Anationwhichonlycarriesonagriculture，isanindividual
　　whoinhismaterialproductionlacksonearm。Commerceismerely
　　themediumofexchangebetweentheagriculturalandthe
　　manufacturingpower，andbetweentheirseparatebranches。Anation
　　whichexchangesagriculturalproductsforforeignmanufactured
　　goodsisanindividualwithonearm，whichissupportedbya
　　foreignarm。Thissupportmaybeusefultoit，butnotsousefulas
　　ifitpossessedtwoarmsitself，andthisbecauseitsactivityis
　　dependentonthecapriceoftheforeigner。Inpossessionofa
　　manufacturingpowerofitsown，itcanproduceasmuchprovisions
　　andrawmaterialsasthehomemanufacturerscanconsume；butif
　　dependentuponforeignmanufacturers，itcanmerelyproduceasmuch
　　surplusasforeignnationsdonotcaretoproduceforthemselves，
　　andwhichtheyareobligedtobuyfromanothercountry。
　　Asbetweenthedifferentdistrictsofoneandthesamecountry，
　　sodoesthedivisionoflabourandtheco-operationofthe
　　productivepowersoperatebetweenthevariousnationsoftheearth。
　　Theformerisconductedbyinternalornational，thelatterby
　　internationalcommerce。Theinternationalco-operationof
　　productivepowersis，however，averyimperfectone，inasmuchasit
　　maybefrequentlyinterruptedbywars，politicalregulations，
　　commercialcrises，&c。Althoughitisthemostimportantinone
　　sense，inasmuchasbyitthevariousnationsoftheearthare
　　connectedwithoneanother，itisneverthelesstheleastimportant
　　withregardtotheprosperityofanyseparatenationwhichis
　　alreadyfaradvancedincivilisation。Thisisadmittedbywriters
　　ofthepopularschool，whodeclarethatthehomemarketofanation
　　iswithoutcomparisonmoreimportantthanitsforeignmarket。It
　　followsfromthis，thatitistheinterestofeverygreatnationto
　　makethenationalconfederationofitsproductivepowersthemain
　　objectofitsexertions，andtoconsidertheirinternational
　　confederationassecondinimportancetoit。
　　Bothinternationalandnationaldivisionoflabourarechiefly
　　determinedbyclimateandbyNatureherself。Wecannotproducein
　　everycountryteaasinChina，spicesasinJava，cottonasin
　　Louisiana，orcorn，wool，fruit，andmanufacturedgoodsasinthe
　　countriesofthetemperatezone。Itwouldbefollyforanationto
　　attempttosupplyitselfbymeansofnationaldivisionoflabour
　　i。e。byhomeproductionwitharticlesfortheproductionofwhich
　　itisnotfavouredbynature，andwhichitcanprocurebetterand
　　cheaperbymeansofinternationaldivisionoflabouri。e。through
　　foreigncommerce。Andjustasmuchdoesitbetokenawantof
　　nationalintelligenceornationalindustryifanationdoesnot
　　employallthenaturalpowerswhichitpossessesinorderto
　　satisfyitsowninternalwants，andthenbymeansofthesurplusof
　　itsownproductionstopurchasethosenecessaryarticleswhich
　　naturehasforbiddenittoproduceonitsownterritory。
　　Thecountriesoftheworldmostfavouredbynature，withregard
　　tobothnationalandinternationaldivisionoflabour，are
　　evidentlythosewhosesoilbringsforththemostcommonnecessaries
　　oflifeofthebestqualityandinthelargestquantity，andwhose
　　climateismostconducivetobodilyandmentalexertion，andthese
　　arethecountriesofthetemperatezone；forinthesecountriesthe
　　manufacturingpowerespeciallyprospers，bymeansofwhichthe
　　nationnotmerelyattainstothehighestdegreeofmentaland
　　socialdevelopmentandofpoliticalpower，butisalsoenabledto
　　makethecountriesoftropicalclimatesandofinferior
　　civilisationtributaryinacertainmeasuretoitself。The
　　countriesofthetemperatezonethereforeareaboveallothers
　　calledupontobringtheirownnationaldivisionoflabourtothe
　　highestperfection，andtousetheinternationaldivisionoflabour
　　fortheirenrichment。
　　NOTES：
　　1。WealthofNations，BookI。chap。i。
　　2。WealthofNations，BookI。chap。i。
　　Chapter14
　　PrivateEconomyandNationalEconomy
　　Wehaveprovedhistoricallythattheunityofthenationforms
　　thefundamentalconditionoflastingnationalprosperity；andwe
　　haveshownthatonlywheretheinterestofindividualshasbeen
　　subordinatedtothoseofthenation，andwheresuccessive
　　generationshavestrivenforoneandthesameobject，thenations
　　havebeenbroughttoharmoniousdevelopmentoftheirproductive
　　powers，andhowlittleprivateindustrycanprosperwithoutthe
　　unitedeffortsbothoftheindividualswhoarelivingatthetime，
　　andofsuccessivegenerationsdirectedtoonecommonobject。We
　　havefurthertriedtoproveinthelastchapterhowthelawof
　　unionofpowersexhibitsitsbeneficialoperationintheindividual
　　manufactory，andhowitactswithequalpowerontheindustryof
　　wholenations。Inthepresentchapterwehavenowtodemonstrate
　　howthepopularschoolhasconcealeditsmisunderstandingofthe
　　nationalinterestsandoftheeffectsofnationalunionofpowers，
　　byconfoundingtheprinciplesofprivateeconomywiththoseof
　　nationaleconomy。
　　'Whatisprudenceintheconductofeveryprivatefamily，'says
　　AdamSmith，1*'canscarcebefollyinthatofagreatkingdom。'
　　Everyindividualinpursuinghisowninterestsnecessarilypromotes
　　therebyalsotheinterestsofthecommunity。Itisevidentthat
　　everyindividual，inasmuchasheknowshisownlocalcircumstances
　　bestandpaysmostattentiontohisoccupation，isfarbetterable
　　tojudgethanthestatesmanorlegislatorhowhiscapitalcanmost
　　profitablybeinvested。Hewhowouldventuretogiveadvicetothe
　　peoplehowtoinvesttheircapitalwouldnotmerelytakeupon
　　himselfauselesstask，butwouldalsoassumetohimselfan
　　authoritywhichbelongssolelytotheproducer，andwhichcanbe
　　entrustedtothosepersonsleastofallwhoconsiderthemselves
　　equaltosodifficultatask。AdamSmithconcludesfromthis：
　　'Restrictionsontradeimposedonthebehalfoftheinternal
　　industryofacountry，aremerefolly；everynation，likeevery
　　individual，oughttobuyarticleswheretheycanbeprocuredthe
　　cheapest；inordertoattaintothehighestdegreeofnational
　　prosperity，wehavesimplytofollowthemaximoflettingthings
　　alonelaisserfaireetlaisseraller。'SmithandSaycomparea
　　nationwhichseekstopromoteitsindustrybyprotectiveduties，to
　　atailorwhowantstomakehisownboots，andtoabootmakerwho
　　wouldimposeatollonthosewhoenterhisdoor，inorderto
　　promotehisprosperity。Asinallerrorsofthepopularschool，so
　　alsointhisonedoesThomasCoopergotoextremesinhisbook2*
　　whichisdirectedagainsttheAmericansystemofprotection。
　　'Politicaleconomy，'healleges，'isalmostsynonymouswiththe
　　privateeconomyofallindividuals；politicsarenoessential
　　ingredientofpoliticaleconomy；itisfollytosupposethatthe
　　communityissomethingquitedifferentfromtheindividualsofwhom
　　itiscomposed。Everyindividualknowsbesthowtoinvesthis
　　labourandhiscapital。Thewealthofthecommunityisnothingelse
　　thantheaggregateofthewealthofallitsindividualmembers；and
　　ifeveryindividualcanprovidebestforhimself，thatnationmust
　　betherichestinwhicheveryindividualismostlefttohimself。'
　　TheadherentsoftheAmericansystemofprotectionhadopposed
　　themselvestothisargument，whichhadformerlybeenadducedby
　　importingmerchantsinfavouroffreetrade；theAmerican
　　navigationlawshadgreatlyincreasedthecarryingtrade，the
　　foreigncommerce，andfisheriesoftheUnitedStates；andforthe
　　mereprotectionoftheirmercantilemarinemillionshadbeen
　　annuallyexpendedontheirfleet；accordingtohistheorythose
　　lawsandthisexpensealsowouldbeasreprehensibleasprotective
　　duties。'Inanycase，'exclaimsMrCooper，'nocommercebyseais
　　worthanavalwar；themerchantsmaybelefttoprotect
　　themselves。'
　　Thusthepopularschool，whichhadbegunbyignoringthe
　　principlesofnationalityandnationalinterests，finallycomesto
　　thepointofaltogetherdenyingtheirexistence，andofleaving
　　individualstodefendthemastheymaysolelybytheirown
　　individualpowers。
　　How？Isthewisdomofprivateeconomy，alsowisdominnational
　　economy？Isitinthenatureofindividualstotakeinto
　　considerationthewantsoffuturecenturies，asthoseconcernthe
　　natureofthenationandtheState？Letusconsideronlythefirst
　　beginningofanAmericantown；everyindividuallefttohimself
　　wouldcaremerelyforhisownwants，oratthemostforthoseof
　　hisnearestsuccessors，whereasallindividualsunitedinone
　　communityprovidefortheconvenienceandthewantsofthemost
　　distantgenerations；theysubjectthepresentgenerationforthis
　　objecttoprivationsandsacrificeswhichnoreasonableperson
　　couldexpectfromindividuals。Cantheindividualfurthertakeinto
　　considerationinpromotinghisprivateeconomy，thedefenceofthe
　　country，publicsecurityandthethousandotherobjectswhichcan
　　onlybeattainedbytheaidofthewholecommunity？Doesnotthe
　　Staterequireindividualstolimittheirprivatelibertyaccording
　　towhattheseobjectsrequire？Doesitnotevenrequirethatthey
　　shouldsacrificeforthesesomepartoftheirearnings，oftheir
　　mentalandbodilylabour，nay，eventheirownlife？Wemustfirst
　　rootout，asCooperdoes，theveryideasof'State'and'nation'
　　beforethisopinioncanbeentertained。
　　No；thatmaybewisdominnationaleconomywhichwouldbefolly
　　inprivateeconomy，andvicevers？andowingtotheverysimple
　　reason，thatatailorisnonationandanationnotailor，thatone
　　familyissomethingverydifferentfromacommunityofmillionsof
　　families，thatonehouseissomethingverydifferentfromalarge
　　nationalterritory。Nordoestheindividualmerelybyunderstanding
　　hisowninterestsbest，andbystrivingtofurtherthem，ifleftto
　　hisowndevices，alwaysfurthertheinterestsofthecommunity。We
　　askthosewhooccupythebenchesofjustice，whethertheydonot
　　frequentlyhavetosendindividualstothetread-millonaccountof
　　theirexcessofinventivepower，andoftheiralltoogreat
　　industry。Robbers，thieves，smugglers，andcheatsknowtheirown
　　localandpersonalcircumstancesandconditionsextremelywell，and
　　paythemostactiveattentiontotheirbusiness；butitbynomeans
　　followstherefrom，thatsocietyisinthebestconditionwheresuch
　　individualsareleastrestrainedintheexerciseoftheirprivate
　　industry。
　　InathousandcasesthepoweroftheStateiscompelledto
　　imposerestrictionsonprivateindustry。Itpreventstheshipowner
　　fromtakingonboardslavesonthewestcoastofAfrica，andtaking
　　themovertoAmerica。Itimposesregulationsastothebuildingof
　　steamersandtherulesofnavigationatsea，inorderthat
　　passengersandsailorsmaynotbesacrificedtotheavariceand
　　capriceofthecaptains。InEnglandcertainruleshaverecently
　　beenenactedwithregardtoshipbuilding，becauseaninfernalunion
　　betweenassurancecompaniesandshipownershasbeenbroughtto
　　light，wherebyyearlythousandsofhumanlivesandmillionsin
　　valueweresacrificedtotheavariceofafewpersons。InNorth
　　Americamillersareboundunderapenaltytopackintoeachcask
　　notlessthan198lbs。ofgoodflour，andforallmarketgoods
　　marketinspectorsareappointed，althoughinnoothercountryis
　　individuallibertymorehighlyprized。EverywheredoestheState
　　considerittobeitsdutytoguardthepublicagainstdangerand
　　loss，asinthesaleofnecessariesoflife，soalsointhesaleof
　　medicines，&c。
　　Butthecaseswhichwehavementionedtheschoolwillreply
　　concernunlawfuldamagestopropertyandtotheperson，notthe
　　honourableexchangeofusefulobjects，nottheharmlessanduseful
　　industryofprivateindividuals；toimposerestrictionsonthese
　　lattertheStatehasnorightwhatever。Ofcoursenot，solongas
　　theyremainharmlessanduseful；thatwhich，however，isharmless
　　andusefulinitself，ingeneralcommercewiththeworld，can
　　becomedangerousandinjuriousinnationalinternalcommerce，and
　　vicevers？Intimeofpeace，andconsideredfromacosmopolitan
　　pointofview，privateeringisaninjuriousprofession；intimeof
　　war，Governmentsfavourit。Thedeliberatekillingofahumanbeing
　　isacrimeintimeofpeace，inwaritbecomesaduty。Tradingin
　　gunpowder，lead，andarmsintimeofpeaceisallowed；butwhoever
　　providestheenemywiththemintimeofwar，ispunishedasa
　　traitor。
　　ForsimilarreasonstheStateisnotmerelyjustifiedin
　　imposing，butboundtoimpose，certainregulationsandrestrictions
　　oncommercewhichisinitselfharmlessforthebestinterestsof
　　thenation。Byprohibitionsandprotectivedutiesitdoesnotgive
　　directionstoindividualshowtoemploytheirproductivepowersand
　　capitalasthepopularschoolsophisticallyalleges；itdoesnot
　　telltheone，'Youmustinvestyourmoneyinthebuildingofa
　　ship，orintheerectionofamanufactory；'ortheother，'Youmust
　　beanavalcaptainoracivilengineer；'itleavesittothe
　　judgmentofeveryindividualhowandwheretoinvesthiscapital，
　　ortowhatvocationhewilldevotehimself。Itmerelysays，'Itis
　　totheadvantageofournationthatwemanufacturetheseorthe
　　othergoodsourselves；butasbyfreecompetitionwithforeign
　　countrieswecanneverobtainpossessionofthisadvantage，wehave
　　imposedrestrictionsonthatcompetition，sofarasinouropinion
　　isnecessary，togivethoseamonguswhoinvesttheircapitalin
　　thesenewbranchesofindustry，andthosewhodevotetheirbodily
　　andmentalpowerstothem，therequisiteguaranteesthattheyshall
　　notlosetheircapitalandshallnotmisstheirvocationinlife；
　　andfurthertostimulateforeignerstocomeovertooursidewith
　　theirproductivepowers。Inthismanner，itdoesnotintheleast
　　degreerestrainprivateindustry；onthecontrary，itsecuresto
　　thepersonal，natural，andmoneyedpowersofthenationagreater
　　andwiderfieldofactivity。Itdoesnottherebydosomethingwhich
　　itsindividualcitizenscouldunderstandbetteranddobetterthan
　　it；onthecontraryitdoessomethingwhichtheindividuals，even
　　iftheyunderstoodit，wouldnotbeabletodoforthemselves。
　　Theallegationoftheschool，thatthesystemofprotection
　　occasionsunjustandanti-economicalencroachmentsbythepowerof
　　theStateagainsttheemploymentofthecapitalandindustryof
　　privateindividuals，appearsintheleastfavourablelightifwe
　　considerthatitistheforeigncommercialregulationswhichallow
　　suchencroachmentsonourprivateindustrytotakeplace，andthat
　　onlybytheaidofthesystemofprotectionareweenabledto
　　counteractthoseinjuriousoperationsoftheforeigncommercial
　　policy。IftheEnglishshutoutourcornfromtheirmarkets，what
　　elsearetheydoingthancompellingouragriculturiststogrowso
　　muchlesscornthantheywouldhavesentouttoEnglandunder
　　systemsoffreeimportation？Iftheyputsuchheavydutiesonour
　　wool，ourwines，orourtimber，thatourexporttradetoEngland
　　whollyoringreatmeasureceases，whatelseistherebyeffected
　　thanthatthepoweroftheEnglishnationrestrictsproportionately
　　ourbranchesofproduction？Inthesecasesadirectionisevidently
　　givenbyforeignlegislationtoourcapitalandourpersonal
　　productivepowers，whichbutfortheregulationsmadebyitthey
　　wouldscarcelyhavefollowed。Itfollowsfromthis，thatwereweto
　　disowngiving，bymeansofourownlegislation，adirectiontoour
　　ownnationalindustryinaccordancewithourownnational
　　interests，wecouldnotpreventforeignnationsfromregulatingour
　　nationalindustryafterafashionwhichcorrespondswiththeirown
　　realorpresumedadvantage，andwhichinanycaseoperates
　　disadvantageouslytothedevelopmentofourownproductivepowers。
　　Butcanitpossiblybewiseronourpart，andmoretotheadvantage
　　ofthosewhonationallybelongtous，forustoallowourprivate
　　industrytoberegulatedbyaforeignnationalLegislature，in
　　accordancewithforeignnationalinterests，ratherthanregulateit
　　bymeansofourownLegislatureandinaccordancewithourown
　　interests？DoestheGermanorAmericanagriculturistfeelhimself
　　lessrestrictedifhehastostudyeveryyeartheEnglishActsof
　　Parliament，inordertoascertainwhetherthatbodydeemsit
　　advantageoustoencourageortoimposerestrictionsonhis
　　productionofcornorwool，thanifhisownLegislatureimposes
　　certainrestrictionsonhiminrespectofforeignmanufactured
　　goods，butatthesametimeinsureshimamarketforallhis
　　products，ofwhichhecanneveragainbedeprivedbyforeign
　　legislation？
　　Iftheschoolmaintainsthatprotectivedutiessecuretothe
　　homemanufacturersamonopolytothedisadvantageofthehome
　　consumers，insodoingitmakesuseofaweakargument。Foras
　　everyindividualinthenationisfreetoshareintheprofitsof
　　thehomemarketwhichisthussecuredtonativeindustry，thisis
　　innorespectaprivatemonopoly，butaprivilege，securedtoall
　　thosewhobelongtoournation，asagainstthosewhonationally
　　belongtoforeignnations，andwhichisthemorerighteousandjust
　　inasmuchasthosewhonationallybelongtoforeignnationspossess
　　themselvestheverysamemonopoly，andthosewhobelongtousare
　　merelytherebyputonthesamefootingwiththem。Itisneithera
　　privilegetotheexclusiveadvantageoftheproducers，nortothe
　　exclusivedisadvantageoftheconsumers；foriftheproducersat
　　firstobtainhigherprices，theyrungreatrisks，andhaveto
　　contendagainstthoseconsiderablelossesandsacrificeswhichare
　　alwaysconnectedwithallbeginningsinmanufacturingindustry。But
　　theconsumershaveamplesecuritythattheseextraordinaryprofits
　　shallnotreachunreasonablelimits，orbecomeperpetual，bymeans
　　ofthecompetitionathomewhichfollowslateron，andwhich，asa
　　rule，alwayslowerspricesfurtherthanthelevelatwhichtheyhad
　　steadilyrangedunderthefreecompetitionoftheforeigner。Ifthe
　　agriculturists，whoarethemostimportantconsumerstothe
　　manufacturers，mustalsopayhigherprices，thisdisadvantagewill
　　beamplyrepaidtothembyincreaseddemandsforagricultural
　　products，andbyincreasedpricesobtainedforthelatter。
　　Itisafurthersophism，arrivedatbyconfoundingthetheory
　　ofmerevalueswiththatofthepowersofproduction，whenthe
　　popularschoolinfersfromthedoctrine，'thatthewealthofthe
　　nationismerelytheaggregateofthewealthofallindividualsin
　　it，andthattheprivateinterestofeveryindividualisbetter
　　ablethanallStateregulationstoincitetoproductionand
　　accumulationofwealth，'theconclusionthatthenationalindustry
　　wouldprosperbestifonlyeveryindividualwereleftundisturbed
　　intheoccupationofaccumulatingwealth。Thatdoctrinecanbe
　　concededwithouttheconclusionresultingfromitatwhichthe
　　schooldesiresthustoarrive；forthepointinquestionisnotas
　　wehaveshowninapreviouschapterthatofimmediatelyincreasing
　　bycommercialrestrictionstheamountofthevaluesofexchangein
　　thenation，butofincreasingtheamountofitsproductivepowers。
　　Butthattheaggregateoftheproductivepowersofthenationis
　　notsynonymouswiththeaggregateoftheproductivepowersofall
　　individuals，eachconsideredseparately——thatthetotalamountof
　　thesepowersdependschieflyonsocialandPoliticalconditions，
　　butespeciallyonthedegreeinwhichthenationhasrendered
　　effectualthedivisionoflabourandtheconfederationofthe
　　powersofproductionwithinitself——webelievewehave
　　sufficientlydemonstratedintheprecedingchapters。
　　Thissystemeverywheretakesintoitsconsiderationonly
　　individualswhoareinfreeunrestrainedintercourseamong
　　themselves，andwhoarecontentedifweleaveeveryonetopursue
　　hisownprivateinterestsaccordingtohisownprivatenatural
　　inclination。Thisisevidentlynotasystemofnationaleconomy，
　　butasystemoftheprivateeconomyofthehumanrace，asthat
　　wouldconstituteitselfweretherenointerferenceonthepartof
　　anyGovernment，weretherenowars，nohostileforeigntariff
　　restrictions。Nowheredotheadvocatesofthatsystemcaretopoint
　　outbywhatmeansthosenationswhicharenowprosperoushave
　　raisedthemselvestothatstageofpowerandprosperitywhichwe
　　seethemmaintain，andfromwhatcausesothershavelostthat
　　degreeofprosperityandpowerwhichtheyformerlymaintained。We
　　canonlylearnfromithowinprivateindustry，naturalability，
　　labourandcapital，arecombinedinordertobringintoexchange
　　valuableproducts，andinwhatmannertheselatteraredistributed
　　amongthehumanraceandconsumedbyit。Butwhatmeansaretobe
　　adoptedinordertobringthenaturalpowersbelongingtoany
　　individualnationintoactivityandvalue，toraiseapoorandweak
　　nationtoprosperityandpower，cannotbegatheredfromit，because
　　theschooltotallyignoringpolitics，ignoresthespecial
　　conditionsofthenation，andconcernsitselfmerelyaboutthe
　　prosperityofthewholehumanrace。Whereverinternationalcommerce
　　isinquestion，thenativeindividualisthroughoutsimplypitted
　　againsttheforeignindividual；examplesfromtheprivatedealings
　　ofseparatemerchantsarethroughouttheonlyonesadduced——goods
　　arespokenofingeneraltermswithoutconsideringwhetherthe
　　questionisoneofrawproductsorofmanufacturedarticles——in
　　ordertoprovethatitisequallyforthebenefitofthenation
　　whetheritsexportsandimportsconsistofmoney，ofrawmaterials，
　　orofmanufacturedgoods，andwhetherornottheybalanceone
　　another。Ifwe，forexample，terrifiedatthecommercialcrises
　　whichprevailintheUnitedStatesofNorthAmericalikenative
　　epidemics，consultthistheoryastothemeansofavertingor
　　diminishingthem，itleavesusutterlywithoutcomfortor
　　instruction；nay，itisindeedimpossibleforustoinvestigate
　　thesephenomenascientifically，because，underthepenaltyofbeing
　　takenformuddleheadsandignoramuses，wemustnotevenutterthe
　　term'balanceoftrade，'whilethistermis，notwithstanding，made
　　useofinalllegislativeassemblies，inallbureauxof
　　administration，oneveryexchange。Forthesakeofthewelfareof
　　humanity，thebeliefisinculcatedonusthatexportsalways
　　balancethemselvesspontaneouslybyimports；notwithstandingthat
　　wereadinpublicaccountshowtheBankofEnglandcomestothe
　　assistanceofthenatureofthings；notwithstandingthatcornlaws
　　exist，whichmakeitsomewhatdifficultfortheagriculturistof
　　thosecountrieswhichdealwithEnglandtopaywithhisownproduce
　　forthemanufacturedgoodswhichheconsumes。
　　Theschoolrecognisesnodistinctionbetweennationswhichhave
　　attainedahigherdegreeofeconomicaldevelopment，andthosewhich
　　occupyalowerstage。Everywhereitseekstoexcludetheactionof
　　thepoweroftheState；everywhere，accordingtoit，willthe
　　individualbesomuchbetterabletoproduce，thelessthepowerof
　　theStateconcernsitselfforhim。Infact，accordingtothis
　　doctrinesavagenationsoughttobethemostproductiveandwealthy
　　oftheearth，fornowhereistheindividualleftmoretohimself
　　thaninthesavagestate，nowhereistheactionofthepowerofthe
　　Statelessperceptible。
　　Statisticsandhistory，however，teach，onthecontrary，that
　　thenecessityfortheinterventionoflegislativepowerand
　　administrationiseverywheremoreapparent，thefurthertheeconomy
　　ofthenationisdeveloped。Asindividuallibertyisingenerala
　　goodthingsolongonlyasitdoesnotruncountertotheinterests
　　ofsociety，soisitreasonabletoholdthatprivateindustrycan
　　onlylayclaimtounrestrictedactionsolongasthelatter
　　consistswiththewell-beingofthenation。Butwheneverthe
　　enterpriseandactivityofindividualsdoesnotsufficeforthis
　　purpose，orinanycasewherethesemightbecomeinjurioustothe
　　nation，theredoesprivateindustryrightlyrequiresupportfrom
　　thewholepowerofthenation，thereoughtitforthesakeofits
　　ownintereststosubmittolegalrestrictions。
　　Iftheschoolrepresentsthefreecompetitionofallproducers
　　asthemosteffectualmeansforpromotingtheprosperityofthe
　　humanrace，itisquiterightfromthepointofviewwhichit
　　assumes。Onthehypothesisofauniversalunion，everyrestriction
　　onthehonestexchangeofgoodsbetweenvariouscountriesseems
　　unreasonableandinjurious。Butsolongasothernations
　　Subordinatetheinterestsofthehumanraceasawholetotheir
　　nationalinterests，itisfollytospeakoffreecompetitionamong
　　theindividualsofvariousnations。Theargumentsoftheschoolin
　　favouroffreecompetitionarethusonlyapplicabletotheexchange
　　betweenthosewhobelongtooneandthesamenation。Everygreat
　　nation，therefore，mustendeavourtoformanaggregatewithin
　　itself，whichwillenterintocommercialintercoursewithother
　　similaraggregatessofaronlyasthatintercourseisSuitableto
　　theinterestsofitsownspecialcommunity。Theseinterestsofthe
　　communityare，however，infinitelydifferentfromtheprivate
　　interestsofalltheseparateindividualsofthenation，ifeach
　　individualistoberegardedasexistingforhimselfaloneandnot
　　inthecharacterofamemberofthenationalcommunity，ifwe
　　regardasSmithandSaydoindividualsasmereproducersand
　　consumers，notcitizensofstatesormembersofnations；foras
　　such，mereindividualsdonotconcernthemselvesfortheprosperity
　　offuturegenerations——theydeemitfoolishasMrCooperreally
　　demonstratestoustomakecertainandpresentsacrificesinorder
　　toendeavourtoobtainabenefitwhichisasyetuncertainand
　　lyinginthevastfieldofthefutureifevenitpossessanyvalue
　　atall；theycarebutlittleforthecontinuanceofthenation——
　　theywouldexposetheshipsoftheirmerchantstobecometheprey
　　ofeveryboldpirate——theytroublethemselvesbutlittleabout
　　thepower，thehonour，orthegloryofthenation，atthemostthey
　　canpersuadethemselvestomakesomematerialsacrificesforthe
　　educationoftheirchildren，andtogivethemtheopportunityof
　　learningatrade，providedalwaysthatafterthelapseofafew
　　yearsthelearnersareplacedinapositiontoearntheirown
　　bread。
　　Indeed，accordingtotheprevailingtheory，soanalogousis
　　nationaleconomytoprivateeconomythatJ。B。Say，where
　　exceptionallyheallowsthatinternalindustrymaybeprotected
　　bytheState，makesitaconditionofsodoing，thatevery
　　probabilitymustexistthatafterthelapseofafewyearsitwill
　　attainindependence，justasashoemaker'sapprenticeisallowed
　　onlyafewyears'timeinordertoperfecthimselfsofarinhis
　　tradeastodowithoutparentalassistance。
　　NOTES：
　　1。WealthofNations，BookIV。chap。ii。
　　2。LecturesonPoliticalEconomy，byThomasCooper，pp。1，15，19，
　　117。
　　Chapter15
　　NationalityandtheEconomyoftheNation
　　Thesystemoftheschoolsuffers，aswehavealreadyshownin
　　theprecedingchapters，fromthreemaindefects：firstly，from
　　boundlesscosmopolitanism，whichneitherrecognisestheprinciple
　　ofnationality，nortakesintoconsiderationthesatisfactionof
　　itsinterests；secondly，fromadeadmaterialism，whicheverywhere
　　regardschieflythemereexchangeablevalueofthingswithout
　　takingintoconsiderationthementalandpolitical，thepresentand
　　thefutureinterests，andtheproductivepowersofthenation；
　　thirdly，fromadisorganisingparticularismandindividualism，
　　which，ignoringthenatureandcharacterofsociallabourandthe
　　operationoftheunionofpowersintheirhigherconsequences，
　　considersprivateindustryonlyasitwoulddevelopitselfundera
　　stateoffreeinterchangewithsocietyi。e。withthewholehuman
　　racewerethatracenotdividedintoseparatenationalsocieties。
　　Betweeneachindividualandentirehumanity，however，stands
　　THENATION，withitsspeciallanguageandliterature，withits
　　peculiaroriginandhistory，withitsspecialmannersandcustoms，
　　lawsandinstitutions，withtheclaimsofalltheseforexistence，
　　independence，perfection，andcontinuanceforthefuture，andwith
　　itsseparateterritory；asocietywhich，unitedbyathousandties
　　ofmindandofinterests，combinesitselfintooneindependent
　　whole，whichrecognisesthelawofrightforandwithinitself，and
　　initsunitedcharacterisstillopposedtoothersocietiesofa
　　similarkindintheirnationalliberty，andconsequentlycanonly
　　undertheexistingconditionsoftheworldmaintainself-existence
　　andindependencebyitsownpowerandresources。Astheindividual
　　chieflyobtainsbymeansofthenationandinthenationmental
　　culture，powerofproduction，security，andprosperity，soisthe
　　civilisationofthehumanraceonlyconceivableandpossibleby
　　meansofthecivilisationanddevelopmentoftheindividual
　　nations。
　　Meanwhile，however，aninfinitedifferenceexistsinthe
　　conditionandcircumstancesofthevariousnations：weobserve
　　amongthemgiantsanddwarfs，well-formedbodiesandcripples，
　　civilised，half-civilised，andbarbarousnations；butinallof
　　them，asintheindividualhumanbeing，existstheimpulseof
　　self-preservation，thestrivingforimprovementwhichisimplanted
　　bynature。Itisthetaskofpoliticstocivilisethebarbarous
　　nationalities，tomakethesmallandweakonesgreatandstrong，
　　but，aboveall，tosecuretothemexistenceandcontinuance。Itis
　　thetaskofnationaleconomytoaccomplishtheeconomical
　　developmentofthenation，andtoprepareitforadmissionintothe
　　universalsocietyofthefuture。
　　Anationinitsnormalstatepossessesonecommonlanguageand
　　literature，aterritoryendowedwithmanifoldnaturalresources，
　　extensive，andwithconvenientfrontiersandanumerouspopulation。
　　Agriculture，manufactures，commerce，andnavigationmustbeall
　　developedinitproportionately。artsandsciences，educational
　　establishments，anduniversal，cultivationmuststandinitonan
　　equalfootingwithmaterialproduction。Itsconstitution，laws，and
　　institutionsmustaffordtothosewhobelongtoitahighdegreeof
　　securityandliberty，andmustpromotereligion，morality，and
　　prosperity；inaword，musthavethewell-beingofitscitizensas
　　theirobject。Itmustpossesssufficientpoweronlandandatsea
　　todefenditsindependenceandtoprotectitsforeigncommerce。It
　　willpossessthepowerofbeneficiallyaffectingthecivilisation
　　oflessadvancednations，andbymeansofitsownsurplus
　　populationandoftheirmentalandmaterialcapitaltofound
　　coloniesandbegetnewnations。
　　Alargepopulation，andanextensiveterritoryendowedwith
　　manifoldnationalresources，areessentialrequirementsofthe
　　normalnationality；theyarethefundamentalconditionsofmental
　　cultivationaswellasofmaterialdevelopmentandpoliticalpower。
　　Anationrestrictedinthenumberofitspopulationandin
　　territory，especiallyifithasaseparatelanguage，canonly
　　possessacrippledliterature，crippledinstitutionsforpromoting
　　artandscience。AsmallStatecanneverbringtocomplete
　　perfectionwithinitsterritorythevariousbranchesofproduction。
　　Initallprotectionbecomesmereprivatemonopoly。Onlythrough
　　allianceswithmorepowerfulnations，bypartlysacrificingthe
　　advantagesofnationality，andbyexcessiveenergy，canitmaintain
　　withdifficultyitsindependence。
　　Anationwhichpossessesnocoasts，mercantilemarine，ornaval
　　power，orhasnotunderitsdominionandcontrolthemouthsofits
　　rivers，isinitsforeigncommercedependentonothercountries；it
　　canneitherestablishcoloniesofitsownnorformnewnations；all
　　surpluspopulation，mentalandmaterialmeans，whichflowsfrom
　　suchanationtouncultivatedcountries，islosttoitsown
　　literature，civilisationandindustry，andgoestothebenefitof
　　othernationalities。
　　Anationnotboundedbyseasandchainsofmountainsliesopen
　　totheattacksofforeignnations，andcanonlybygreat
　　sacrifices，andinanycaseonlyveryimperfectly，establishand
　　maintainaseparatetariffsystemofitsown。
　　Territorialdeficienciesofthenationcanberemediedeither
　　bymeansofhereditarysuccession，asinthecaseofEnglandand
　　Scotland；orbypurchase，asinthecaseofFloridaandLouisiana；
　　orbyconquests，asinthecaseofGreatBritainandIreland。
　　Inmoderntimesafourthmeanshasbeenadopted，whichleadsto
　　thisobjectinamannermuchmoreinaccordancewithjusticeand
　　withtheprosperityofnationsthanconquest，andwhichisnotso
　　dependentonaccidentsashereditarysuccession，namely，theunion
　　oftheinterestsofvariousStatesbymeansoffreeconventions。
　　ByitsZollverein，theGermannationfirstobtainedoneofthe
　　mostimportantattributesofitsnationality。Butthismeasure
　　cannotbeconsideredcompletesolongasitdoesnotextendover
　　thewholecoast，fromthemouthoftheRhinetothefrontierof
　　Poland，includingHollandandDenmark。Anaturalconsequenceof
　　thisunionmustbetheadmissionofboththesecountriesintothe
　　GermanBund，andconsequentlyintotheGermannationality，whereby
　　thelatterwillatonceobtainwhatitisnowinneedof，namely，
　　fisheriesandnavalpower，maritimecommerceandcolonies。Besides，
　　boththesenationsbelong，asrespectstheirdescentandwhole
　　character，totheGermannationality。Theburdenofdebtwithwhich
　　theyareoppressedismerelyaconsequenceoftheirunnatural
　　endeavourstomaintainthemselvesasindependentnationalities，and
　　itisinthenatureofthingsthatthisevilshouldrisetoapoint
　　whenitwillbecomeintolerabletothosetwonationsthemselves，
　　andwhenincorporationwithalargernationalitymustseem
　　desirableandnecessarytothem。
　　Belgiumcanonlyremedybymeansofconfederationwitha
　　neighbouringlargernationherneedswhichareinseparablefromher
　　restrictedterritoryandpopulation。TheUnitedStatesandCanada，
　　themoretheirpopulationincreases，andthemoretheprotective
　　systemoftheUnitedStatesisdeveloped，somuchthemorewill
　　theyfeelthemselvesdrawntowardsoneanother，andthelesswill
　　itbepossibleforEnglandtopreventaunionbetweenthem。
　　Asrespectstheireconomy，nationshavetopassthroughthe
　　followingstagesofdevelopment：originalbarbarism，pastoral
　　condition，agriculturalcondition，agricultural-manufacturing
　　condition，andagricultural-manufacturing-commercialcondition。
　　Theindustrialhistoryofnations，andofnonemoreclearly
　　thanthatofEngland，provesthatthetransitionfromthesavage
　　statetothepastoralone，fromthepastoraltotheagricultural，
　　andfromagriculturetothefirstbeginningsinmanufactureand
　　navigation，iseffectedmostspeedilyandadvantageouslybymeans
　　offreecommercewithfurtheradvancedtownsandcountries，but
　　thataperfectlydevelopedmanufacturingindustry，animportant
　　mercantilemarine，andforeigntradeonareallylargescale，can
　　onlybeattainedbymeansoftheinterpositionofthepowerofthe
　　State。
　　Thelessanynation'sagriculturehasbeenperfected，andthe
　　moreitsforeigntradeisinwantofopportunitiesofexchanging
　　theexcessofnativeagriculturalproductsandrawmaterialsfor
　　foreignmanufacturedgoods，thedeeperthatthenationisstill
　　sunkinbarbarismandfittedonlyforanabsolutemonarchicalform
　　ofgovernmentandlegislation，themorewillfreetradei。e。the
　　exportationofagriculturalproductsandtheimportationof
　　manufacturedgoodspromoteitsprosperityandcivilisation。
　　Ontheotherhand，themorethattheagricultureofanation，
　　itsindustries，anditssocial，political，andmunicipal
　　conditions，arethoroughlydeveloped，thelessadvantagewillitbe
　　abletoderivefortheimprovementofitssocialconditions，from
　　theexchangeofnativeagriculturalproductsandrawmaterialsfor
　　foreignmanufacturedgoods，andthegreaterdisadvantageswillit
　　experiencefromthesuccessfulcompetitionofaforeign
　　manufacturingpowersuperiortoitsown。
　　Solelyinnationsofthelatterkind，namely，thosewhich
　　possessallthenecessarymentalandmaterialconditionsandmeans
　　forestablishingamanufacturingpoweroftheirown，andofthereby
　　attainingthehighestdegreeofcivilisation，anddevelopmentof
　　materialprosperityandpoliticalpower，butwhichareretardedin
　　theirprogressbythecompetitionofaforeignmanufacturingpower
　　whichisalreadyfartheradvancedthantheirown——onlyinsuch
　　nationsarecommercialrestrictionsjustifiableforthepurposeof
　　establishingandprotectingtheirownmanufacturingpower；andeven
　　inthemitisjustifiableonlyuntilthatmanufacturingpoweris
　　strongenoughnolongertohaveanyreasontofearforeign
　　competition，andthenceforthonlysofarasmaybenecessaryfor
　　protectingtheinlandmanufacturingpowerinitsveryroots。
　　Thesystemofprotectionwouldnotmerelybecontrarytothe
　　principlesofcosmopoliticaleconomy，butalsototherightly
　　understoodadvantageofthenationitself，wereittoexclude
　　foreigncompetitionatonceandaltogether，andthusisolatefrom
　　othernationsthenationwhichisthusprotected。Ifthe
　　manufacturingpowertobeprotectedbestillinthefirstperiodof
　　itsdevelopment，theprotectivedutiesmustbeverymoderate，they
　　mustonlyrisegraduallywiththeincreaseofthementaland
　　materialcapital，ofthetechnicalabilitiesandspiritof
　　enterpriseofthenation。Neitherisitatallnecessarythatall
　　branchesofindustryshouldbeprotectedinthesamedegree。Only
　　themostimportantbranchesrequirespecialprotection，forthe
　　workingofwhichmuchoutlayofcapitalinbuildingandmanagement，
　　muchmachinery，andthereforemuchtechnicalknowledge，skill，and
　　experience，andmanyworkmenarerequired，andwhoseproducts
　　belongtothecategoryofthefirstnecessariesoflife，and
　　consequentlyareofthegreatestimportanceasregardstheirtotal
　　valueaswellasregardsnationalindependenceas，forexample，
　　cotton，woollenandlinenmanufactories，&c。。Ifthesemain
　　branchesaresuitablyprotectedanddeveloped，allotherless
　　importantbranchesofmanufacturewillriseuparoundthemundera
　　lessdegreeofprotection。Itwillbetotheadvantageofnations
　　inwhichwagesarehigh，andwhosepopulationisnotyetgreatin
　　proportiontotheextentoftheirterritory，e。g。intheUnited
　　StatesofNorthAmerica，togivelessprotectiontomanufacturesin
　　whichmachinerydoesnotplayanimportantpart，thantothosein
　　whichmachinerydoesthegreaterpartofthework，providingthat
　　thosenationswhichsupplythemwithsimilargoodsallowinreturn
　　freeimportationtotheiragriculturalproducts。
　　Thepopularschoolbetraysanuttermisconceptionofthenature
　　ofnationaleconomicalconditionsifitbelievesthatsuchnations
　　canpromoteandfurthertheircivilisation，theirprosperity，and
　　especiallytheirsocialprogress，equallywellbytheexchangeof
　　agriculturalproductsformanufacturedgoods，asbyestablishinga
　　manufacturingpoweroftheirown。Amereagriculturalnationcan
　　neverdeveloptoanyconsiderableextentitshomeandforeign
　　commerce，itsinlandmeansoftransport，anditsforeign
　　navigation，increaseitspopulationindueproportiontotheir
　　wellbeing，ormakenotableprogressinitsmoral，intellectual，
　　social，andpoliticaldevelopment：itwillneveracquireimportant
　　politicalpower，orbeplacedinapositiontoinfluencethe
　　cultivationandprogressoflessadvancednationsandtoform
　　coloniesofitsown。AmereagriculturalStateisaninfinitely
　　lessperfectinstitutionthananagriculturalmanufacturingState。
　　Theformerisalwaysmoreorlesseconomicallyandpolitically
　　dependentonthoseforeignnationswhichtakefromitagricultural
　　productsinexchangeformanufacturedgoods。Itcannotdetermine
　　foritselfhowmuchitwillproduce；itmustwaitandseehowmuch
　　otherswillbuyfromit。Theselatter，onthecontrarythe
　　agricultural-manufacturingStates，produceforthemselveslarge
　　quantitiesofrawmaterialsandprovisions，andsupplymerelythe
　　deficiencybyimportationfromthepurelyagriculturalnations。The
　　purelyagriculturalnationsarethusinthefirstplacedependent
　　fortheirpowerofeffectingsalesonthechancesofamoreorless
　　plentifulharvestintheagricultural-manufacturingnations；inthe
　　nextplacetheyhavetocompeteinthesesaleswithotherpurely
　　agriculturalnations，wherebytheirpowerofsale，initselfvery
　　uncertain，thusbecomesstillmoreuncertain。Lastly，theyare
　　exposedtothedangerofbeingtotallyruinedintheirtradingwith
　　foreignmanufacturingnationsbywars，ornewforeigntariff
　　regulationswherebytheysufferthedoubledisadvantageoffinding
　　nobuyersfortheirsurplusagriculturalproducts，andoffailing
　　toobtainsuppliesofthemanufacturedgoodswhichtheyrequire。An
　　agriculturalnationis，aswehavealreadystated，anindividual
　　withonearm，whomakesuseofaforeignarm，butwhocannotmake
　　sureoftheuseofitinallcases；anagricultural-manufacturing
　　nationisanindividualwhohastwoarmsofhisownalwaysathis
　　disposal。
　　Itisafundamentalerroroftheschoolwhenitrepresentsthe
　　systemofprotectionasameredeviceofspeculativepoliticians
　　whichiscontrarytonature。Historyistheretoprovethat
　　protectiveregulationsoriginatedeitherinthenaturaleffortsof
　　nationstoattaintoprosperity，independence，andpower，orin
　　consequenceofwarsandofthehostilecommerciallegislationof
　　predominatingmanufacturingnations。
　　Theideaofindependenceandpoweroriginatesintheveryidea
　　of'thenation。'Theschoolnevertakesthisintoconsideration，
　　becauseitdoesnotmaketheeconomyoftheseparatenation，but
　　theeconomyofsocietygenerally，i。e。ofthewholehumanrace，the
　　objectofitsinvestigations。Ifweimagine，forinstance，thatall
　　nationswereunitedbymeansofauniversalconfederation，their
　　individualindependenceandpowerwouldceasetobeanobjectof
　　regard。Thesecurityfortheindependenceofeverynationwouldin
　　suchacaserestonthelegalprovisionsoftheuniversalsociety，
　　justase。g。thesecurityoftheindependenceofthestatesof
　　RhodeIslandandDelawareliesintheunionofallthefreestates
　　constitutingtheAmericanUnion。Sincethefirstfoundationofthat
　　Unionithasneveryetoccurredtoanyofthesesmallerstatesto
　　carefortheenlargementofitsownpoliticalpower，ortoconsider
　　itsindependencelesssecuredthanisthatofthelargeststatesof
　　theUnion。
　　Inproportion，however，astheprincipleofauniversal
　　confederationofnationsisreasonable，injustthesamedegree
　　wouldagivennationactcontrarytoreasonif，inanticipationof
　　thegreatadvantagestobeexpectedfromsuchaunion，andfroma
　　stateofuniversalandperpetualpeace，itweretoregulatethe
　　principlesofitsnationalpolicyasthoughthisuniversal
　　confederationofnationsexistedalready。Weask，wouldnotevery
　　sanepersonconsideragovernmenttobeinsanewhich，in
　　considerationofthebenefitsandthereasonablenessofastateof
　　universalandperpetualpeace，proposedtodisbanditsarmies，
　　destroyitsfleet，anddemolishitsfortresses？Butsucha
　　governmentwouldbedoingnothingdifferentinprinciplefromwhat
　　thepopularschoolrequiresfromgovernmentswhen，becauseofthe
　　advantageswhichwouldbederivablefromgeneralfreetrade，it
　　urgesthattheyshouldabandontheadvantagesderivablefrom
　　protection。
　　Warhasaruinouseffectonthereciprocalcommercialrelations
　　betweennationandnation。Theagriculturistlivinginonecountry
　　isbyitforciblyseparatedfromthemanufacturerlivinginanother
　　country。While，however，themanufacturerespeciallyifhebelongs
　　toanationpowerfulatsea，andcarryingonextensivecommerce
　　readilyfindscompensationfromtheagriculturistsofhisown
　　country，orfromthoseofotheraccessibleagriculturalcountries，
　　theinhabitantofthepurelyagriculturalcountrysuffersdoubly
　　throughthisinterruptionofintercourse。
　　Themarketforhisagriculturalproductswillfailhim
　　entirely，andhewillconsequentlylosethemeansofpayingfor
　　thosemanufacturedgoodswhichhavebecomenecessariestohimowing
　　topreviouslyexistingtrade；hispowerbothofproductionand
　　consumptionwillbediminished。
　　If，however，oneagriculturalnationwhoseproductionand
　　consumptionarethusdiminishedbywarhasalreadymade
　　considerableadvancesinpopulation，civilisation，andagriculture，
　　manufacturesandfactorieswillspringupinitinconsequenceof
　　theinterruptionofinternationalcommercebywar。Waractsonit
　　likeaprohibitivetariffsystem。Ittherebybecomesacquainted
　　withthegreatadvantagesofamanufacturingpowerofitsown，it
　　becomesconvincedbypracticalexperiencethatithasgainedmore
　　thanithaslostbythecommercialinterruptionswhichwarhas
　　occasioned。Theconvictiongainsgroundinit，thatitiscalledto
　　passfromtheconditionofamereagriculturalStatetothe
　　conditionofanagricultural-manufacturingState，andin
　　consequenceofthistransition，toattaintothehighestdegreeof
　　prosperity，Civilisation，andpower。Butifaftersuchanationhas
　　alreadymadeconsiderableprogressinthemanufacturingcareer
　　whichwasopenedtoitbywar，peaceisagainestablished，and
　　shouldbothnationsthencontemplatetheresumptionoftheir
　　previouslyexistingcommercialintercourse，theywillbothfind
　　thatduringthewarnewinterestshavebeenformed，whichwouldbe
　　destroyedbyre-establishingtheformercommercialinterchange。1*
　　Theformeragriculturalnationwillfeel，thatinordertoresume
　　thesaleofitsagriculturalproductstotheforeigner，itwould
　　havetosacrificeitsownmanufacturingindustrywhichhasinthe
　　meanwhilebeencreated；themanufacturingnationwillfeelthata
　　portionofitshomeagriculturalproduction，whichhasbeenformed
　　duringthewar，wouldagainbedestroyedbyfreeimportation。Both，
　　therefore，trytoprotecttheseinterestsbymeansofimposing
　　dutiesonimports。Thisisthehistoryofcommercialpolitics
　　duringthelastfiftyyears。
　　Itiswarthathascalledintoexistencethemorerecent
　　systemsofprotection；andwedonothesitatetoassert，thatit
　　wouldhavebeentotheinterestofthemanufacturingnationsofthe
　　secondandthirdranktoretainaprotectivepolicyandfurther
　　developit，evenifEnglandaftertheconclusionofpeacehadnot
　　committedthemonstrousmistakeofimposingrestrictionsonthe
　　importationofnecessariesoflifeandofrawmaterials，and
　　consequentlyofallowingthemotiveswhichhadledtothesystemof
　　protectioninthetimeofthewar，tocontinueduringpeace。Asan
　　uncivilisednation，havingabarbaroussystemofagriculture，can
　　makeprogressonlybycommercewithcivilisedmanufacturing
　　nations，soafterithasattainedtoacertaindegreeofculture，
　　innootherwaycanitreachthehighestgradeofprosperity，
　　civilisation，andpower，thanbypossessingamanufacturing
　　industryofitsown。Awarwhichleadstothechangeofthepurely
　　agriculturalStateintoanagricultural-manufacturingStateis
　　thereforeablessingtoanation，justastheWarofIndependence
　　oftheUnitedStatesofNorthAmerica，inspiteoftheenormous
　　sacrificeswhichitrequired，hasbecomeablessingtoallfuture
　　generations。Butapeacewhichthrowsbackintoapurely
　　agriculturalconditionanationwhichisfittedtodevelopa
　　manufacturingpowerofitsown，becomesacursetoit，andis
　　incomparablymoreinjurioustoitthanawar。
　　Itisfortunateforthemanufacturingpowersofthesecondand
　　thirdrank，thatEnglandaftertherestorationofthegeneralpeace
　　hasherselfimposedalimittohermaintendencyofmonopolising
　　themanufacturingmarketofthewholeearth，byimposing
　　restrictionsontheimportationofforeignmeansofsubsistenceand
　　rawmaterials。CertainlytheEnglishagriculturists，whohad
　　enjoyedamonopolyofsupplyingtheEnglishmarketwithproducts
　　duringthewar，wouldofcoursehavepainfullyfelttheforeign
　　competition，butthatonlyatfirst；atalaterperiodaswewill
　　showmoreparticularlyelsewhere，theselosseswouldhavebeen
　　madeuptothemtenfoldbythefactthatEnglandhadobtaineda
　　monopolyofmanufacturingforthewholeworld。Butitwouldhave
　　beenstillmoreinjudiciousifthemanufacturingnationsofthe
　　secondandthirdrank，aftertheirownmanufacturingpowerhadjust
　　beencalledintoexistence，inconsequenceofwarslastingfor
　　twenty-fiveyears，andafterinconsequenceoftwenty-fiveyears'
　　exclusionoftheiragriculturalproductsfromtheEnglishmarket
　　thatpowerhasbeenstrengthenedsofarthatpossiblyitonly
　　requiredanothertenorfifteenyearsofstrictprotectioninorder
　　tosustainsuccessfullyfreecompetitionwithEnglishmanufactures——
　　ifwesaythesenations，afterhavingenduredthesacrifices
　　ofhalfacentury，weretogiveuptheimmenseadvantagesof
　　possessingamanufacturingpoweroftheirown，andweretodescend
　　oncemorefromthehighstateofculture，prosperity，and
　　independence，whichispeculiartoagricultural-manufacturing
　　countries，tothelowpositionofdependentagriculturalnations，
　　merelybecauseitnowpleasestheEnglishnationtoperceiveits
　　errorandthecloselyimpendingadvancesoftheContinentalnations
　　whichenterintocompetitionwithit。
　　SupposingalsothatthemanufacturinginterestofEngland
　　shouldobtainsufficientinfluencetoforcetheHouseofLords，
　　whichchieflyconsistsoflargelandedproprietors，andtheHouse
　　ofCommons，composedmostlyofcountrysquires，tomakeconcessions
　　inrespectoftheimportationofagriculturalproducts，whowould
　　guaranteethatafteralapseofafewyearsanewToryministry
　　wouldnotunderdifferentcircumstancesagainpassanewCornLaw？
　　WhocanguaranteethatanewnavalwaroranewContinentalsystem
　　maynotseparatetheagriculturistsoftheContinentfromthe
　　manufacturersoftheislandkingdom，andcompeltheContinental
　　nationstorecommencetheirmanufacturingcareer，andtospend
　　theirbestenergiesinovercomingitsprimarydifficulties，merely
　　inorder，atalaterperiodtosacrificeeverythingagainatthe
　　conclusionofpeace。
　　InthismannertheschoolwouldcondemntheContinentalnations
　　forevertoberollingthestoneofSisyphus，forevertoerect
　　manufactoriesintimeofwarinordertoallowthemtofalltoruin
　　intimeofpeace。
　　Toresultssoabsurdasthesetheschoolcouldneverhave
　　arrivedhaditnotinspiteofthenamewhichitgivestothe
　　sciencewhichitprofessescompletelyexcludedpoliticsfromthat
　　science，haditnotcompletelyignoredtheveryexistenceof
　　nationality，andleftentirelyoutofconsiderationtheeffectsof
　　waronthecommercialintercoursebetweenseparatenations。
　　Howutterlydifferentistherelationoftheagriculturistto
　　themanufacturerifbothliveinoneandthesamecountry，andare
　　consequentlyreallyconnectedwithoneanotherbyperpetualpeace。
　　Underthosecircumstances，everyextensionorimprovementofan
　　alreadyexistingmanufactoryincreasesthedemandforagricultural
　　products。Thisdemandisnouncertainone；itisnotdependenton
　　foreigncommercialregulationsorforeigncommercialfluctuations，
　　onforeignpoliticalcommotionsorwars，onforeigninventionsand
　　improvements，oronforeignharvests；thenativeagriculturisthas
　　nottoshareitwithothernations，itiscertaintohimevery
　　year。Howeverthecropsofothernationsmayturnout，whatever
　　misunderstandingsmayspringupinthepoliticalworld，hecan
　　dependonthesaleofhisownproduce，andonobtainingthe
　　manufacturedgoodswhichheneedsatsuitableandregularprices。
　　Ontheotherhand，everyimprovementofthenativeagriculture，
　　everynewmethodofculture，actsasastimulantonthenative
　　manufacture，becauseeveryaugmentationofnativeagricultural
　　productionmustresultinaproportionateaugmentationofnative
　　manufacturingproduction。Thus，bymeansofthisreciprocalaction，
　　progressisinsuredforalltimetoboththesemainsourcesofthe
　　nation'sstrengthandsupport。
　　Politicalpowernotmerelysecurestothenationtheincrease
　　ofitsprosperitybyforeigncommerceandbycoloniesabroad，it
　　alsosecurestoitthepossessionofinternalprosperity，and
　　securestoititsownexistence，whichisfarmoreimportanttoit
　　thanmerematerialwealth。Englandhasobtainedpoliticalpowerby
　　meansofhernavigationlaws；andbymeansofpoliticalpowershe
　　hasbeenplacedinapositiontoextendhermanufacturingpower
　　overothernations。Poland，however，wasstruckoutofthelistof
　　nationsbecauseshedidnotpossessavigorousmiddleclass，which
　　couldonlyhavebeencalledintoexistencebytheestablishmentof
　　aninternalmanufacturingpower。
　　Theschoolcannotdenythattheinternalmarketofanationis
　　tentimesmoreimportanttoitthanitsexternalone，evenwhere
　　thelatterisinthemostflourishingcondition；butithasomitted
　　todrawfromthistheconclusion，whichisveryobvious，thatitis
　　tentimesmoreimportanttocultivateandsecurethehomemarket，
　　thantoseekforwealthabroad，andthatonlyinthosenations
　　whichhavedevelopedtheirinternalindustrytoahighdegreecan
　　foreigncommerceattainimportance。