21
Toturntoquadrupeds，thepigsuffersfromthreediseases，oneofwhichiscalledbranchos，adiseaseattendedwithswellingsaboutthewindpipeandthejaws。Itmaybreakoutinanypartofthebody；
veryoftenitattacksthefoot，andoccasionallytheear；theneighbouringpartsalsosoonrot，andthedecaygoesonuntilitreachesthelungs，whentheanimalsuccumbs。Thediseasedevelopswithgreatrapidity，andthemomentitsetsintheanimalgivesupeating。Theswineherdsknowbutonewaytocureit，namely，bycompleteexcision，whentheydetectthefirstsignsofthedisease。
Therearetwootherdiseases，whicharebothaliketermedcraurus。Theoneisattendedwithpainandheavinessinthehead，andthisisthecommonerofthetwo，theotherwithdiarrhoea。Thelatterisincurable，theformeristreatedbyapplyingwinefomentationstothesnoutandrinsingthenostrilswithwine。Eventhisdiseaseisveryhardtocure；ithasbeenknowntokillwithinthreeorfourdays。Theanimalischieflysubjecttobranchoswhenitgetsextremelyfat，andwhentheheathasbroughtagoodsupplyoffigs。Thetreatmentistofeedonmashedmulberries，togiverepeatedwarmbaths，andtolancetheunderpartofthetongue。
Pigswithflabbyflesharesubjecttomeaslesaboutthelegs，neck，andshoulders，forthepimplesdevelopchieflyintheseparts。
Ifthepimplesarefewinnumberthefleshiscomparativelysweet，butiftheybenumerousitgetswateryandflaccid。Thesymptomsofmeaslesareobvious，forthepimplesshowchieflyontheundersideofthetongue，andifyoupluckthebristlesoffthechinetheskinwillappearsuffusedwithblood，andfurthertheanimalwillbeunabletokeepitshind-feetatrest。Pigsnevertakethisdiseasewhiletheyaremeresucklings。Thepimplesmaybegotridofbyfeedingonthiskindofspeltcalledtiphe；andthisspelt，bytheway，isverygoodforordinaryfood。Thebestfoodforrearingandfatteningpigsischickpeasandfigs，buttheonethingessentialistovarythefoodasmuchaspossible，forthisanimal，likeanimalsingenerallightsinachangeofdiet；anditissaidthatonekindoffoodblowstheanimalout，thatanothersuperinducesflesh，andthatanotherputsonfat，andthatacorns，thoughlikedbytheanimal，renderthefleshflaccid。Besides，ifasoweatsacornsingreatquantities，itwillmiscarry，asisalsothecasewiththeewe；and，indeed，themiscarriageismorecertaininthecaseoftheewethaninthecaseofthesow。Thepigistheonlyanimalknowntobesubjecttomeasles。
22
Dogssufferfromthreediseases；rabies，quinsy，andsorefeet。
Rabiesdrivestheanimalmad，andaryanimalwhatever，exceptingman，willtakethediseaseifbittenbyadogsoafflicted；thediseaseisfataltothedogitself，andtoanyanimalitmaybite，manexcepted。Quinsyalsoisfataltodogs；andonlyafewrecoverfromdiseaseofthefeet。Thecamel，likethedog，issubjecttorabies。
Theelephant，whichisreputedtoenjoyimmunityfromallotherillnesses，isoccasionallysubjecttoflatulency。
23
Cattleinherdsareliabletotwodiseases，foot，sicknessandcraurus。Intheformertheirfeetsufferfromeruptions，buttheanimalrecoversfromthediseasewithouteventhelossofthehoof。Itisfoundofservicetosmearthehornypartswithwarmpitch。Incraurus，thebreathcomeswarmatshortintervals；infact，craurusincattleanswerstofeverinman。Thesymptomsofthediseasearedroopingoftheearsanddisinclinationforfood。Theanimalsoonsuccumbs，andwhenthecarcaseisopenedthelungsarefoundtoberotten。
24
Horsesoutatpasturearefreefromalldiseasesexceptingdiseaseofthefeet。Fromthisdiseasetheysometimeslosetheirhooves:butafterlosingthemtheygrowthemsoonagain，forasonehoofisdecayingitisbeingreplacedbyanother。Symptomsofthemaladyareasinkinginandwrinklingofthelipinthemiddleunderthenostrils，andinthecaseofthemale，atwitchingoftherighttesticle。
Stall-rearedhorsesaresubjecttoverynumerousformsofdisease。
Theyareliabletodiseasecalled'eileus'。Underthisdiseasetheanimaltrailsitshind-legsunderitsbellysofarforwardasalmosttofallbackonitshaunches；ifitgoeswithoutfoodforseveraldaysandturnsrabid，itmaybeofservicetodrawblood，ortocastratethemale。Theanimalissubjectalsototetanus:theveinsgetrigid，asalsotheheadandneck，andtheanimalwalkswithitslegsstretchedoutstraight。Thehorsesuffersalsofromabscesses。Anotherpainfulillnessafflictsthemcalledthe'barley-surfeit'。Theareasofteningofthepalateandheatofthebreath；theanimalmayrecoverthroughthestrengthofitsownconstitution，butnoformalremediesareofanyavail。
Thereisalsoadiseasecallednymphia，inwhichtheanimalissaidtostandstillanddroopitsheadonhearingflute-music；ifduringthisailmentthehorsebemounted，itwillrunoffatagallopuntilitispulled。Evenwiththisrabiesinfullforce，itpreservesadejectedspiritlessappearance；someofthesymptomsareathrowingbackoftheearsfollowedbyaprojectionofthem，greatlanguor，andheavybreathing。Heart-achealsoisincurable，ofwhichthesymptomisadrawinginoftheflanks；andsoisdisplacementofthebladder，whichisaccompaniedbyaretentionofurineandadrawingupofthehoovesandhaunches。Neitheristhereanycureiftheanimalswallowthegrape-beetle，whichisaboutthesizeofthesphondyleorknuckle-beetle。Thebiteoftheshrewmouseisdangeroustohorsesandotherdraughtanimalsaswell；itisfollowedbyboils。Thebiteisallthemoredangerousifthemousebepregnantwhenshebites，fortheboilsthenburst，butdonotburstotherwise。Thecicigna-called'chalcis'bysome，and'zignis'byothers-eithercausesdeathbyitsbiteor，atallevents，intensepain；itislikeasmalllizard，withthecolouroftheblindsnake。
Inpointoffact，accordingtoexperts，thehorseandthesheephaveprettywellasmanyailmentsasthehumanspecies。Thedrugknownunderthenameof'sandarace'orrealgar，isextremelyinjurioustoahorse，andtoalldraughtanimals；itisgiventotheanimalasamedicineinasolutionofwater，theliquidbeingfilteredthroughacolander。Themarewhenpregnantapttomiscarrywhendisturbedbytheodourofanextinguishedcandle；andasimilaraccidenthappensoccasionallytowomenintheirpregnancy。Somuchforthediseasesofthehorse。
Theso-calledhippomanesgrows，ashasstated，onthefoal，andthemarenibblesitoffasshelicksandcleansthefoal。Allthecuriousstoriesconnectedwiththehippomanesareduetooldwivesandtothevendersofcharms。Whatiscalledthe'polium'orfoal'smembrane，is，asalltheaccountsstate，deliveredbythemotherbeforethefoalappears。
Ahorsewillrecognizetheneighingofanyotherhorsewithwhichitmayhavefoughtatanypreviousperiod。Thehorsedelightsinmeadowsandmarshes，andlikestodrinkmuddywater；infact，ifwaterbeclear，thehorsewilltrampleinittomakeitturbid，willthendrinkit，andafterwardswillwallowinit。Theanimalisfondofwaterineveryway，whetherfordrinkingorforbathingpurposes；
andthisexplainsthepeculiarconstitutionofthehippopotamusorriver-horse。Inregardtowatertheoxistheoppositeofthehorse；
forifthewaterbeimpureorcold，ormixedupwithalienmatter，itwillrefusetodrinkit。
25
Theasssufferschieflyfromoneparticulardiseasewhichtheycall'melis'。Itarisesfirstinthehead，andaclammyhumourrunsdownthenostrils，thickandred；ifitstaysintheheadtheanimalmayrecover，butifitdescendsintothelungstheanimalwilldie。Ofallanimalsonitsofitskinditistheleastcapableofenduringextremecold，whichcircumstancewillaccountforthefactthattheanimalisnotfoundontheshoresoftheEuxine，norinScythia。
26
Elephantssufferfromflatulence，andwhenthusafflictedcanvoidneithersolidnorliquidresiduum。Iftheelephantswallowearth-moulditsuffersfromrelaxation；butifitgoontakingitsteadily，itwillexperiencenoharm。Fromtimetotimeittakestoswallowingstones。Itsuffersalsofromdiarrhoea:inthiscasetheyadministerdraughtsoflukewarmwaterordipitsfodderinhoney，andeitheroneortheotherprescriptionwillproveacostive。Whentheysufferfrominsomnia，theywillberestoredtohealthiftheirshouldersberubbedwithsalt，olive-oil，andwarmwater；whentheyhaveachesintheirshoulderstheywillderivegreatbenefitfromtheapplicationofroastpork。Someelephantslikeoliveoil，andothersdonot。Ifthereisabitofironintheinsideofanelephantitissaidthatitwillpassoutiftheanimaltakesadrinkofolive-oil；iftheanimalrefusesolive-oil，theysoakarootintheoilandgiveittheroottoswallow。Somuch，then，forquadrupeds。
27
Insects，asageneralrule，thrivebestinthetimeofyearinwhichtheycomeintobeing，especiallyiftheseasonbemoistandwarm，asinspring。
Inbee-hivesarefoundcreaturesthatdogreatdamagetothecombs；forinstance，thegrubthatspinsawebandruinsthehoneycomb:itiscalledthe'cleros'。Itengendersaninsectlikeitself，ofaspider-shape，andbringsdiseaseintotheswarm。Thereisanotherinsectresemblingthemoth，calledbysomethe'pyraustes'，thatfliesaboutalightedcandle:thiscreatureengendersabroodfullofafinedown。Itisneverstungbyabee，andcanonlybegotoutofahivebyfumigation。Acaterpillaralsoisengenderedinhives，ofaspeciesnicknamedtheteredo，or'borer'，withwhichcreaturethebeeneverinterferes。Beessuffermostwhenflowersarecoveredwithmildew，orinseasonsofdrought。
Allinsects，withoutexception，dieiftheybesmearedoverwithoil；andtheydieallthemorerapidlyifyousmeartheirheadwiththeoilandlaythemoutinthesun。
28
Varietyinanimallifemaybeproducedbyvarietyoflocality:
thusinoneplaceananimalwillnotbefoundatall，inanotheritwillbesmall，orshort-lived，orwillnotthrive。Sometimesthissortofdifferenceisobservedincloselyadjacentdistricts。Thus，intheterritoryofMiletus，inonedistrictcicadasarefoundwhiletherearenoneinthedistrictcloseadjoining；andinCephaleniathereisariverononesideofwhichthecicadaisfoundandnotontheother。InPordoselenethereisapublicroadonesideofwhichtheweaselisfoundbutnotontheother。InBoeotiathemoleisfoundingreatabundanceintheneighbourhoodofOrchomenus，buttherearenoneinLebadiathoughitisintheimmediatevicinity，andifamolebetransportedfromtheonedistricttotheotheritwillrefusetoburrowinthesoil。TheharecannotliveinIthacaifintroducedthere；infactitwillbefounddead，turnedtowardsthepointofthebeachwhereitwaslanded。Thehorseman-antisnotfoundinSicily；thecroakingfroghasonlyrecentlyappearedintheneighbourhoodofCyrene。InthewholeofLibyathereisneitherwildboar，norstag，norwildgoat；andinIndia，accordingtoCtesias-noverygoodauthority，bytheway-therearenoswine，wildortame，butanimalsthataredevoidofbloodandsuchasgointohidingorgotorpidareallofimmensesizethere。IntheEuxinetherearenosmallmolluscsnortestaceans，exceptafewhereandthere；butintheRedSeaallthetestaceansareexceedinglylarge。InSyriathesheephavetailsacubitinbreadth；thegoatshaveearsaspanandapalmlong，andsomehaveearsthatflapdowntotheground；andthecattlehavehumpsontheirshoulders，likethecamel。InLyciagoatsareshornfortheirfleece，justassheepareinallothercountries。InLibyathelong-hornedramisbornwithhorns，andnottheramonly，asHomer'wordsit，buttheeweaswell；inPontus，ontheconfinesofScythia，theramiswithouthorns。
InEgyptanimals，asarule，arelargerthantheircongenersinGreece，asthecowandthesheep；butsomeareless，asthedog，thewolf，thehare，thefox，theraven，andthehawk；othersareofprettymuchthesamesize，asthecrowandthegoat。Thedifference，whereitexists，isattributedtothefood，asbeingabundantinonecaseandinsufficientinanother，forinstanceforthewolfandthehawk；forprovisionisscantyforthecarnivorousanimals，smallbirdsbeingscarce；foodisscantyalsoforthehareandforallfrugivorousanimals，becauseneitherthenutsnorthefruitlastlong。
Inmanyplacestheclimatewillaccountforpeculiarities；
thusinIllyria，Thrace，andEpirustheassissmall，andinGaulandinScythiatheassisnotfoundatallowingtothecoldnessoftheclimateofthesecountries。InArabiathelizardismorethanacubitinlength，andthemouseismuchlargerthanourfield-mouse，withitshind-legsaspanlonganditsfrontlegsthelengthofthefirstfinger-joint。InLibya，accordingtoallaccounts，thelengthoftheserpentsissomethingappalling；sailorsspinayarntotheeffectthatsomecrewsonceputashoreandsawthebonesofanumberofoxen，andthattheyweresurethattheoxenhadbeendevouredbyserpents，for，justastheywereputtingouttosea，serpentscamechasingtheirgalleysatfullspeedandoverturnedonegalleyandsetuponthecrew。
Again，lionsaremorenumerousinLibya，andinthatdistrictofEuropethatliesbetweentheAchelousandtheNessus；theleopardismoreabundantinAsiaMinor，andisnotfoundinEuropeatall。Asageneralrule，wildanimalsareattheirwildestinAsia，attheirboldestinEurope，andmostdiverseinforminLibya；infact，thereisanoldsaying，'AlwayssomethingfreshinLibya。'
Itwouldappearthatinthatcountryanimalsofdiversespeciesmeet，onaccountoftherainlessclimate，atthewatering-places，andtherepairtogether；andthatsuchpairswilloftenbreediftheybenearlyofthesamesizeandhaveperiodsofgestationofthesamelength。Foritissaidthattheyaretameddownintheirbehaviourtowardseachotherbyextremityofthirst。
And，bytheway，unlikeanimalselsewhere，theyrequiretodrinkmoreinwintertimethaninsummer:fortheyacquirethehabitofnotdrinkinginsummer，owingtothecircumstancethatthereisusuallynowaterthen；andthemice，iftheydrink，die。Elsewherealsobastard-animalsareborntoheterogeneouspairs；thusinCyrenethewolfandthebitchwillcoupleandbreed；andtheLaconianhoundisacrossbetweenthefoxandthedog。TheysaythattheIndiandogisacrossbetweenthetigerandthebitch，notthefirstcross，butacrossinthethirdgeneration；fortheysaythatthefirstcrossisasavagecreature。Theytakethebitchtoalonelyspotandtieherup:ifthetigerbeinanamorousmoodhewillpairwithher；ifnothewilleatherup，andthiscasualtyisoffrequentoccurrence。
29
Localitywilldifferentiatehabitsalso:forinstance，ruggedhighlandswillnotproducethesameresultsasthesoftlowlands。
Theanimalsofthehighlandslookfiercerandbolder，asisseenintheswineofMountAthos；foralowlandboarisnomatchevenforamountainsow。
Again，localityisanimportantelementinregardtothebiteofananimal。Thus，inPharosandotherplaces，thebiteofthescorpionisnotdangerous；elsewhere-inCaria，forinstances-wherescorpionsarevenomousaswellasplentifulandoflargesize，thestingisfataltomanorbeast，eventothepig，andespeciallytoablackpig，thoughthepig，bytheway，isingeneralmostsingularlyindifferenttothebiteofanyothercreature。IfapiggoesintowaterafterbeingstruckbythescorpionofCaria，itwillsurelydie。
Thereisgreatvarietyintheeffectsproducedbythebitesofserpents。TheaspisfoundinLibya；theso-called'septic'drugismadefromthebodyoftheanimal，andistheonlyremedyknownforthebiteoftheoriginal。Amongthesilphium，also，asnakeisfound，forthebiteorwhichacertainstoneissaidtobeacure:astonethatisbroughtfromthegraveofanancientking，whichstoneisputintowateranddrunkoff。IncertainpartsofItalythebiteofthegeckoisfatal。Butthedeadliestofallbitesofvenomouscreaturesiswhenonevenomousanimalhasbittenanother；as，forinstance，aviper'safterithasbittenascorpion。Tothegreatmajorityofsuchcreaturesman'sisfatal。Thereisaverylittlesnake，bysomeentitledthe'holy-snake'，whichisdreadedbyeventhelargestserpents。Itisaboutanelllong，andhairy-looking；wheneveritbitesananimal，thefleshallroundthewoundwillatoncemortify。ThereisinIndiaasmallsnakewhichisexceptionalinthisrespect，thatforitsbitenospecificwhateverisknown。
30
Animalsalsovaryastotheirconditionofhealthinconnexionwiththeirpregnancy。
Testaceans，suchasscallopsandalltheoyster-family，andcrustaceans，suchasthelobsterfamily，arebestwhenwithspawn。
Eveninthecaseofthetestaceanwespeakofspawningorpregnancy；
butwhereasthecrustaceansmaybeseencouplingandlayingtheirspawn，thisisneverthecasewithtestaceans。Molluscsarebestinthebreedingtime，asthecalamary，thesepia，andtheoctopus。
Fishes，whentheybegintobreed，arenearlyallgoodforthetable；butafterthefemalehasgonelongwithspawntheyaregoodinsomecases，andinothersareoutofseason。Themaenis，forinstance，isgoodatthebreedingtime。Thefemaleofthisfishisround，themalelongerandflatter；whenthefemaleisbeginningtobreedthemaleturnsblackandmottled，andisquiteunfitforthetable；atthisperiodheisnicknamedthe'goat'。
Thewrassescalledtheowzelandthethrush，andthesmarishavedifferentcoloursatdifferentseasons，asisthecasewiththeplumageofcertainbirds；thatistosay，theybecomeblackinthespringandafterthespringgetwhiteagain。Thephycisalsochangesitshue:ingeneralitiswhite，butinspringitismottled；itistheonlysea-fishwhichissaidmakeabedforitself，andthefemalelaysherspawninthisbedornest。Themaenis，aswasobserved，changesitscolourasdoesthesmaris，andinsummer-timechangesbackfromwhitishtoblack，thechangebeingespeciallymarkedaboutthefinsandgills。Thecoracine，likethemaenis，isinbestconditionatbreedingtime；themullet，thebasse，andscalyfishesingeneralareinbadconditionatthisperiod。Afewfishareinmuchthesameconditionatalltimes，whetherwithspawnornot，astheglaucus。Oldfishesalsoarebadeating；theoldtunnyisunfitevenforpickling，asagreatpartofitsfleshwastesawaywithage，andthesamewastingisobservedinalloldfishes。Theageofascalyfishmaybetoldbythesizeandthehardnessofitsscales。Anoldtunnyhasbeencaughtweighingfifteentalents，withthespanofitstailtwocubitsandapalmbroad。
River-fishandlake-fisharebestaftertheyhavedischargedthespawninthecaseofthefemaleandthemiltinthecaseofthemale:thatis，whentheyhavefullyrecoveredfromtheexhaustionofsuchdischarge。Somearegoodinthebreedingtime，asthesaperdis，andsomebad，asthesheat-fish。Asageneralrule，themalefishisbettereatingthanthefemale；butthereverseholdsgoodofthesheat-fish。Theeelsthatarecalledfemalesarethebestforthetable:theylookasthoughtheywerefemale，buttheyreallyarenotso。
BookIX
1
OFtheanimalsthatarecomparativelyobscureandshort-livedthecharactersordispositionsarenotsoobvioustorecognitionasarethoseofanimalsthatarelonger-lived。Theselatteranimalsappeartohaveanaturalcapacitycorrespondingtoeachofthepassions:tocunningorsimplicity，courageortimidity，togoodtemperortobad，andtoothersimilardispositionsofmind。
Somealsoarecapableofgivingorreceivinginstruction-ofreceivingitfromoneanotherorfromman:thosethathavethefacultyofhearing，forinstance；and，nottolimitthemattertoaudiblesound，suchascandifferentiatethesuggestedmeaningsofwordandgesture。
Inallgenerainwhichthedistinctionofmaleandfemaleisfound，Naturemakesasimilardifferentiationinthementalcharacteristicsofthetwosexes。Thisdifferentiationisthemostobviousinthecaseofhumankindandinthatofthelargeranimalsandtheviviparousquadrupeds。Inthecaseoftheselatterthefemalesofterincharacter，isthesoonertamed，admitsmorereadilyofcaressing，ismoreaptinthewayoflearning；as，forinstance，intheLaconianbreedofdogsthefemaleisclevererthanthemale。OftheMolossianbreedofdogs，suchasareemployedinthechaseareprettymuchthesameasthoseelsewhere；butsheep-dogsofthisbreedaresuperiortotheothersinsize，andinthecouragewithwhichtheyfacetheattacksofwildanimals。
Dogsthatarebornofamixedbreedbetweenthesetwokindsareremarkableforcourageandenduranceofhardlabour。
Inallcases，exceptingthoseofthebearandleopard，thefemaleislessspiritedthanthemale；inregardtothetwoexceptionalcases，thesuperiorityincouragerestswiththefemale。
Withallotheranimalsthefemaleissofterindispositionthanthemale，ismoremischievous，lesssimple，moreimpulsive，andmoreattentivetothenurtureoftheyoung:themale，ontheotherhand，ismorespiritedthanthefemale，moresavage，moresimpleandlesscunning。Thetracesofthesedifferentiatedcharacteristicsaremoreorlessvisibleeverywhere，buttheyareespeciallyvisiblewherecharacteristhemoredeveloped，andmostofallinman。
Thefactis，thenatureofmanisthemostroundedoffandcomplete，andconsequentlyinmanthequalitiesorcapacitiesabovereferredtoarefoundintheirperfection。Hencewomanismorecompassionatethanman，moreeasilymovedtotears，atthesametimeismorejealous，morequerulous，moreapttoscoldandtostrike。
Sheis，furthermore，morepronetodespondencyandlesshopefulthantheman，morevoidofshameorself-respect，morefalseofspeech，moredeceptive，andofmoreretentivememory。Sheisalsomorewakeful，moreshrinking，moredifficulttorousetoaction，andrequiresasmallerquantityofnutriment。
Aswaspreviouslystated，themaleismorecourageousthanthefemale，andmoresympatheticinthewayofstandingbytohelp。Eveninthecaseofmolluscs，whenthecuttle-fishisstruckwiththetridentthemalestandsbytohelpthefemale；butwhenthemaleisstruckthefemalerunsaway。
Thereisenmitybetweensuchanimalsasdwellinthesamelocalitiesorsubsistonthefood。Ifthemeansofsubsistencerunshort，creaturesoflikekindwillfighttogether。Thusitissaidthatsealswhichinhabitoneandthesamedistrictwillfight，malewithmale，andfemalewithfemale，untilonecombatantkillstheother，oroneisdrivenawaybytheother；andtheiryoungdoeveninlikemanner。
Allcreaturesareatenmitywiththecarnivores，andthecarnivoreswithalltherest，fortheyallsubsistonlivingcreatures。Soothsayerstakenoticeofcaseswhereanimalskeepapartfromoneanother，andcaseswheretheycongregatetogether；callingthosethatliveatwarwithoneanother'dissociates'，andthosethatdwellinpeacewithoneanother'associates'。Onemaygosofarastosaythatiftherewerenolackorstintoffood，thenthoseanimalsthatarenowafraidofmanorarewildbynaturewouldbetameandfamiliarwithhim，andinlikemannerwithoneanother。ThisisshownbythewayanimalsaretreatedinEgypt，forowingtothefactthatfoodisconstantlysuppliedtothemtheveryfiercestcreatureslivepeaceablytogether。Thefactistheyaretamedbykindness，andinsomeplacescrocodilesaretametotheirpriestlykeeperfrombeingfedbyhim。Andelsewherealsothesamephenomenonistobeobserved。
Theeagleandthesnakeareenemies，fortheeaglelivesonsnakes；soaretheichneumonandthevenom-spider，fortheichneumonpreysuponthelatter。Inthecaseofbirds，thereismutualenmitybetweenthepoecilis，thecrestedlark，thewoodpecker？，andthechloreus，fortheydevouroneanother'seggs；soalsobetweenthecrowandtheowl；for，owingtothefactthattheowlisdim-sightedbyday，thecrowatmiddaypreysupontheowl'seggs，andtheowlatnightuponthecrow's，eachhavingthewhip-handoftheother，turnandturnabout，nightandday。
Thereisenmityalsobetweentheowlandthewren；forthelatteralsodevourstheowl'seggs。Inthedaytimeallotherlittlebirdsflutterroundtheowl-apracticewhichispopularlytermed'admiringhim'-buffethim，andpluckouthisfeathers；inconsequenceofthishabit，bird-catchersusetheowlasadecoyforcatchinglittlebirdsofallkinds。
Theso-calledpresbysor'oldman'isatwarwiththeweaselandthecrow，fortheypreyonhereggsandherbrood；andsotheturtle-dovewiththepyrallis，fortheyliveinthesamedistrictsandonthesamefood；andsowiththegreenwoodpeckerandthelibyus；
andsowithkiteandtheraven，for，owingtohishavingtheadvantagefromstrongertalonsandmorerapidflighttheformercanstealwhateverthelatterisholding，sothatitisfoodalsothatmakesenemiesofthese。Inlikemannerthereiswarbetweenbirdsthatgettheirlivingfromthesea，asbetweenthebrenthus，thegull，andtheharpe；andsobetweenthebuzzardononesideandthetoadandsnakeontheother，forthebuzzardpreysupontheeggsofthetwoothers；andsobetweentheturtle-doveandthechloreus；thechloreuskillsthedove，andthecrowkillstheso-calleddrummer-bird。
Theaegolius，andbirdsofpreyingeneral，preyuponthecalaris，andconsequentlythereiswarbetweenitandthem；andsoistherewarbetweenthegecko-lizardandthespider，fortheformerpreysuponthelatter；andsobetweenthewoodpeckerandtheheron，fortheformerpreysupontheeggsandbroodofthelatter。Andsobetweentheaegithusandtheass，owingtothefactthattheass，inpassingafurze-bush，rubsitssoreanditchingpartsagainsttheprickles；bysodoing，andallthemoreifitbrays，ittopplestheeggsandthebroodoutofthenest，theyoungonestumbleoutinfright，andthemother-bird，toavengethiswrong，fliesatthebeastandpecksathissoreplaces。
Thewolfisatwarwiththeass，thebull，andthefox，forasbeingacarnivore，heattackstheseotheranimals；andsoforthesamereasonwiththefoxandthecircus，forthecircus，beingcarnivorousandfurnishedwithcrookedtalons，attacksandmaimstheanimal。Andsotheravenisatwarwiththebullandtheass，foritfliesatthem，andstrikesthem，andpecksattheireyes；andsowiththeeagleandtheheron，fortheformer，havingcrookedtalons，attacksthelatter，andthelatterusuallysuccumbstotheattack；andsothemerlinwiththevulture；andthecrexwiththeeleus-owl，theblackbird，andtheorioleofthislatterbird，bytheway，thestorygoesthathewasoriginallybornoutofafuneralpyre:thecauseofwarfareisthatthecrexinjuresboththemandtheiryoung。
Thenuthatchandthewrenareatwarwiththeeagle；thenuthatchbreakstheeagle'seggs，sotheeagleisatwarwithitonspecialgrounds，though，asabirdofprey，itcarriesonageneralwarallround。Thehorseandtheanthusareenemies，andthehorsewilldrivethebirdoutofthefieldwhereheisgrazing:thebirdfeedsongrass，andseestoodimlytoforeseeanattack；itmimicsthewhinnyingofthehorse，fliesathim，andtriestofrightenhimaway；butthehorsedrivesthebirdaway，andwheneverhecatchesithekillsit:thisbirdlivesbesideriversoronmarshground；ithasprettyplumage，andfindsitswithouttrouble。Theassisatenmitywiththelizard，forthelizardsleepsinhismanger，getsintohisnostril，andpreventshiseating。
Ofheronstherearethreekinds:theashcoloured，thewhite，andthestarryheronorbittern。Ofthesethefirstmentionedsubmitswithreluctancetothedutiesofincubation，ortounionofthesexes；infact，itscreamsduringtheunion，anditissaiddripsbloodfromitseyes；itlaysitseggsalsoinanawkwardmanner，notunattendedwithpain。Itisatwarwithcertaincreaturesthatdoitinjury:withtheeagleforrobbingit，withthefoxforworryingitatnight，andwiththelarkforstealingitseggs。
Thesnakeisatwarwiththeweaselandthepig；withtheweaselwhentheyarebothathome，fortheyliveonthesamefood；withthepigforpreyingonherkind。Themerlinisatwarwiththefox；itstrikesandclawsit，and，asithascrookedtalons，itkillstheanimal'syoung。Theravenandthefoxaregoodfriends，fortheravenisatenmitywiththemerlin；andsowhenthemerlinassailsthefoxtheravencomesandhelpstheanimal。Thevultureandthemerlinaremutualenemies，asbeingbothfurnishedwithcrookedtalons。Thevulturefightswiththeeagle，andso，bytheway，doesdoesswan；andtheswanisoftenvictorious:moreover，ofallbirdsswansaremostpronetothekillingofoneanother。
Inregardtowildcreatures，somesetsareatenmitywithothersetsatalltimesandunderallcircumstances；others，asinthecaseofmanandman，atspecialtimesandunderincidentalcircumstances。Theassandtheacanthisareenemies；forthebirdlivesonthistles，andtheassbrowsesonthistleswhentheyareyoungandtender。Theanthus，theacanthis，andtheaegithusareatenmitywithoneanother；itissaidthatthebloodoftheanthuswillnotintercomminglewiththebloodoftheaegithus。Thecrowandtheheronarefriends，asalsoarethesedge-birdandlark，thelaedusandtheceleusorgreenwoodpecker；thewoodpeckerlivesonthebanksofriversandbesidebrakes，thelaeduslivesonrocksandbills，andisgreatlyattachedtoitsnesting-place。Thepiphinx，theharpe，andthekitearefriends；asarethefoxandthesnake，forbothburrowunderground；soalsoaretheblackbirdandtheturtle-dove。Thelionandthethosorcivetareenemies，forbotharecarnivorousandliveonthesamefood。Elephantsfightfiercelywithoneanother，andstaboneanotherwiththeirtusks；oftwocombatantsthebeatenonegetscompletelycowed，anddreadsthesoundofhisconqueror'svoice。Theseanimalsdifferfromoneanotheranextraordinaryextentinthewayofcourage。Indiansemploytheseanimalsforwarpurposes，irrespectiveofsex；thefemales，however，arelessinsizeandmuchinferiorinpointofspirit。Anelephantbypushingwithhisbigtuskscanbatterdownawall，andwillbuttwithhisforeheadatapalmuntilhebringsitdown，whenhestampsonitandlaysitinorderlyfashionontheground。Menhunttheelephantinthefollowingway:theymounttameelephantsofapprovedspiritandproceedinquestofwildanimals；whentheycomeupwiththesetheybidthetamebrutestobeatthewildonesuntiltheytirethelattercompletely。Hereuponthedrivermountsawildbruteandguideshimwiththeapplicationofhismetalprong；afterthisthecreaturesoonbecomestame，andobeysguidance。Nowwhenthedriverisontheirbacktheyarealltractable，butafterhehasdismounted，somearetameandothersvicious；inthecaseoftheselatter，theytietheirfront-legswithropestokeepthemquiet。Theanimalishuntedwhetheryoungorfullgrown。
Thusweseethatinthecaseofthecreaturesabovementionedtheirmutualfriendshiportheisduetothefoodtheyfeedonandthelifetheylead。
2
Offishes，suchasswiminshoalstogetherarefriendlytooneanother；suchasdonotsoswimareenemies。Somefishesswarmduringthespawningseason；othersaftertheyhavespawned。Tostatethemattercomprehensively，wemaysaythatthefollowingareshoalingfish:thetunny，themaenis，thesea-gudgeon，thebogue，thehorse-mackerel，thecoracine，thesynodonordentex，theredmullet，thesphyraena，theanthias，theeleginus，theatherine，thesarginus，thegar-fish，thesquid，therainbow-wrasse，thepelamyd，themackerel，thecoly-mackerel。Ofthesesomenotonlyswiminshoals，butgoinpairsinsidetheshoal；therestwithoutexceptionswiminpairs，andonlyswiminshoalsatcertainperiods:
thatis，ashasbeensaid，whentheyareheavywithspawnoraftertheyhavespawned。
Thebasseandthegreymulletarebitterenemies，buttheyswarmtogetheratcertaintimes；forattimesnotonlydofishesofthesamespeciesswarmtogether，butalsothosewhosefeeding-groundsareidenticaloradjacent，ifthefood-supplybeabundant。Thegreymulletisoftenfoundalivewithitstailloppedoff，andthecongerwithallthatpartofitsbodyremovedthatliestotherearofthevent；inthecaseofthemullettheinjuryiswroughtbythebasse，inthatoftheconger-eelbythemuraena。Thereiswarbetweenthelargerandthelesserfishes:forthebigfishespreyonthelittleones。
Somuchonthesubjectofmarineanimals。
3
Thecharactersofanimals，ashasbeenobserved，differinrespecttotimidity，togentleness，tocourage，totameness，tointelligence，andtostupidity。
Thesheepissaidtobenaturallydullandstupid。Ofallquadrupedsitisthemostfoolish:itwillsaunterawaytolonelyplaceswithnoobjectinview；oftentimesinstormyweatheritwillstrayfromshelter；ifitbeovertakenbyasnowstorm，itwillstandstillunlesstheshepherdsetsitinmotion；itwillstaybehindandperishunlesstheshepherdbringsuptherams；itwillthenfollowhome。
Ifyoucatchholdofagoat'sbeardattheextremity-thebeardisofasubstanceresemblinghair-allthecompaniongoatswillstandstockstill，staringatthisparticulargoatinakindofdumbfounderment。
Youwillhaveawarmerbedinamongstthegoatsthanamongthesheep，becausethegoatswillbequieterandwillcreepuptowardsyou；forthegoatismoreimpatientofcoldthanthesheep。
Shepherdstrainsheeptocloseintogetherataclapoftheirhands，forif，whenathunderstormcomeson，aewestaysbehindwithoutclosingin，thestormwillkillitifitbewithyoung；
consequentlyifasuddenclapornoiseismade，theycloseintogetherwithinthesheepfoldbyreasonoftheirtraining。
Evenbulls，whentheyareroamingbythemselvesapartfromtheherd，arekilledbywildanimals。
Sheepandgoatsliecrowdedtogether，kinbykin。Whenthesunturnsearlytowardsitssetting，thegoatsaresaidtolienolongerfacetoface，butbacktoback。
4
Cattleatpasturekeeptogetherintheiraccustomedherds，andifoneanimalstraysawaytherestwillfollow；consequentlyiftheherdsmenloseoneparticularanimal，theykeepclosewatchonalltherest。
Whenmareswiththeircoltspasturetogetherinthesamefield，ifonedamdiestheotherswilltakeuptherearingofthecolt。Inpointoffact，themareappearstobesingularlypronebynaturetomaternalfondness；inproofwhereofabarrenmarewillstealthefoalfromitsdam，willtenditwithallthesolicitudeofamother，but，asitwillbeunprovidedwithmother'smilk，itssolicitudewillprovefataltoitscharge。
5
Amongwildquadrupedsthehindappearstobepre-eminentlyintelligent；forexample，initshabitofbringingforthitsyoungonthesidesofpublicroads，wherethefearofmanforbidstheapproachofwildanimals。Again，afterparturition，itfirstswallowstheafterbirth，thengoesinquestoftheseselishrub，andaftereatingofitreturnstoitsyoung。Themothertakesitsyoungbetimestoherlair，soleadingittoknowitsplaceofrefugeintimeofdanger；thislairisaprecipitousrock，withonlyoneapproach，andthereitissaidtoholditsownagainstallcomers。Themalewhenitgetsfat，whichitdoesinahighdegreeinautumn，disappears，abandoningitsusualresorts，apparentlyunderanideathatitsfatnessfacilitatesitscapture。Theyshedtheirhornsinplacesdifficultofaccessordiscovery，whencetheproverbialexpressionof'theplacewherethestagshedshishorns'；thefactbeingthat，ashavingpartedwiththeirweapons，theytakecarenottobeseen。Thesayingisthatnomanhaseverseentheanimal'slefthorn；thatthecreaturekeepsitoutofsightbecauseitpossessessomemedicinalproperty。
Intheirfirstyearstagsgrownohorns，butonlyanexcrescenceindicatingwherehornswillbe，thisexcrescencebeingshortandthick。Intheirsecondyeartheygrowtheirhornsforthefirsttime，straightinshape，likepegsforhangingclotheson；andonthisaccounttheyhaveanappropriatenickname。Inthethirdyeartheantlersarebifurcate；inthefourthyeartheygrowtrifurcate；andsotheygoonincreasingincomplexityuntilthecreatureissixyearsold:afterthistheygrowtheirhornswithoutanyspecificdifferentiation，sothatyoucannotbyobservationofthemtelltheanimal'sage。Butthepatriarchsoftheherdmaybetoldchieflybytwosigns；inthefirstplacetheyhavefewteethornoneatall，and，inthesecondplace，theyhaveceasedtogrowthepointedtipstotheirantlers。Theforward-pointingtipsofthegrowinghornsthatistosaythebrowantlers，withwhichtheanimalmeetsattack，aretechnicallytermedits'defenders'；withthesethepatriarchsareunprovided，andtheirantlersmerelygrowstraightupwards。Stagsshedtheirhornsannually，inoraboutthemonthofMay；aftershedding，theyconcealthemselves，itissaid，duringthedaytime，and，toavoidtheflies，hideinthickcopses；duringthistime，untiltheyhavegrowntheirhorns，theyfeedatnight-time。Thehornsatfirstgrowinakindofskinenvelope，andgetroughbydegrees；whentheyreachtheirfullsizetheanimalbasksinthesun，tomatureanddrythem。
Whentheyneednolongerrubthemagainsttree-trunkstheyquittheirhidingplaces，fromasenseofsecuritybaseduponthepossessionofarmsdefensiveandoffensive。AnAchaeinestaghasbeencaughtwithaquantityofgreenivygrownoveritshorns，ithavinggrownapparently，asonfreshgreenwood，whenthehornswereyoungandtender。Whenastagisstungbyavenom-spiderorsimilarinsect，itgatherscrabsandeatsthem；itissaidtobeagoodthingformantodrinkthejuice，butthetasteisdisagreeable。Thehindsafterparturitionatonceswallowtheafterbirth，anditisimpossibletosecureit，forthehindcatchesitbeforeitfallstotheground:nowthissubstanceissupposedtohavemedicinalproperties。Whenhuntedthecreaturesarecaughtbysingingorpipe-playingonthepartofthehunters；theyaresopleasedwiththemusicthattheyliedownonthegrass。Iftherebetwohunters，onebeforetheireyessingsorplaysthepipe，theotherkeepsoutofsightandshoots，atasignalgivenbytheconfederate。Iftheanimalhasitsearscocked，itcanhearwellandyoucannotescapeitsken；ifitsearsaredown，youcan。
6
Whenbearsarerunningawayfromtheirpursuerstheypushtheircubsinfrontofthem，ortakethemupandcarrythem；whentheyarebeingovertakentheyclimbupatree。Whenemergingfromtheirwinter-den，theyatoncetaketoeatingcuckoo-pint，ashasbeensaid，andchewsticksofwoodasthoughtheywerecuttingteeth。
Manyotherquadrupedshelpthemselvesincleverways。WildgoatsinCretearesaid，whenwoundedbyarrows，togoinsearchofdittany，whichissupposedtohavethepropertyofejectingarrowsinthebody。
Dogs，whentheyareill，eatsomekindofgrassandproducevomiting。Thepanther，aftereatingpanther's-bane，triestofindsomehumanexcrement，whichissaidtohealitspain。Thispanther's-banekillslionsaswell。Huntershanguphumanexcrementinavesselattachedtotheboughsofatree，tokeeptheanimalfromstrayingtoanydistance；theanimalmeetsitsendinleapinguptothebranchandtryingtogetatthemedicine。Theysaythatthepantherhasfoundoutthatwildanimalsarefondofthescentitemits；
that，whenitgoesa-hunting，ithidesitself；thattheotheranimalscomenearerandnearer，andthatbythisstratagemitcancatchevenanimalsasswiftoffootasstags。
TheEgyptianichneumon，whenitseestheserpentcalledtheasp，doesnotattackituntilithascalledinotherichneumonstohelp；tomeettheblowsandbitesoftheirenemytheassailantsbeplasterthemselveswithmud，byfirstsoakingintheriverandthenrollingontheground。
Whenthecrocodileyawns，thetrochilusfliesintohismouthandcleanshisteeth。Thetrochilusgetshisfoodthereby，andthecrocodilegetseaseandcomfort；itmakesnoattempttoinjureitslittlefriend，but，whenitwantsittogo，itshakesitsneckinwarning，lestitshouldaccidentallybitethebird。
Thetortoise，whenithaspartakenofasnake，eatsmarjoram；thisactionhasbeenactuallyobserved。Amansawatortoiseperformthisoperationoverandoveragain，andeverytimeitpluckedupsomemarjoramgobacktopartakeofitsprey；hethereuponpulledthemarjoramupbytheroots，andtheconsequencewasthetortoisedied。
Theweasel，whenitfightswithasnake，firsteatswildrue，thesmellofwhichisnoxioustothesnake。Thedragon，wheniteatsfruit，swallowsendive-juice；ithasbeenseenintheact。Dogs，whentheysufferfromworms，eatthestandingcorn。Storks，andallotherbirds，whentheygetawoundfighting，applymarjoramtotheplaceinjured。
Manyhaveseenthelocust，whenfightingwiththesnakegetatightholdofthesnakebytheneck。Theweaselhasacleverwayofgettingthebetterofbirds；ittearstheirthroatsopen，aswolvesdowithsheep。Weaselsfightdesperatelywithmice-catchingsnakes，astheybothpreyonthesameanimal。
Inregardtotheinstinctofhedgehogs，ithasbeenobservedinmanyplacesthat，whenthewindisshiftingfromnorthtosouth，andfromsouthtonorth，theyshifttheoutlookoftheirearth-holes，andthosethatarekeptindomesticationshiftoverfromonewalltotheother。ThestorygoesthatamaninByzantiumgotintohighreputeforforetellingachangeofweather，allowingtohishavingnoticedthishabitofthehedgehog。
ThepolecatormartenisaboutaslargeasthesmallerbreedofMaltesedogs。Inthethicknessofitsfur，initslook，inthewhiteofitsbelly，andinitsloveofmischief，itresemblestheweasel；itiseasilytamed；fromitslikingforhoneyitisaplaguetobee-hives；itpreysonbirdslikethecat。Itsgenitalorgan，ashasbeensaid，consistsofbone:theorganofthemaleissupposedtobeacureforstrangury；doctorsscrapeitintopowder，andadministeritinthatform。
7
Inageneralwayinthelivesofanimalsmanyresemblancestohumanlifemaybeobserved。Pre-eminentintelligencewillbeseenmoreinsmallcreaturesthaninlargeones，asisexemplifiedinthecaseofbirdsbythenestbuildingoftheswallow。Inthesamewayasmendo，thebirdmixesmudandchafftogether；ifitrunsshortofmud，itsousesitsbodyinwaterandrollsaboutinthedrydustwithwetfeathers；furthermore，justasmandoes，itmakesabedofstraw，puttinghardmaterialbelowforafoundation，andadaptingalltosuititsownsize。Bothparentsco-operateintherearingoftheyoung；
eachoftheparentswilldetect，withpractisedeye，theyoungonethathashadahelping，andwilltakecareitisnothelpedtwiceover；atfirsttheparentswillridthenestofexcrement，but，whentheyoungaregrown，theywillteachtheiryoungtoshifttheirpositionandlettheirexcrementfalloverthesideofthenest。
Pigeonsexhibitotherphenomenawithasimilarlikenesstothewaysofhumankind。Inpairingthesamemaleandthesamefemalekeeptogether；andtheunionisonlybrokenbythedeathofoneofthetwoparties。Atthetimeofparturitioninthefemalethesympatheticattentionsofthemaleareextraordinary；ifthefemaleisafraidonaccountoftheimpendingparturitiontoenterthenest，themalewillbeatherandforcehertocomein。Whentheyoungareborn，hewilltakeandmasticatepiecesofsuitablefood，willopenthebeaksofthefledglings，andinjectthesepieces，thuspreparingthembetimestotakefood。Whenthemalebirdisabouttoexpelthetheyoungonesfromthenesthecohabitswiththemall。Asageneralrulethesebirdsshowthisconjugalfidelity，butoccasionallyafemalewillcohabitwithotherthanhermate。Thesebirdsarecombative，andquarrelwithoneanother，andentereachother'snests，thoughthisoccursbutseldom；atadistancefromtheirneststhisquarrelsomenessislessmarked，butinthecloseneighbourhoodoftheirneststheywillfightdesperately。Apeculiaritycommontothetamepigeon，thering-doveandtheturtle-doveisthattheydonotleantheheadbackwhentheyareintheactofdrinking，butonlywhentheyhavefullyquenchedtheirthirst。Theturtle-doveandthering-dovebothhavebutonemate，andletnoothercomenigh；bothsexesco-operateintheprocessofincubation。Itisdifficulttodistinguishbetweenthesexesexceptbyanexaminationoftheirinteriors。Ring-dovesarelong-lived；caseshavebeenknownwheresuchbirdsweretwenty-fiveyearsold，thirtyyearsold，andinsomecasesforty。Astheygrowoldtheirclawsincreaseinsize，andpigeon-fancierscuttheclaws；asfarasonecansee，thebirdssuffernootherperceptibledisfigurementbytheirincreaseinage。
Turtle-dovesandpigeonsthatareblindedbyfanciersforuseasdecoys，liveforeightyears。Partridgesliveforaboutfifteenyears。
Ring-dovesandturtle-dovesalwaysbuildtheirnestsinthesameplaceyearafteryear。Themale，asageneralrule，ismorelong-livedthanthefemale；butinthecaseofpigeonssomeassertthatthemalediesbeforethefemale，takingtheirinferencefromthestatementsofpersonswhokeepdecoy-birdsincaptivity。Somedeclarethatthemalesparrowlivesonlyayear，pointingtothefactthatearlyinspringthemalesparrowhasnoblackbeard，buthasonelateron，asthoughtheblackbeardedbirdsofthelastyearhadalldiedout；theyalsosaythatthefemalesarethelongerlived，onthegroundsthattheyarecaughtinamongsttheyoungbirdsandthattheirageisrenderedmanifestbythehardnessabouttheirbeaks。
Turtle-dovesinsummerliveincoldplaces，andinwarmplacesduringthewinter；chaffinchesaffectwarmhabitationsinsummerandcoldonesinwinter。
8
Birdsofaheavybuild，suchasquails，partridges，andthelike，buildnonests；indeed，wheretheyareincapableofflight，itwouldbeofnouseiftheycoulddoso。Afterscrapingaholeonalevelpieceofground-anditisonlyinsuchaplacethattheylaytheireggs-theycoveritoverwiththornsandsticksforsecurityagainsthawksandeagles，andtherelaytheireggsandhatchthem；
afterthehatchingisover，theyatonceleadtheyoungoutfromthenest，astheyarenotabletoflyafieldforfoodforthem。Quailsandpartridges，likebarn-doorhens，whentheygotorest，gathertheirbroodundertheirwings。Nottobediscovered，asmightbethecaseiftheystayedlonginonespot，theydonothatchtheeggswheretheylaidthem。Whenamancomesbychanceuponayoungbrood，andtriestocatchthem，thehen-birdrollsinfrontofthehunter，pretendingtobelame:themaneverymomentthinksheisonthepointofcatchingher，andsoshedrawshimonandon，untileveryoneofherbroodhashadtimetoescape；hereuponshereturnstothenestandcallstheyoungback。Thepartridgelaysnotlessthanteneggs，andoftenlaysasmanyassixteen。Ashasbeenobserved，thebirdhasmischievousanddeceitfulhabits。Inthespring-time，anoisyscrimmagetakesplace，outofwhichthemale-birdsemergeeachwithahen。Owingtothelecherousnatureofthebird，andfromadisliketothehensitting，themales，iftheyfindanyeggs，rollthemoverandoveruntiltheybreaktheminpieces；toprovideagainstthisthefemalegoestoadistanceandlaystheeggs，andoften，underthestressofparturition，laystheminanychancespotthatoffers；
ifthemalebenearathand，thentokeeptheeggsintactsherefrainsfromvisitingthem。Ifshebeseenbyaman，then，justaswithherfledgedbrood，sheenticeshimoffbyshowingherselfcloseathisfeetuntilshehasdrawnhimtoadistance。Whenthefemaleshaverunawayandtakentositting，themalesinapacktaketoscreamingandfighting；whenthusengaged，theyhavethenicknameof'widowers'。
Thebirdwhoisbeatenfollowshisvictor，andsubmitstobecoveredbyhimonly；andthebeatenbirdiscoveredbyasecondoneorbyanyother，onlyclandestinelywithoutthevictor'sknowledge；thisisso，notatalltimes，butataparticularseasonoftheyear，andwithquailsaswellaswithpartridges。Asimilarproceedingtakesplaceoccasionallywithbarn-doorcocks:forintemples，wherecocksaresetapartasdedicatewithouthens，theyallasamatterofcoursetreadanynew-comer。Tamepartridgestreadwildbirds，peckettheirheads，andtreatthemwitheverypossibleoutrage。Theleaderofthewildbirds，withacounter-noteofchallenge，pushesforwardtoattackthedecoy-bird，andafterhehasbeennetted，anotheradvanceswithasimilarnote。Thisiswhatisdoneifthedecoybeamale；butifitbeafemalethatisthedecoyandgivesthenote，andtheleaderofthewildbirdsgiveacounterone，therestofthemalessetuponhimandchasehimawayfromthefemaleformakingadvancestoherinsteadoftothem；inconsequenceofthisthemaleoftenadvanceswithoututteringanycry，sothatnoothermayhearhimandcomeandgivehimbattle；andexperiencedfowlersassertthatsometimesthemalebird，whenheapproachesthefemale，makesherkeepsilence，toavoidhavingtogivebattletoothermaleswhomighthaveheardhim。
Thepartridgehasnotonlythenoteherereferredto，butalsoathinshrillcryandothernotes。Oftentimesthehen-birdrisesfromoffherbroodwhensheseesthemaleshowingattentionstothefemaledecoy；shewillgivethecounternoteandremainstill，soastobetroddenbyhimanddiverthimfromthedecoy。Thequailandthepartridgearesointentuponsexualunionthattheyoftencomerightinthewayofthedecoy-birds，andnotseldomalightupontheirheads。Somuchforthesexualproclivitiesofthepartridge，forthewayinwhichitishunted，andthegeneralnastyhabitsofthebird。
Ashasbeensaid，quailsandpartridgesbuildtheirnestsupontheground，andsoalsodosomeofthebirdsthatarecapableofsustainedflight。Further，forinstance，ofsuchbirds，thelarkandthewoodcock，aswellasthequail，donotperchonabranch，butsquatupontheground。
9
Thewoodpeckerdoesnotsquatontheground，butpecksatthebarkoftreestodriveoutfromunderitmaggotsandgnats；whentheyemerge，itlicksthemupwithitstongue，whichislargeandflat。
Itcanrunupanddownatreeinanyway，evenwiththeheaddownwards，likethegecko-lizard。Forsecureholduponatree，itsclawsarebetteradaptedthanthoseofthedaw；itmakesitswaybystickingtheseclawsintothebark。Onespeciesofwoodpeckerissmallerthanablackbird，andhassmallreddishspeckles；asecondspeciesislargerthantheblackbird，andathirdisnotmuchsmallerthanabarn-doorhen。Itbuildsanestontrees，ashasbeensaid，onolivetreesamongstothers。Itfeedsonthemaggotsandantsthatareunderthebark:itissoeagerinthesearchformaggotsthatitissaidsometimestohollowatreeouttoitsdownfall。A
woodpeckeronce，incourseofdomestication，wasseentoinsertanalmondintoaholeinapieceoftimber，sothatitmightremainsteadyunderitspecking；atthethirdpeckitsplittheshellofthefruit，andthenatethekernel。
10
Manyindicationsofhighintelligencearegivenbycranes。Theywillflytoagreatdistanceandupintheair，tocommandanextensiveview；iftheyseecloudsandsignsofbadweathertheyflydownagainandremainstill。They，furthermore，havealeaderintheirflight，andpatrolsthatscreamontheconfinesoftheflocksoastobeheardbyall。Whentheysettledown，themainbodygotosleepwiththeirheadsundertheirwing，standingfirstononelegandthenontheother，whiletheirleader，withhisheaduncovered，keepsasharplookout，andwhenheseesanythingofimportancesignalsitwithacry。
Pelicansthatlivebesideriversswallowthelargesmoothmussel-shells:aftercookingtheminsidethecropthatprecedesthestomach，theyspitthemout，sothat，nowwhentheirshellsareopen，theymaypickthefleshoutandeatit。
11
Ofwildbirds，thenestsarefashionedtomeettheexigenciesofexistenceandensurethesecurityoftheyoung。Someofthesebirdsarefondoftheiryoungandtakegreatcareofthem，othersarequitethereverse；somearecleverinprocuringsubsistence，othersarenotso。Someofthesebirdsbuildinravinesandclefts，andoncliffs，as，forinstance，theso-calledcharadrius，orstone-curlew；
thisbirdisinnowaynoteworthyforplumageorvoice；itmakesanappearanceatnight，butinthedaytimekeepsoutofsight。
Thehawkalsobuildsininaccessibleplaces。Althougharavenousbird，itwillnevereattheheartofanybirditcatches；thishasbeenobservedinthecaseofthequail，thethrush，andotherbirds。
Theymodifybetimestheirmethodofhunting，forinsummertheydonotgrabtheirpreyastheydoatotherseasons。
Ofthevulture，itissaidthatnoonehaseverseeneitheritsyoungoritsnest；onthisaccountandonthegroundthatallofasuddengreatnumbersofthemwillappearwithoutanyonebeingabletotellfromwhencetheycome，Herodorus，thefatherofBrysonthesophist，saysthatitbelongstosomedistantandelevatedland。Thereasonisthatthebirdhasitsnestoninaccessiblecrags，andisfoundonlyinafewlocalities。Thefemalelaysoneeggasarule，andtwoatthemost。
Somebirdsliveonmountainsorinforests，asthehoopoeandthebrenthus；thislatterbirdfindshisfoodwitheaseandhasamusicalvoice。Thewrenlivesinbrakesandcrevices；itisdifficultofcapture，keepsoutofsight，isgentleofdisposition，findsitsfoodwithease，andissomethingofamechanic。Itgoesbythenicknameof'oldman'or'king'；andthestorygoesthatforthisreasontheeagleisatwarwithhim。
12
Somebirdsliveonthesea-shore，asthewagtail；thebirdisofamischievousnature，hardtocapture，butwhencaughtcapableofcompletedomestication；itisacripple，asbeingweakinitshinderquarters。
Web-footedbirdswithoutexceptionliveneartheseaorriversorpools，astheynaturallyresorttoplacesadaptedtotheirstructure。Severalbirds，however，withcloventoeslivenearpoolsormarshes，as，forinstance，theanthuslivesbythesideofrivers；theplumageofthisbirdispretty，anditfindsitsfoodwithease。Thecatarrhacteslivesnearthesea；whenitmakesadive，itwillkeepunderwaterforaslongasitwouldtakeamantowalkafurlong；itislessthanthecommonhawk。Swansareweb-footed，andlivenearpoolsandmarshes；theyfindtheirfoodwithease，aregood-tempered，arefondoftheiryoung，andlivetoagreenoldage。
Iftheeagleattacksthemtheywillrepeltheattackandgetthebetteroftheirassailant，buttheyareneverthefirsttoattack。
Theyaremusical，andsingchieflyattheapproachofdeath；atthistimetheyflyouttosea，andmen，whensailingpastthecoastofLibya，havefalleninwithmanyofthemoutatseasinginginmournfulstrains，andhaveactuallyseensomeofthemdying。
Thecymindisisseldomseen，asitlivesonmountains；itisblackincolour，andaboutthesizeofthehawkcalledthe'dove-killer'；itislongandslenderinform。TheIonianscallthebirdbythisname；HomerintheIliadmentionsitintheline:
Chalcisitsnamewiththoseofheavenlybirth，ButcalledCymindisbythesonsofearth。
Thehybris，saidbysometobethesameastheeagle-owl，isneverseenbydaylight，asitisdim-sighted，butduringthenightithuntsliketheeagle；itwillfighttheeaglewithsuchdesperationthatthetwocombatantsareoftencapturedalivebyshepherds；itlaystwoeggs，and，likeotherswehavementioned，itbuildsonrocksandincaverns。Cranesalsofightsodesperatelyamongthemselvesastobecaughtwhenfighting，fortheywillnotleaveoff；thecranelaystwoeggs。
13
Thejayhasagreatvarietyofnotes:indeed，mightalmostsayithadadifferentnoteforeverydayintheyear。Itlaysaboutnineeggs；buildsitsnestontrees，outofhairandtagsofwool；
whenacornsaregettingscarce，itlaysupastoreoftheminhiding。
Itisacommonstoryofthestorkthattheoldbirdsarefedbytheirgratefulprogeny。Sometellasimilarstoryofthebee-eater，anddeclarethattheparentsarefedbytheiryoungnotonlywhengrowingold，butatanearlyperiod，assoonastheyoungarecapableoffeedingthem；andtheparent-birdsstayinsidethenest。
Theunderpartofthebird'swingispaleyellow；theupperpartisdarkblue，likethatofthehalcyon；thetipsofthewingsareAboutautumn-timeitlayssixorseveneggs，inoverhangingbankswherethesoilissoft；thereitburrowsintothegroundtoadepthofsixfeet。
Thegreenfinch，socalledfromthecolourofitsbelly，isaslargeasalark；itlaysfourorfiveeggs，buildsitsnestoutoftheplantcalledcomfrey，pullingitupbytheroots，andmakesanunder-mattresstolieonofhairandwool。Theblackbirdandthejaybuildtheirnestsafterthesamefashion。Thenestofthependulinetitshowsgreatmechanicalskill；ithastheappearanceofaballofflax，andtheholeforentryisverysmall。
Peoplewholivewherethebirdcomesfromsaythatthereexistsacinnamonbirdwhichbringsthecinnamonfromsomeunknownlocalities，andbuildsitsnestoutofit；itbuildsonhightreesontheslendertopbranches。Theysaythattheinhabitantsattachleadenweightstothetipsoftheirarrowsandtherewithbringdownthenests，andfromtheintertexturecollectthecinnamonsticks。
14
Thehalcyonisnotmuchlargerthanthesparrow。Itscolourisdarkblue，green，andlightpurple；thewholebodyandwings，andespeciallypartsabouttheneck，showthesecoloursinamixedway，withoutanycolourbeingsharplydefined；thebeakislightgreen，longandslender:such，then，isthelookofthebird。Itsnestislikesea-balls，i。e。thethingsthatbythenameofhalosachneorseafoam，onlythecolourisnotthesame。Thecolourofthenestislightred，andtheshapeisthatofthelong-neckedgourd。Thenestsarelargerthanthelargestsponge，thoughtheyvaryinsize；theyareroofedover，andgreatpartofthemissolidandgreatparthollow。Ifyouuseasharpknifeitisnoteasytocutthenestthrough；butifyoucutit，andatthesametimebruiseitwithyourhand，itwillsooncrumbletopieces，likethehalosachne。Theopeningissmall，justenoughforatinyentrance，sothatevenifthenestupsettheseadoesnotenterin；thehollowchannelsarelikethoseinsponges。Itisnotknownforcertainofwhatmaterialthenestisconstructed；itispossiblymadeofthebackbonesofthegar-fish；
for，bytheway，thebirdlivesonfish。Besideslivingontheshore，itascendsfresh-waterstreams。Itlaysgenerallyaboutfiveeggs，andlayseggsallitslifelong，beginningtodosoattheageoffourmonths。
15
Thehoopoeusuallyconstructsitsnestoutofhumanexcrement。
Itchangesitsappearanceinsummerandinwinter，asinfactdothegreatmajorityofwildbirds。Thetitmouseissaidtolayaverylargequantityofeggs:nexttotheostrichtheblackheadedtitissaidbysometolaythelargestnumberofeggs；seventeeneggshavebeenseen；itlays，however，morethantwenty；itissaidalwaystolayanoddnumber。Likeotherswehavementioned，itbuildsintrees；itfeedsoncaterpillars。Apeculiarityofthisbirdandofthenightingaleisthattheouterextremityofthetongueisnotsharp-pointed。
Theaegithusfindsitsfoodwithease，hasmanyyoung，andwalkswithalimp。Thegoldenorioleisaptatlearning，iscleveratmakingaliving，butisawkwardinflightandhasanuglyplumage。
16
Thereed-warblermakesitslivingaseasilyasanyotherbird，sitsinsummerinashadyspotfacingthewind，inwinterinasunnyandshelteredplaceamongreedsinamarsh；itissmallinsize，withapleasantnote。Theso-calledchattererhasapleasantnote，beautifulplumage，makesalivingcleverly，andisgracefulinform；
itappearstobealientoourcountry；atalleventsitisseldomseenatadistancefromitsownimmediatehome。
17
Thecrakeisquarrelsome，cleveratmakingaliving，butinotherwaysanunluckybird。Thebirdcalledsittaisquarrelsome，butcleverandtidy，makesitslivingwithease，andforitsknowingnessisregardedasuncanny；ithasanumerousbrood，ofwhichitisfond，andlivesbypeckingthebarkoftrees。Theaegolius-owlfliesbynight，isseldomseenbyday；likeotherswehavementioned，itlivesoncliffsorincaverns；itfeedsontwokindsoffood；ithasastrongholdonlifeandisfullofresource。
Thetree-creeperisalittlebird，offearlessdisposition；itlivesamongtrees，feedsoncaterpillars，makesalivingwithease，andhasaloudclearnote。Theacanthisfindsitsfoodwithdifficulty；
itsplumageispoor，butitsnoteismusical。
18
Oftheherons，theashen-colouredone，ashasbeensaid，uniteswiththefemalenotwithoutpain；itisfullofresource，carriesitsfoodwithit，iseagerinthequestofit，andworksbyday；itsplumageispoor，anditsexcrementisalwayswet。Oftheothertwospecies-fortherearethreeinall-thewhiteheronhashandsomeplumage，uniteswithoutharmtoitselfwiththefemale，buildsanestandlaysitseggsneatlyintrees；itfrequentsmarshesandlakesandPlainsandmeadowland。Thespeckledheron，whichisnicknamed'theskulker'，issaidinfolklorestoriestobeofservileorigin，and，asitsnicknameimplies，itisthelaziestbirdofthethreespecies。Sucharethehabitsofherons。Thebirdthatiscalledthepoynxhasthispeculiarity，thatitismorepronethananyotherbirdtopeckattheeyesofanassailantoritsprey；itisatwarwiththeharpy，asthetwobirdsliveonthesamefood。
19
Therearetwokindsofowsels；theoneisblack，andisfoundeverywhere，theotherisquitewhite，aboutthesamesizeastheother，andwiththesamepipe。ThislatterisfoundonCylleneinArcadia，andisfoundnowhereelse。Thelaius，orblue-thrush，isliketheblackowsel，onlyalittlesmaller；itlivesoncliffsorontileroofings；ithasnotaredbeakastheblackowselhas。
20
Ofthrushestherearethreespecies。Oneisthemisselthrush；itfeedsonlyonmistletoeandresin；itisaboutthesizeofthejay。
Asecondisthesong-thrush；ithasasharppipe，andisaboutthesizeoftheowsel。ThereisanotherspeciescalledtheIllas；itisthesmallestspeciesofthethree，andislessvariegatedinplumagethantheothers。
21
Thereisabirdthatlivesonrocks，calledtheblue-birdfromitscolour。ItiscomparativelycommoninNisyros，andissomewhatlessthantheowselandalittlebiggerthanthechaffinch。Ithaslargeclaws，andclimbsonthefaceoftherocks。Itissteel-blueallover；
itsbeakislongandslender；itslegsareshort，likethoseofthewoodpecker。
22
Theorioleisyellowallover；itisnotvisibleduringwinter，butputsinanappearanceaboutthetimeofthesummersolstice，anddepartsagainattherisingofArcturus；itisthesizeoftheturtle-dove。Theso-calledsoft-headorshrikealwayssettlesononeandthesamebranch，whereitfallsapreytothebirdcatcher。Itsheadisbig，andcomposedofgristle；itisalittlesmallerthanthethrush；itsbeakisstrong，small，andround；itisashen-colouredallover；isfleetoffoot，butslowofwing。Thebird-catcherusuallycatchesitbyhelpoftheowl。
23
Thereisalsothepardalus。Asarule，itisseeninflocksandnotsingly；itisashen-colouredallover，andaboutthesizeofthebirdslastdescribed；itisfleetoffootandstrongofwing，anditspipeisloudandhigh-pitched。Thecollyrionorfieldfare
feedsonthesamefoodastheowsel；isofthesamesizeastheabovementionedbirds；andistrappedusuallyinthewinter。Allthesebirdsarefoundatalltimes。Further，therearethebirdsthatliveasaruleintowns，theravenandthecrow。Thesealsoarevisibleatallseasons，nevershifttheirplaceofabode，andnevergointowinterquarters。
24
Ofdawstherearethreespecies。Oneisthechough；itisaslargeasthecrow，buthasaredbeak。Thereisanother，calledthe'wolf'；andfurtherthereisthelittledaw，calledthe'railer'。
ThereisanotherkindofdawfoundinLybiaandPhrygia，whichisweb-footed。
25
Oflarkstherearetwokinds。Onelivesonthegroundandhasacrestonitshead；theotherisgregarious，andnotsporadiclikethefirst；itis，however，ofthesamecolouredplumage，butissmaller，andhasnocrest；itisanarticleofhumanfood。
26
Thewoodcockiscaughtwithnetsingardens。Itisaboutthesizeofabarn-doorhen；ithasalongbeak，andinplumageislikethefrancolin-partridge。Itrunsquickly，andisprettyeasilydomesticated。Thestarlingisspeckled；itisofthesamesizeastheowsel。
27
OftheEgyptianibistherearetwokinds，thewhiteandtheblack。
ThewhiteonesarefoundoverEgypt，exceptinginPelusium；theblackonesarefoundinPelusium，andnowhereelseinEgypt。
28
Ofthelittlehornedowlstherearetwokinds，andoneisvisibleatallseasons，andforthatreasonhasthenicknameof'all-the-year-roundowl'；itisnotsufficientlypalatabletocometotable；anotherspeciesmakesitsappearancesometimesintheautumn，isseenforasingledayoratthemostfortwodays，andisregardedasatabledelicacy；itscarcelydiffersfromthefirstspeciessaveonlyinbeingfatter；ithasnonote，buttheotherspecieshas。Withregardtotheirorigin，nothingisknownfromocularobservation；theonlyfactknownforcertainisthattheyarefirstseenwhenawestwindisblowing。
29
Thecuckoo，ashasbeensaidelsewhere，makesnonest，butdepositsitseggsinanaliennest，generallyinthenestofthering-dove，oronthegroundinthenestofthehypolaisorlark，oronatreeinthenestofthegreenlinnet。itlaysonlyoneegganddoesnothatchititself，butthemother-birdinwhosenestithasdepositedithatchesandrearsit；and，astheysay，thismotherbird，whentheyoungcuckoohasgrownbig，thrustsherownbroodoutofthenestandletsthemperish；otherssaythatthismother-birdkillsherownbroodandgivesthemtothealientodevour，despisingherownyoungowingtothebeautyofthecuckoo。Personalobserversagreeintellingmostofthesestories，butarenotinagreementastotheinstructionoftheyoung。Somesaythatthemother-cuckoocomesanddevoursthebroodoftherearingmother；otherssaythattheyoungcuckoofromitssuperiorsizesnapsupthefoodbroughtbeforethesmallerbroodhaveachance，andthatinconsequencethesmallerbrooddieofhunger；otherssaythat，byitssuperiorstrength，itactuallykillstheotheroneswhilstitisbeingrearedupwiththem。Thecuckooshowsgreatsagacityinthedisposalofitsprogeny；thefactis，themothercuckooisquiteconsciousofherowncowardiceandofthefactthatshecouldneverhelpheryoungoneinanemergency，andso，forthesecurityoftheyoungone，shemakesofhimasupposititiouschildinanaliennest。Thetruthis，thisbirdispre-eminentamongbirdsinthewayofcowardice；itallowsitselftobepeckedatbylittlebirds，andfliesawayfromtheirattacks。
30
Ithasalreadybeenstatedthatthefootlessbird，whichsometermthecypselus，resemblestheswallow；indeed，itisnoteasytodistinguishbetweenthetwobirds，exceptinginthefactthatthecypselushasfeathersontheshank。Thesebirdsreartheiryounginlongcellsmadeofmud，andfurnishedwithaholejustbigenoughforentryandexit；theybuildundercoverofsomeroofing-underarockorinacavern-forprotectionagainstanimalsandmen。
Theso-calledgoat-suckerlivesonmountains；itisalittlelargerthantheowsel，andlessthanthecuckoo；itlaystwoeggs，orthreeatthemost，andisofasluggishdisposition。Itfliesuptotheshe-goatandsucksitsmilk，fromwhichhabititderivesitsname；
itissaidthat，afterithassuckedtheteatoftheanimal，theteatdriesupandtheanimalgoesblind。Itisdim-sightedintheday-time，butseeswellenoughbynight。
31
Innarrowcircumscribeddistrictswherethefoodwouldbeinsufficientformorebirdsthantwo，ravensareonlyfoundinisolatedpairs；whentheiryoungareoldenoughtofly，theparentcouplefirstejectthemfromthenest，andbyandbychasethemfromtheneighbourhood。Theravenlaysfourorfiveeggs。AboutthetimewhenthemercenariesunderMediuswereslaughteredatPharsalus，thedistrictsaboutAthensandthePeloponnesewereleftdestituteofravens，fromwhichitwouldappearthatthesebirdshavesomemeansofintercommunicatingwithoneanother。