattentiontopapyrusandsometimestheinnerbarksoftreesasbeingcoexistentwithpenandink。
　　Varrohasbeencreditedwithmanystatementswhichinthelightofinvestigationanddiscoveryareprovedtobeincorrect。OneoftheseisineffectthattheuseofpapyruswasanincidentpertainingtotheexpeditionsofAlexandertheGreat。ThisassertionisnotonlycontradictedbyPliny，thehistorian，whocallsattentionto“booksofpapyrusfoundinthetombofNuma“NumaPompilius，thesecondkingofRome，B。C。716-672，butevenatthislatedaymanymonumentsofancientpapyriarestillextantandbelongingtoperiodsmorethanathousandyearsbeforeAlexander’stime。
　　Therealfactsinrespecttothismatterare，thattheintroductionoftheuseofpapyrustonationsbeyondthelimitsofEgyptwasaneventthatdidnottakeplaceuntilafterthereignofthefirstMacedoniansovereignofEgypt，PtolemyLagusB。C。323when，inreturnforGreekliterature，Egyptgavebackherpapyrus。BeforethisepochtheGreekshadbeeninthehabitofemployingsuchmaterialsaslinen，wax，barkandleavesforordinarywritingpurposes，whiletheirpublicrecordswereinscribedonstone，brass，leadorothermetals。
　　Papyrusasthenintroducedintothosewesterncountrieswastheonlysubstanceforalongperiodemployedforliterarypurposes。
　　Parchmentandvellum，whichwereadoptedthereaswritingmaterialsabouttwocenturieslater，weretoocostlytobeusedsolongaspapyruswaswithinreach。
　　WhentheuseofthisancientpaperhadbecomeestablishedinthecountriesborderingontheMediterranean，alltheMSS。assumedtheformofrolls，beingrolledoncylindersofwood，ivory，bronze，glassandothersubstances。Sometimes，theendsweredecoratedbyvariousornaments。Asaruleonlyonesideofthematerialwaswrittenupon。Thiswasduelargelytothefactofitsbrittlecharacterwhichwouldcauseittobreakifrolledorbentthewrongway。
　　TheancientmanufactureofpapyrusforexportwascarriedoninEgyptonanextensivescaleandinthemostsystematicmanner。Agradualimprovementinqualitywastheresult，someofthekindsbeinggivenwell-knownRomannameswhicharementionedbycontemporarywriters。ThekindemployedbytheRomansforordinaryusewasdesignatedCharta。Moreexpensivequalitieswereknownas“Augusta。”“Livinia。”“Hieratica。”etc。，thelatterbeingreservedforreligiousbooks。Somekindsweresoldbyweightandemployedbythetradesmenforwrappingpurposes，whilethebarkoftheplantwasmanufacturedintocordandrope。
　　ThemethodsofthemanufactureofpapyrusasawritingmaterialPlinyundertakestodescribeatgreatlength，andwhileheassertsmanythingsfromprobableknowledgeandtheinformationathandinhistime，yetheisnotalwayscorrect。Hesaysthatthereedstalkswerecutintolengthsandseparated“bysplittingthesuccessivefoldsofthestalkwithafinemetalpoint。”
　　Mr。Knight，whoinvestigatedthismatterwithcare，isauthorityforthestatement，thatthepapyrusstalkasseenunderthemicroscopeshowsthatitdoesnotpossesssuccessivefolds，butisatriangularstalkwithasingleenvelopewithapithontheinside，whichcouldonlybedividedintosliceswithaknife，eitherinstripesofawidthpermittedbythesidesoftheprism，orelseshavedroundandround，liketheoperationofcorkmaking，andproducingalongspiralshaving。
　　InthedescriptionwhichPlinygivesofthevarioushomesofthisplantinEgypt，hecallsparticularattentiontoitsabundanceinmarshyplaceswheretheNileoverflowsandstagnates：“Itgrowslikeagreatbulrushfromfibrous，reedyroots，andrunsupinseveraltriangularstalkstoaconsiderableheight。”
　　Theypossessedlargetuftedheads，butonlythestemwasfitformakingintopaper。Afterthepelliclesorthincoatswereremovedfromthestalk，theywerelaidupontablestwoormoreovereachotherandgluedtogetherwiththemuddyandglutinouswateroftheNileorwithfinepastemadeofwheatflour；
　　afterbeingpressedanddriedtheyweremadesmoothwitharulerandthenrubbedoverwithaglasshemisphere。
　　Thesizeofthepaperseldomexceededtwofeet。
　　PapyruswasalsoknowntotheHebrews。
　　TheProphetIsaiahB。C。752referstothisplantwhenhesays：
　　“Thepaperreedsbythebrooks，andeverythingsownbythebrooks，shallwither，bedrivenawayandbenomore。”
　　Whichpredictionseemstohavebeenlongagofulfilledastheplantisnowexceedinglyrare。
　　ThemanufactureofEgyptianpaperfrompapyrusitissaidwasquiteanindustryintheancientcityofMemphismorethansixhundredyearsbeforetheChristianera。
　　TheMexicansemployedforwritingapaperwhichsomewhatresembledtheEgyptianpapyrus。Itwaspreparedfromthealoe，calledbythenativesMagueywhichgrowswildoverthetablelandsofMexico。Itcouldbeeasilycoloredandseemedtobindtoinkveryclosely。Itcouldberolledupinscrollsjustlikethemoreancientrollsofpapyrus。
　　Thefollowingaccountofaninterestingdiscoveryofafragmentofoneofthe“OrationsofHyperides。”
　　byMr。Harris，thewell-knownOrientalscholar，isderivedfromtheLondonAthenaeum：
　　“Inthewinterof1847Mr。Harriswassittinginhisboat，undertheshadeofthewell-knownsycamore，onthewesternbankoftheNile，atThebes，readytostartforNubia，whenanArabbroughthimafragmentofapapyrusroll，whichheventuredtoopensufficientlytoascertainthatitwaswrittenintheGreeklanguage，andwhichheboughtbeforeproceedingfurtheronhisjourney。
　　UponhisreturntoAlexandria，wherecircumstancesweremorefavorabletothedifficultoperationofunrollingafragilepapyrus，hediscoveredthatbepossessedafragmentoftheorationofHyperidesagainstDemosthenes，inthematterofHarpalus，andalsoaverysmallfragmentofanotheroration，thewholewritteninextremelylegiblecharacters，andofaformorfashionwhichthoselearnedinGreekMSS。considertobeofthetimeofthePtolemies。WiththeseinterestingfragmentsoforationsofanoratorsocelebratedisHyperides，ofwhoseworksnothing，isextantbutafewquotationsinotherGreekwriters，heembarkedforEngland。
　　UponhisarrivaltherehesubmittedthepreciousrelicstotheinspectionoftheCouncilandmembersoftheRoyalSocietyofLiterature，whowereunanimousintheirjudgmentastotheimportanceandgenuinenessoftheMSS。；andMr。Harrisimmediatelysettowork，andwithhisownhandmadealithographicfacsimileofeachpiece。OfthisperformanceafewcopieswereprintedanddistributedamongthesavantsofEurope，——andMr。HarrisreturnedtoAlexandria，whencehehasmademorethanonejourneytoThebesinthehopeofdiscoveringsomeotherportionofthevolume，ofwhichhealreadyhadapart。Inthesameyear1847
　　anotherEnglishgentleman，Mr。JosephArden，ofLondon，boughtatThebesapapyrus，whichhelikewisebroughttoEngland。InducedbythesuccessofMr。Harris，Mr。ArdensubmittedhisrolltotheskilfulandexperiencedhandsofMr。
　　Hogarth；anduponthecompletionoftheoperationofunrolling，theMSS。wasdiscoveredtobetheterminatingportionoftheverysamevolumeofwhichMr。Harrishadboughtafragmentoftheformerpartintheverysameyear，andprobablyoftheverysameArabs。Nodoubtnowexistedthatthevolume，whenentire，consistedofacollectionof，oraselectionfrom，theorationsofthecelebratedAthenianorator，Hyperides。
　　“TheportionofthevolumewhichhasfallenintothepossessionofMr。Ardencontains’fifteencontinuouscolumnsofthe“OrationforLycophron。”
　　towhichworkthreeofMr。Harris’sfragmentsappertained；
　　andlikewisethe“OrationforEuxenippus。”
　　whichisquitecompleteandinbeautifulpreservation。Whether，asMr。Babingtonobservesinhisprefacetothework，anymorescrapsofthe“OrationforLycophron“orofthe“OrationagainstDemosthenes“remaintobediscovered，eitherinThebesorelsewhere，maybedoubtful，butiscertainlyworththeinquiryoflearnedtravellers。’
　　Thecondition，however，ofthefragmentsobtainedbyMr。Harrisbuttoosignificantlyindicatethehopelessnessofsuccess。Thescrollhadevidentlybeenmorefrequentlyrolledandunrolledinthatparticularpart，namely，thespeechofHyperidesinamatterofsuchpeculiarinterestasthatinvolvingthehonorofthemostcelebratedoratorofantiquity；ithadbeenmorereadandhadbeenmorethumbedbyancientfingersthananyotherspeechinthewholevolume；andhencetheterriblegapbetweenMr。Harris’sandMr。Arden’sportionsThosewhoareacquaintedwiththebrittle，friablenatureofarollofpapyrusinthedryclimateofThebes，afterbeingburiedtwothousandyearsormoreandthencomingfirstintothehandsofaruthlessArab，who，perhaps，hadrudelysnatcheditoutofthesarcophagusofthemummiedscribe，willwellunderstandhowdilapidationsoccur。
　　Itfrequentlyhappensthatasingleroll，orpossiblyanentirebox，ofsuchfragiletreasuresisfoundinthetombofsomeancientphilologistormanoflearning，andthatthepossessionisimmediatelydisputedbythecompanyofArabswhomayhaveembarkedontheventure。Tosettlethedispute，whenthereisnotascrollforeachmemberofthecompany，anequitabledivisionismadebydividingthepapyrusanddistributingtheportions。
　　Thus，inthisvolumeofHyperides，itseemsthatithasfallenintotwopiecesattheplacewhereithadmostusuallybeenopened，andwhere，alas！itwouldhavebeenmostdesirabletohavekeptitwhole；andthatthesmallerfragmentshavebeenlostamidthedustandrubbishoftheexcavation，whilethetwoextremitieshavebeenmadedistinctproperties，whichhavebeensold，aswehaveseen，toseparatecollectors。So，atallevents，suchmattersaremanagedatThebes。
　　“Mr。Harrismentionsfragmentsofthe’Iliad，’
　　whichhehadpurchasedofsomeoftheArabdisturbersofthedeadinthesacredcemeteriesofMiddleEgypt，mostprobablySaccara。”
　　TheoldestknownspecimensoftheGreekpapyriandwhichwerefoundinEgypt，havearangeofonethousandyears；thatis，fromthethirdcenturyB。C。
　　totheseventhcenturyA。D。
　　ThefirstdiscoveryofGreekpapyriwasmadeatHerculaneumin1752。Papyrus，however，inthemostancient，periodswasnottheonlypliablematerialusedtowriteonwhichcouldberolledoncylinders。
　　Linenorcloth，whichhadbeenfirsttreatedwithsubstanceswhichfilledtheintersticesandcharacteristicofouroil-cloth，theinnerbarkofcertaintrees，orinfactanymaterialwhichwouldreceiveinkandrollaroundacylinderwasinvogue。ThisformofmanuscriptwaslatertermedbytheRomansrolles，torollround，ormorecommonlyvolvere，torollover。
　　Itisnotcertain，however，thatthischaracterofmanuscriptimmediatelysupersededthetabletformofrecordsinscribedonwoodormetal。NoelHumphreysisoneofseveraltosuggest：
　　“Thereferencetothe’penofareadywriter，’
　　mentionedinthePsalmsofDavidB。C。1086-
　　1016couldscarcelybethesharppoint，orstilus，bymeansofwhichcharacterswereengraveduponwoodormetal，butratherthecalamusorjuncas，usedforwritingwithadarkfluiduponbarkorlinen。ThewordvolumeindeedoccursinPsalmsxxxix。，andthesevoluminaorvolumesmusthavebeeneitherrollsofleaves，orbark，orEgyptianpapyrus。”
　　SomewriterslikeCasley，Purcelli，Haygen，Calmet，andothers，whoalsomoreorlessdiscussthissubject，donotviewitentirelythesame。
　　CHAPTERXXIX。
　　ANCIENTINKBACKGROUNDSPARCHMENTANDVELLUM。
　　THEPERGAMUSLIBRARYCOMPOSEDPRINCIPALLYOF
　　PARCHMENTVOLUMES——CAUSESWHICHCONTRIBUTED
　　TOTHESUBSTITUTIONOFPARCHMENTFORPAPYRUS——
　　ANECDOTEABOUTEUMENESANDPTOLEMYPHILADELPHUS——
　　INVENTIONOFMETHODWHICHMADESKINS
　　AVAILABLEFORFLUIDINKWRITING——INTRODUCTION
　　OFDRESSEDSKINSTHEFIRSTSTEPTOWARDSTHE
　　MODERNFORMOFBOOKS——WHENPARCHMENTAND
　　VELLUMSUPERSEDEDOTHERSUBSTANCESASAGENERAL
　　MATERIALFORWRITINGUPON——MANUFACTURE
　　OFBARKPAPERPREVIOUSTOTHEINTRODUCTIONOF
　　THELINENPAPEROFTHEEAST——SOMEOBSERVATIONS
　　ABOUTCHINESEPAPER——ALLUSIONSOFCLASSICAL
　　WRITERSTOINSCRIPTIONSONSKINSANDDISCOVERY
　　OFSPECIMENS——EMPLOYMENTOFPARCHMENTBYTHE
　　HEBREWS——OLDSCRIPTURALMSS。DISCOVEREDON
　　PARCHMENT——NAMESOFTHEMOSTVALUABLENEW
　　TESTAMENTCODICES——STORYOFTHEDISCOVERYOF
　　THESINAITICCODEXASTOLDBYMADAN——ASSERTION
　　OFSIMONIDESTHATHEFORGEDIT——PAMLIMPSESTS
　　THELINKBETWEENCLASSICALTIMESANDTHEMIDDLE
　　AGES——OBSERVATIONSABOUTTHEMANDSOMEDISCOVERIES
　　OFTHEMOREFAMOUSONES——USEOFPAPYRUS，PARCHMENTANDVELLUMTOGETHERINMSS。
　　BOOKS——OBSERVATIONSBYTHOMPSON——CHARACTER
　　OFTHEROLLSANDRECORDSBELONGINGTOEARLY
　　PARLIAMENTARYTIMESINENGLAND——COMPARATIVE
　　METHODSOFTHEIRPREPARATION——MODESOFDEPOSITING
　　ANDCARRYINGANCIENTENGLISHRECORDS——
　　METHODOFFINDINGPARTICULARDOCUMENTS——
　　THEINDIVIDUALSWHOHANDLEDTHEBOOKSOFTHOSE
　　EPOCHS——CITATIONSFROMKNIGHT’S“LIFEOF
　　CAXTON“——REMARKSBYWARTON——EXPENSEACCOUNTOF
　　SIRJOHNHOWARD——METHODSOFTHETRANSCRIBERS
　　ANDLIMNERSOFTHOSETIMES——MODERNMETHODS
　　OFPREPARINGPARCHMENTANDVELLUM——CITATION
　　FROMTHEPENNYCYCLOPaeDIA——PASSAGEFROMA
　　SERMONOFTHEARCHBISHOPOFTOURS——ANECDOTE
　　ABOUTTHECOUNTOFNEVERS。
　　THEgreatabundanceofpapyrusinEgypt，thechiefsourceofitssupply，thegeniusandmagnificenceoftherulersofthatcountry，andthearmyoflearnedmenwhoresortedthither，causedittobecometheprincipalhomeofthoseimmenselibrariesofantiquityalreadymentionedashavingperishedbyfireandtumultsincludedinperiodsbetweenB。C。48andA。D。640。
　　ThePergamuslibrarywhichwasdepositedbyCleopatra，B。C。32，inthecityofAlexandria，issaidtohavebeencomposedalmostwhollyofparchmentwrittenvolumes。Thereasonorcauseofsuchemployment，ofparchmentinpreferencetopapyrusisattributedtojealousiesexistingbetweenEumenes，KingofPergamus，andPtolemyPhiladelphus，therulerofEgypt，contemporariesofeachother。
　　ThisPtolemy，B。C。202，issuedanedictprohibitingtheexportationofpapyrusfromEgypt，andhopedtherebytoridhimselfofforeignrivalsintheformationoflibraries；alsothathemightneverbesubjecttotheinconvenienceofwantingpaperforthemultitudeofscribeswhomhekeptconstantlyemployed，bothtowriteoriginalmanuscriptsaswellastomultiplythembyduplication。
　　BeforethisperiodtheexportationofpapyrushadbeenaveryconsiderablearticleofEgyptiancommerce，butthereafteritbecamemuchcurtailed，andaboutA。D。950hadceasedaltogether。
　　Eumenes，itappears，wasnottobedeterredfromhisfavoritestudyandpastime，soliecontrivedapeculiarmodeofdressingskins，whichseemstohaveansweredveryfullytherequirementsoffluid-inkwritingmethodsandthusavoidingthenecessityofemployingpaints，theonlymaterialwhichwould“bind“toundressedparchmentskins。
　　ThattherefinedandluxuriousRomans，aftertheintroductionofparchment，vellum，andpaper，insistedonanimprovementinqualityandappearanceiscertain。
　　Thisappearsfromvariouspassagesintheirbestauthors。
　　Ovid，writingtoRomefromhisplaceofexile，complainsbitterlythathislettermustbesentplain，simple，andwithoutthecustomaryembellishments。
　　Wecansafelydatethefirststeptowardsthemodernformofbookstotheintroductionofdressedskinsparchmentandvellum，assurfacestoreceiveinkwriting。Thesematerialscouldbeformedintoleaves，insteadofmetal，wood，ivory，orwaxtablets，ausetowhichpapyruscouldnotbeputonaccountofitsbrittleness。
　　Thusoriginatedthelibriquadrali，orsquarebooks，whicheventuallysupersededtheancientvoluminarolls。
　　ParchmentandvellumgraduallysupersededallothersubstancesinEuropeasageneralmaterialforwritingupon，afterthethirdorfourthcentury。
　　Theemploymentofpapyrus，however，inecclesiasticalcenterscontinuedevenaslateastheeleventhcentury。
　　AkindofbarkpaperwasmanufacturedinEuropeprevioustotheintroductionoflinen“cotton。”
　　“Bombycina“paperfromtheEast。TheancientChinesemadevariouskindsofpaperandhadamethodofproducingpiecessometimesfortyfeetinlength。TheChineserecord，called“Soukientchipou。”statesthatakindofpaperwasmadefromhemp，andanotherauthorityDuHaldeobserves，“thatoldpiecesofwovenhempwerefirstmadeintopaperinthatcountryaboutA。D。95，byagreatmandarinofthepalace。”LinenragswereafterwardsemployedbytheChinese。
　　Theintroductionof“linen“paperintoEuropedidnotmateriallyaffectorinterferewiththeuseofparchmentorvellumuntilaftertheinventionofprintinginthefifteenthcentury。