ButtheAtheniansweresoontolearnhowrapidlytheproductassertsitsmasteryovertheproducerwhenonceexchangebetweenindividualshasbegunandproductshavebeentransformedintocommodities。Withthecomingofcommodityproduction，individualsbegantocultivatethesoilontheirownaccount，whichsoonledtoindividualownershipofland。Moneyfollowed，thegeneralcommoditywithwhichallothers101
wereexchangeable。Butwhenmeninventedmoney，theydidnotthinkthattheywereagaincreatinganewsocialpower，theonegeneralpowerbeforewhichthewholeofsocietymustbow。Anditwasthisnewpower，suddenlysprungtolifewithoutknowledgeorwillofitscreators，whichnow，inallthebrutalityofitsyouth，gavetheAtheniansthefirsttasteofitsmight。
Whatwastobedone？Theoldgentileconstitutionhadnotonlyshownitselfpowerlessbeforethetriumphalmarchofmoney。itwasabsolutelyincapableoffindinganyplacewithinitsframeworkforsuchthingsasmoney，creditors，debtors，andforciblecollectionofdebts。Butthenewsocialpowerwasthere。piouswishes，andyearningforthereturnofthegoodolddayswouldnotdrivemoneyandusuryoutoftheworld。
Further，anumberofminorbreacheshadalsobeenmadeinthegentileconstitution。AlloverAttica，andespeciallyinAthensitself，themembersofthedifferentgentesandphratriesbecamestillmoreindiscriminatelymixedwitheverygeneration，althoughevennowanAthenianwasonlyallowedtoselllandoutsidehisgens，notthehouseinwhichhelived。Thedivisionoflaborbetweenthedifferentbranchesofproduction——agriculture，handicraftsinwhichtherewereagaininnumerablesubdivisions，trade，shipping，andsoforth——hadbeencarriedfurtherwitheveryadvanceofindustryandcommerce。thepopulationwasnowdividedaccordingtooccupationintofairlypermanentgroups，eachwithitsnewcommoninterests。andsincethegensandthephratrymadenoprovisionfordealingwiththem，newofficeshadtobecreated。Thenumberofslaveshadincreasedconsiderably，andevenatthattimemusthavefarexceededthenumberoffreeAthenians。thegentileconstitutionoriginallyknewnothingofslaveryandthereforehadnomeansofkeepingthesemassesofbondsmeninorder。Finally，tradehadbroughttoAthensanumberofforeignerswhosettledthereonaccountofthegreaterfacilitiesofmakingmoney。
theyalsocouldclaimnorightsorprotectionundertheoldconstitution。and，thoughtheywerereceivedwithtraditionaltolerance，theyremainedadisturbingandalienbodyamongthepeople。
Inshort，theendofthegentileconstitutionwasapproaching。Societywasoutgrowingitmoreeveryday。eventheworstevilsthathadgrownupunderitseyeswerebeyonditspowertocheckorremove。Butinthemeantimethestatehadquietlybeendeveloping。Thenewgroupsformedbythedivisionoflabor，firstbetweentownandcountry，thenbetweenthedifferentbranchesoftownlabor，hadcreatedneworganstolookaftertheirinterests。officialpostsofallkindshadbeensetup。
Andaboveeverythingelsetheyoungstateneededapowerofitsown，whichinthecaseoftheseafaringAthenianscouldatfirstonlybeanavalpower，forthepurposeofcarryingonsmallwarsandprotectingitsmerchantships。AtsomeunknowndatebeforeSolon，thenaukrariaiweresetup，smallterritorialdistricts，twelvetoeachtribe。eachnaukratiahadtoprovide，equipandmanawarshipandalsocontributetwohorsemen。Thisinstitutionwasatwofoldattackonthegentileconstitution。Inthefirstplace，itcreatedapublicforcewhichwasnownolongersimplyidenticalwiththewholebodyofthearmedpeople。
secondly，forthefirsttimeitdividedthepeopleforpublicpurposes，notbygroupsofkinship，butbycommonplaceofresidence。Weshallseethesignificanceofthis。
Thegentileconstitutionbeingincapableofbringinghelptotheexploitedpeople，thereremainedonlythegrowingstate。AndthestatebroughtthemitshelpintheformoftheconstitutionofSolon，therebystrengtheningitselfagainattheexpenseoftheoldconstitution。
Solon——themannerinwhichhisreform，whichbelongstotheyear594
B。C。，wascarriedthroughdoesnotconcernushere——openedtheseriesofso-calledpoliticalrevolution。andhedidsowithanattackonproperty。Allrevolutionshithertohavebeenrevolutionstoprotectonekindofpropertyagainstanotherkindofproperty。Theycannotprotecttheonewithoutviolatingtheother。InthegreatFrenchRevolutionfeudalpropertywassacrificedtosavebourgeoisproperty。
inthatofSolon，thepropertyofthecreditorshadtosufferforthebenefitofthepropertyofthedebtors。Thedebtsweresimplydeclaredvoid。Wedonotknowtheexactdetails，butinhispoemsSolonboastsofhavingremovedthemortgagecolumnsfromthefieldsandbroughtbackallthepeoplewhohadfledorbeensoldabroadonaccountofdebt。
Thiswasonlypossiblebyopenviolationofproperty。And，infact，fromthefirsttothelast，allso-calledpoliticalrevolutionshavebeenmadetoprotectproperty——ofonekind。andtheyhavebeencarriedoutbyconfiscating，alsocalledstealing，property——ofanotherkind。Theplaintruthisthatfortwoandahalfthousandyearsithasbeenpossibletopreserveprivatepropertyonlybyviolatingproperty。
ButnowtheneedwastoprotectthefreeAtheniansagainstthereturnofsuchslavery。Thefirststepwastheintroductionofgeneralmeasures——forexample，theprohibitionofdebtcontractspledgingthepersonofthedebtor。Further，inordertoplaceatleastsomecheckonthenobles？raveninghungerforthelandofthepeasants，amaximumlimitwasfixedfortheamountoflandthatcouldbeownedbyoneindividual。Thenchangesweremadeintheconstitution，ofwhichthemostimportantforusarethefollowing：
Thecouncilwasraisedtofourhundredmembers，onehundredforeachtribe。here，therefore，thetribewasstilltakenasbasis。Butthatwastheoneandonlyfeatureofthenewstateincorporatinganythingfromtheoldconstitution。ForallotherpurposesSolondividedthecitizensintofourclassesaccordingtotheirpropertyinlandandtheamountofitsyield：fivehundred，threehundredandonehundredfiftymedimniofgrainonemedimnusequalsabout1。16bushelsweretheminimumyieldsforthefirstthreeclasses。thosewhoownedlesslandornoneatallwereplacedinthefourthclass。Allofficescouldbefilledonlyfromthethreeupperclasses，andthehighestofficesonlyfromthefirst。Thefourthclassonlyhadtherighttospeakandvoteintheassemblyofthepeople。butitwasinthisassemblythatallofficerswereelected，heretheyhadtorendertheiraccount，herealllawsweremade。andherethefourthclassformedthemajority。Theprivilegesofthearistocracywerepartiallyrenewedintheformofprivilegesofwealth，butthepeopleretainedthedecisivepower。
Further，thefourclassesformedthebasisofanewmilitaryorganization。Thefirsttwoclassesprovidedthecavalry。thethirdhadtoserveasheavyinfantry。thefourthservedeitheraslightinfantrywithoutarmororinthefleet，forwhichtheyprobablyreceivedwages。
Acompletelynewelementisthusintroducedintotheconstitution：
privateownership。Accordingtothesizeoftheirpropertyinland，therightsanddutiesofthecitizensofthestatearenowassessed，andinthesamedegreetowhichtheclassesbasedonpropertygaininfluence，theoldgroupsofbloodrelationshiploseit。thegentileconstitutionhadsufferedanewdefeat。
However，theassessmentofpoliticalrightsonapropertybasiswasnotaninstitutionindispensabletotheexistenceofthestate。Inspiteofthegreatpartithasplayedintheconstitutionalhistoryofstates，verymanystates，andpreciselythosemosthighlydeveloped，havenotrequiredit。InAthensalsoitsrolewasonlytemporary。fromthetimeofAristidesallofficeswereopentoeverycitizen。
DuringthenexteightyyearsAtheniansocietygraduallyshapedthecoursealongwhichitdevelopedinthefollowingcenturies。Usuryonthesecurityofmortgagedland，whichhadbeenrampantintheperiodbeforeSolon，hadbeencurbed，ashadalsotheinordinateconcentrationofpropertyinland。Commerceandhandicrafts，includingartistichandicrafts，whichwerebeingincreasinglydevelopedonalargescalebytheuseofslavelabor，becamethemainoccupations。Atheniansweregrowingmoreenlightened。Insteadofexploitingtheirfellowcitizensintheoldbrutalway，theyexploitedchieflytheslavesandthenon-Atheniancustomers。Movableproperty，wealthintheformofmoney，ofslavesandships，continuallyincreased，butitwasnolongerameremeanstotheacquisitionoflandedproperty，asintheoldslowdays：
ithadbecomeanendinitself。Ontheonehandtheoldpowerofthearistocracynowhadtocontendwithsuccessfulcompetitionfromthenewclassofrichindustrialistsandmerchants。but，ontheotherhand，thegroundwasalsocutawayfrombeneaththelastremainsoftheoldgentileconstitution。Thegentes，phratries，andtribes，whosememberswerenowscatteredoverallAtticaandthoroughlyintermixed，hadthusbecomeuselessaspoliticalbodies。numbersofAtheniancitizensdidnotbelongtoanygensatall。theywereimmigrants，whohadindeedacquiredrightsofcitizenship，buthadnotbeenadoptedintoanyoftheoldkinshiporganizations。inaddition，therewasthesteadilyincreasingnumberofforeignimmigrantswhoonlyhadrightsofprotection。
Meanwhile，thefightswentonbetweenparties。thenobilitytriedtowinbacktheirformerprivilegesandforamomentregainedtheupperhand，untiltherevolutionofCleisthenes509B。C。overthrewthemfinally，butwiththemalsothelastremnantsofthegentileconstitution。
Inhisnewconstitution，Cleisthenesignoredthefouroldtribesfoundedongentesandphratries。Intheirplaceappearedacompletelyneworganizationonthebasisofdivisionofthecitizensmerelyaccordingtotheirplaceofresidence，suchashadbeenalreadyattemptedinthenaukrariai。Onlydomicilewasnowdecisive，notmembershipofakinshipgroup。Notthepeople，buttheterritorywasnowdivided：theinhabitantsbecameamerepoliticalappendageoftheterritory。
ThewholeofAtticawasdividedintoonehundredcommunaldistricts，calleddemes，eachofwhichwasself-governing。Thecitizensresidentineachdemedemoteselectedtheirpresidentdemarchandtreasurer，aswellasthirtyjudgeswithjurisdictioninminordisputes。Theywerealsogiventheirowntempleandpatrondivinityorhero，whoseprieststheyelected。Supremepowerinthedemewasvestedintheassemblyofthedemotes。AsMorganrightlyobserves，hereistheprototypeoftheself-governingAmericantownship。Themodernstate，initshighestdevelopment，endsinthesameunitwithwhichtherisingstateinAthensbegan。
Tenoftheseunitsdemesformedatribe，which，however，isnowknownasalocaltribetodistinguishitfromtheoldtribeofkinship。Thelocaltribewasnotonlyaself-governingpoliticalbody，butalsoamilitarybody。itelecteditsphylarch，ortribalchief，whocommandedthecavalry，thetaxiarchcommandingtheinfantry，andthestrategos，whowasincommandoveralltheforcesraisedinthetribalarea。Itfurtherprovidedfivewarshipswiththeircrewsandcommanders，andreceivedaspatrondeityanAttichero，afterwhomitwasnamed。
Lastly，itelectedfiftycouncilorstotheAtheniancouncil。
AtthesummitwastheAthenianstate，governedbythecouncilcomposedofthefivehundredcouncilorselectedbythetentribes，andinthelastinstancebytheassemblyofthepeople，atwhicheveryAtheniancitizenhadtherighttoattendandtovote。archonsandotherofficialsmanagedthevariousdepartmentsofadministrationandjustice。InAthenstherewasnosupremeofficialwithexecutivepower。
Throughthisnewconstitutionandtheadmissiontocivilrightsofaverylargenumberofprotectedpersons，partlyimmigrants，partlyfreedslaves，theorgansofthegentileconstitutionwereforcedoutofpublicaffairs。theysanktothelevelofprivateassociationsandreligiousbodies。Butthemoralinfluenceoftheoldgentileperiodanditstraditionalwaysofthoughtwerestillhandeddownforalongtimetocome，andonlydiedoutgradually。Wefindevidenceofthisinanotherstateinstitution。
Wesawthatanessentialcharacteristicofthestateistheexistenceofapublicforcedifferentiatedfromthemassofthepeople。Atthistime，Athensstillhadonlyapeople’sarmyandafleetprovideddirectlybythepeople。armyandfleetgaveprotectionagainstexternalenemiesandkeptinchecktheslaves，whoalreadyformedthegreatmajorityofthepopulation。Inrelationtothecitizens，thepublicpoweratfirstexistedonlyintheformofthepoliceforce，whichisasoldasthestateitself。forwhichreasonthenaiveFrenchoftheeighteenthcenturydidnotspeakofcivilizedpeoples，butofpolicedpeoplesnationspolicees。TheAthenianstheninstitutedapoliceforcesimultaneouslywiththeirstate，averitablegendarmerieofbowmen，footandmountedLandidger[thecountry’shunters]astheycalltheminSouthGermanyandSwitzerland。Butthisgendarmerieconsistedofslaves。ThefreeAthenianconsideredpolicedutysodegradingthathewouldratherbearrestedbyanarmedslavethanhimselfhaveanyhandinsuchdespicablework。Thatwasstilltheoldgentilespirit。Thestatecouldnotexistwithoutpolice，butthestatewasstillyoungandcouldnotyetinspireenoughmoralrespecttomakehonorableanoccupationwhich，totheoldermembersofthegens，necessarilyappearedinfamous。
Nowcompleteinitsmainfeatures，thestatewasperfectlyadaptedtothenewsocialconditionsoftheAthenians，asisshownbytherapidgrowthofwealth，commerce，andindustry。Theclassoppositiononwhichthesocialandpoliticalinstitutionsrestedwasnolongerthatofnobilityandcommonpeople，butofslavesandfreemen，ofprotectedpersonsandcitizens。Atthetimeoftheirgreatestprosperity，theentirefree-citizenpopulationofAthens，womenandchildrenincluded，numberedaboutninetythousand。besidesthemtherewerethreehundredandsixty-fivethousandslavesofbothsexesandforty-fivethousandprotectedpersons-aliensandfreedmen。Therewerethereforeatleasteighteenslavesandmorethantwoprotectedpersonstoeveryadultmalecitizen。Thereasonforthelargenumberofslaveswasthatmanyofthemworkedtogetherinmanufactories，inlargerooms，underoverseers。
Butwiththedevelopmentofcommerceandindustrywealthwasaccumulatedandconcentratedinafewhands，andthemassofthefreecitizenswereimpoverished。Theironlyalternativesweretocompeteagainstslavelaborwiththeirownlaborashandicraftsman，whichwasconsideredbaseandvulgarandalsoofferedverylittleprospectofsuccess，ortobecomesocialscrap。Necessarily，inthecircumstances，theydidthelatter，and，astheyformedthemajority，theytherebybroughtaboutthedownfallofthewholeAthenianstate。ThedownfallofAthenswasnotcausedbydemocracy，astheEuropeanlickspittlehistoriansasserttoflattertheirprinces，butbyslavery，whichbannedthelaboroffreecitizens。
TheriseofthestateamongtheAtheniansisaparticularlytypicalexampleoftheformationofastate。first，theprocesstakesplaceinapureform，withoutanyinterferencethroughuseofviolentforce，eitherfromwithoutorfromwithintheusurpationbyPisistratusleftnotraceofitsshortduration。second，itshowsaveryhighlydevelopedformofstate，thedemocraticrepublic，arisingdirectlyoutofgentilesociety。andlastlywearesufficientlyacquaintedwithalltheessentialdetails。
THEORIGINOF
THEFAMILY，PRIVATEPROPERTY，ANDTHESTATE
byFREDERICKENGELS
CHAPTERVI
THEGENSANDTHESTATEINROME
ACCORDINGtothelegendaryaccountofthefoundationofRome，thefirstsettlementwasestablishedbyanumberofLatingenies[1]onehundred，saysthelegend，whowereunitedinatribe。theseweresoonjoinedbyaSabelliantribe，alsosaidtohavenumberedahundredgentes，andlastlybyathirdtribeofmixedelements，againsaidtohavebeencomposedofahundredgentes。Thewholeaccountrevealsatthefirstglancethatverylittlewasstillprimitivehereexceptthegens，andthatevenitwasinsomecasesonlyanoffshootfromamothergensstillexistinginitsoriginalhome。Thetribesclearlybearthemarkoftheirartificialcomposition，eventhoughtheyaregenerallycomposedoutofrelatedelementsandafterthepatternoftheoldtribe，whichwasnotmadebutgrew。itis，however，notanimpossibilitythatthecoreofeachofthethreetribeswasagenuineoldtribe。Theintermediategroup，thephratry，consistedoftengeniesandwascalledacuria。therewerethereforethirtycuriae。
TheRomangensisrecognizedtobethesameinstitutionastheGreekgens。andsincetheGreekgensisafurtherdevelopmentofthesocialunitwhoseoriginalformisfoundamongtheAmericanIndians，this，ofcourse，holdstrueoftheRomangensalso。Herethereforewecanbemorebrief。
TheRomangens，atleastintheearliesttimesofRome，hadthefollowingconstitution：
1。Mutualrightofinheritanceamonggentilemembers。thepropertyremainedwithinthegens。Sincefather-rightalreadyprevailedintheRomangensasintheGreek，descendantsinthefemalelinewereexcluded。AccordingtotheLawoftheTwelveTables，theoldestwrittenRomanlawknowntous，thechildren，asnaturalheirs，hadthefirsttitletotheestate。indefaultofchildren，thentheagnatesdescendantsinthemaleline。indefaultofagnates，thegentiles。
Inallcasesthepropertyremainedwithinthegens。Hereweseegentilecustomgraduallybeingpenetratedbythenewlegalprovisionsspringingfromincreasedwealthandmonogamy：theoriginalequalrightofinheritanceofallmembersofthegensisfirstrestrictedinpracticetotheagnates-probablyveryearly，asalreadymentioned——
finally，tothechildrenandtheirissueinthemaleline。intheTwelveTablesthisappears，ofcourse，inthereverseorder。
2。Possessionofacommonburialplace。OntheirimmigrationtoRomefromRegilli，thepatriciangensoftheClaudiireceivedapieceoflandfortheirownuseandalsoacommonburialplaceinthetown。
EveninthetimeofAugustus，theheadofVarus，whohadfalleninthebattleoftheTeutoburgForest，wasbroughttoRomeandinterredinthegentilitiustumulusithegensQuinctiliathereforestillhaditsownburialmound。
3。Commonreligiousrites。These，thesacragentilitia，arewellknown。
4。Obligationnottomarrywithinthegens。ThisseemsnevertohavebecomewrittenlawinRome，butthecustompersisted。OfallthecountlessRomanmarriedcoupleswhosenameshavebeenpreserved，thereisnotonewherehusbandandwifehavethesamegentilename。Thelawofinheritancealsoprovestheobservanceofthisrule。Thewomanlosesheragnaticrightsonmarriageandleaveshergens。neithershenorherchildrencaninheritfromherfatherorhisbrothers，becauseotherwisetheinheritancewouldbelosttothefather’sgens。Thereisnosenseinthisruleunlessawomanmaynotmarryamemberofherowngens。
5。Commonland。Inprimitivetimesthegenshadalwaysownedcommonland，eversincethetriballandbegantobedividedup。AmongtheLatintribes，wefindthelandpartlyinthepossessionofthetribe，partlyofthegens，andpartlyofthehouseholds，whichatthattimecanhardlyhavebeensinglefamilies。Romulusissaidtohavemadethefirstallotmentsoflandtoindividuals，abouttwoandone-halfacrestwojugeratoaperson。Butlaterwestillfindlandownedbythegentes，tosaynothingofthestateland，roundwhichthewholeinternalhistoryoftherepubliccenters。
6。Obligationofmutualprotectionandhelpamongmembersofthegens。
Onlyvestigesremaininwrittenhistory。fromtheverystarttheRomanstatemadeitssuperiorpowersomanifestthattherightofprotectionagainstinjurypassedintoitshands。WhenAppiusClaudiuswasarrested，thewholeofhisgens，eventhosewhowerehispersonalenemies，putonmourning。AtthetimeofthesecondPunicwarthegentesjoinedtogethertoransomtheirmemberswhohadbeentakenprisoner。thesenateprohibitedthemfromdoingso。
7。Righttobearthegentilename。Persistedtillthetimeoftheemperors。freedmenwereallowedtousethegentilenameoftheirformermaster，butwithoutgentilerights。
8。Righttoadoptstrangersintothegens。ThiswasdonethroughadoptionintoafamilyasamongtheIndians，whichcarriedwithitacceptanceintothegens。
9。Therighttoelectthechiefandtodeposehimisnowherementioned。ButsinceintheearliestdaysofRomeallofficeswerefilledbyelectionornomination，fromtheelectedkingdownwards，andsincethepriestsofthecuriaewerealsoelectedbythecuriaethemselves，wemayassumethesameprocedureforthepresidentsIncisesofthegenteshoweverfirmlyestablishedtheelectionfromoneandthesamefamilywithinthegensmayhavealreadybecome。
SuchweretherightsofaRomangens。Apartfromthealreadycompletedtransitiontofather-right，theyaretheperfectcounterpartoftherightsanddutiesinanIroquoisgens。hereagaintheIroquoisshowsthroughunmistakablyp。90。
Theconfusionthatstillexiststoday，evenamongourleadinghistorians，onthesubjectoftheRomangens，maybeillustratedbyoneexample。InhispaperonRomanfamilynamesintheperiodoftheRepublicandofAugustusRomischeForschungen，Berlin，1864，Vol。I，pp。8-11Mommsenwrites：
Thegentilenamebelongstoallthemalemembersofthegens，excluding，ofcourse，theslaves，butincludingadoptedandprotectedpersons。itbelongsalsotothewomen……Thetribe[asMommsenheretranslatesgens]is……acommunalentity，derivedfromcommonlineagereal，supposedorevenpretendedandunitedbycommunalfestivities，burialritesandlawsofinheritance。toitallpersonallyfreeindividuals，andthereforeallwomenalso，mayandmustbelong。Butitisdifficulttodeterminewhatgentilenamewasbornebymarriedwomen。Solongasthewomanmayonlymarryamemberofherowngens，thisproblemdoesnotarise。
andthereisevidencethatforalongperioditwasmoredifficultforwomentomarryoutsidethaninsidethegens。forinstance，solateasthesixthcentury[B。C。]therightofgentisenuptiomarriageoutsidethegenswasapersonalprivilege，concededasareward……Butwhensuchmarriagesoutsidethetribetookplace，thewife，inearliesttimes，musttherebyhavegoneovertoherhusband’stribe。Nothingismorecertainthanthatthewoman，intheoldreligiousmarriage，enterscompletelyintothelegalandsacramentalbondsofherhusband’scommunityandleavesherown。
Everyoneknowsthatthemarriedwomanforfeitstherightofinheritanceandbequestinrelationtomembersofherowngensbutsharesrightsofinheritancewithherhusbandandchildrenandthemembersoftheirgens。Andifsheisadoptedbyherhusbandandtakenintohisfamily，howcansheremainapartfromhisgens？
MommsenthereforemaintainsthattheRomanwomenwhobelongedtoagenshadoriginallybeenpermittedtomarryonlywithinthegens，thatthegenshadthereforebeenendogamous，notexogamous。Thisview，whichisincontradictiontoalltheevidencefromotherpeoples，restschiefly，ifnotexclusively，ononemuchdisputedpassagefromLivyBookXXXIX，Ch。19，accordingtowhichthesenateintheyear568afterthefoundationofthecity，or186B。C。，decreed：UtiFeceniaeHispalaedatiodeminutiogentisenuptiotutorisoptioitemesset，quasieivirtestamentsdedisset。utiqueeiingenuonubereliceret，neuquideiquieamduxissetobidfraudiignominiaveessee——thatFeceniaHispalashallhavetherighttodisposeofherproperty，todecreaseit，tomarryoutsidethegens，andtochooseforherselfaguardian，exactlyasifherdeceasedhusbandhadconferredthisrightonherbytestament。thatshemaymarryafreeman，andthatthemanwhotakeshertowifeshallnotbeconsideredtohavecommittedawrongfulorshamefulactthereby。
Withoutadoubt，Fecenia，afreedwoman，isheregrantedtherighttomarryoutsidethegens。Andequallywithoutadoubtthehusbandpossessedtheright，accordingtothispassage，tobequeathtohiswifebywilltherighttomarryoutsidethegensafterhisdeath。Butoutsidewhichgens？
Ifthewomanhadtomarrywithinhergens，asMommsenassumes，sheremainedwithinthisgensalsoafterhermarriage。Butinthefirstplacetheendogamouscharacterofthegenswhichishereassertedispreciselywhathastobeproved。And，secondly，ifthewifehadtomarrywithinthegens，then，ofcourse，sohadtheman，forotherwisehecouldnotgetawife。Sowereachthepositionthatthemancouldbequeathtohiswifebywillarightwhichhehimself，andforhimself，didnotpossess。wearriveatalegalabsurdity。Mommsenalsofeelsthis，andhencemakestheassumption：Foralawfulmarriageoutsidethegens，itwasprobablynecessarytohavetheconsent，notonlyofthechief，butofallmembersofthegens。Thatisaveryboldassumptioninthefirstplace，and，secondly，itcontradictstheclearwordingofthepassage。Thesenategrantsherthisrightintheplaceofherhusband。itgrantsherexpresslyneithermorenorlessthanherhusbandcouldhavegrantedher，butwhatitgrantsherisanabsoluteright，conditionaluponnootherrestriction。Thusitisprovidedthatifshemakesuseofthisright，hernewhusbandalsoshallnotsufferanydisability。Thesenateevendirectsthepresentandfutureconsulsandpraetorstoseetoitthatnoinjuriousconsequencestoherfollow。
Mommsen’sassumptionthereforeseemstobecompletelyinadmissible。
Orassumethatthewomanmarriedamanfromanothergens，butherselfremainedinthegensintowhichshehadbeenborn。Then，accordingtotheabovepassage，themanwouldhavehadtherighttoallowhiswifetomarryoutsideherowngens。Thatis，hewouldhavehadtherighttomakedispositionsintheaffairsofagenstowhichhedidnotevenbelong。Thethingissopatentlyabsurdthatweneedwastenomorewordsonit。
Hencethereonlyremainstheassumptionthatinherfirstmarriagethewomanmarriedamanfromanothergens，andtherebyimmediatelyenteredthegensofherhusband，whichMommsenhimselfactuallyadmitstohavebeenthepracticewhenthewomanmarriedoutsidehergens。Theneverythingatoncebecomesclear。Severedfromheroldgensbyhermarriageandacceptedintothegentilegroupofherhusband，thewomanoccupiesapeculiarpositioninhernewgens。Sheis，indeed，amemberofthegens，butnotrelatedbyblood。Bythemeremannerofheracceptanceasagentilemember，sheisentirelyexcludedfromtheprohibitionagainstmarryingwithinthegens，forshehasjustmarriedintoit。further，sheisacceptedasoneofthemarriedmembersofthegens，andonherhusband’sdeathinheritsfromhisproperty，thepropertyofagentilemember。Whatismorenaturalthanthatthispropertyshouldremainwithinthegensandthatsheshouldthereforebeobligedtomarryamemberofherhusband’sgensandnobodyelse？Andifanexceptionistobemade，whoissocompetenttogiveherthenecessaryauthorizationasthemanwhohasbequeathedherthisproperty，herfirsthusband？Atthemomentwhenhebequeathstoherapartofhispropertyandatthesametimeallowshertotransferitintoanothergensthroughmarriageorinconsequenceofmarriage，thispropertystillbelongstohimandheisthereforeliterallydisposingofhisownproperty。Asregardsthewomanherselfandherrelationtoherhusband’sgens，itwashewhobroughtherintothegensbyafreeactofwill-themarriage。henceitalsoseemsnaturalthatheshouldbetheproperpersontoauthorizehertoleavethisgensbyasecondmarriage。Inaword，thematterappearssimpleandnaturalassoonasweabandontheextraordinaryconceptionoftheendogamousRomangensandregardit，withMorgan，asoriginallyexogamous。
Therestillremainsonelastassumptionwhichhasalsofoundadherents，andprobablythemostnumerous。Onthisview，thepassageonlymeansthatfreedservantslibertycouldnotwithoutspecialpermissionegenteenuberemarryoutofthegensorperformanyoftheacts，which，involvinglossofrightscapitisdeminutiominima，wouldhaveresultedinthelibertaleavingthegens。Lange，RomischeAltertumer，Berlin1856，I，195，whereHuschkeiscitedinconnectionwithourpassagefromLivy。Ifthissuppositioniscorrect，thepassagethenprovesnothingatallaboutthepositionoffreeRomanwomen，andtherecanbeevenlessquestionofanyobligationrestingonthemtomarrywithinthegens。
TheexpressionenuptiogentisonlyoccursinthisonepassageandnowhereelseinthewholeofLatinliterature。thewordenubere，tomarryoutside，onlyoccursthreetimes，alsoinLivy，andthennotinreferencetothegens。ThefantasticnotionthatRomanwomenwereonlyallowedtomarrywithintheirgensowesitsexistencesolelytothisonepassage。Butitcannotpossiblybemaintained。Foreitherthepassagereferstospecialrestrictionsforfreedwomen，inwhichcaseitprovesnothingaboutfreewomeningenue，。oritappliesalsotofreewomen。andthenitproves，onthecontrary，thatthewomanmarriedasaruleoutsidehergens，butonhermarriageenteredintothegensofherhusband。whichcontradictsMommsenandsupportsMorgan。
AlmostthreecenturiesafterthefoundationofRome，thegentilegroupswerestillsostrongthatapatriciangens，thatoftheFabii，wasabletoundertakeanindependentcampaign，withthepermissionofthesenate，againsttheneighboringtownofVeii。threehundredandsixFabiiaresaidtohavesetoutandtohavebeenkilledtoaman，inanambush。accordingtothestory，onlyoneboywhohadremainedbehindsurvivedtopropagatethegens。
Aswehavesaid，tengentesformedaphratry，whichamongtheRomanswascalledacuriaandhadmoreimportantpublicfunctionsthantheGreekphratry。Everycuriahaditsownreligiousrites，shrinesandpriests。thelatter，asabody，formedoneoftheRomanpriestlycolleges。Tencuriaeformedatribe，whichprobably，liketherestoftheLatintribes，originallyhadanelectedpresident-militaryleaderandhighpriest。ThethreetribestogetherformedtheRomanpeople，thePopulusRomanus。
ThusnoonecouldbelongtotheRomanpeopleunlesshewasamemberofagensandthroughitofacuriaandatribe。ThefirstconstitutionoftheRomanpeoplewasasfollows：Publicaffairsweremanagedinthefirstinstancebythesenate，which，asNiebuhrfirstrightlysaw，wascomposedofthepresidentsofthethreehundredgenies。itwasbecausetheyweretheeldersofthegensthattheywerecalledfathers，patres，andtheirbody，thesenatecounciloftheelders，fromsenex，old。
Hereagainthecustomofelectingalwaysfromthesamefamilyinthegensbroughtintobeingthefirsthereditarynobility。thesefamiliescalledthemselvespatricians，andclaimedforthemselvesexclusiverightofentryintothesenateandtenureofallotheroffices。Theacquiescenceofthepeopleinthisclaim，incourseoftime，anditstransformationintoanactualright，appearinlegendasthestorythatRomulusconferredthepatriciateanditsprivilegesonthefirstsenatorsandtheirdescendants。Thesenate，liketheAthenianboule，madefinaldecisionsinmanymattersandheldpreparatorydiscussionsonthoseofgreaterimportance，particularlynewlaws。Withregardtothese，thedecisionrestedwiththeassemblyofthepeople，calledthecomitiacuriataassemblyofthecuriae。Thepeopleassembledtogether，groupedincuriae，eachcuriaprobablygroupedingenies。eachofthethirtycuriae，hadonevoteinthefinaldecision。Theassemblyofthecuriaeacceptedorrejectedalllaws，electedallhigherofficials，includingtherexso-calledking，declaredwarthesenate，however，concludedpeace，and，assupremecourt，decided，ontheappealofthepartiesconcerned，allcasesinvolvingdeathsentenceonaRomancitizen。Lastly，besidesthesenateandtheassemblyofthepeople，therewastherex，whocorrespondedexactlytotheGreekbasileusandwasnotatallthealmostabsolutekingwhichMommsenmadehimouttobe。[3]Healsowasmilitaryleader，highpriest，andpresidentofcertaincourts。Hehadnocivilauthoritywhatever，noranypoweroverthelife，liberty，orpropertyofcitizens，exceptsuchasderivedfromhisdisciplinarypowersasmilitaryleaderorhisexecutivepowersaspresidentofacourt。Theofficeofrexwasnothereditary。onthecontrary，hewasfirstelectedbytheassemblyofthecuria，，probablyonthenominationofhispredecessor，andthenatasecondmeetingsolemnlyinstalledinoffice。ThathecouldalsobedeposedisshownbythefateofTarquiniusSuperbus。
LiketheGreeksoftheheroicage，theRomansintheageoftheso-calledkingslivedinamilitarydemocracyfoundedongentes，phratries，andtribesanddevelopedoutofthem。Evenifthecuriaeandtribesweretoacertainextentartificialgroups，theywereformedafterthegenuine，primitivemodelsofthesocietyoutofwhichtheyhadarisenandbywhichtheywerestillsurroundedonallsides。Eveniftheprimitivepatriciannobilityhadalreadygainedground，eveniftheregeswereendeavoringgraduallytoextendtheirpower，itdoesnotchangetheoriginal，fundamentalcharacteroftheconstitution，andthatalonematters。
Meanwhile，RomeandtheRomanterritory，whichhadbeenenlargedbyconquest，increasedinpopulation，partlythroughimmigration，partlythroughtheadditionofinhabitantsofthesubjugated，chieflyLatin，districts。Allthesenewcitizensofthestateweleaveasidethequestionoftheclientsstoodoutsidetheoldgentes，curia，，andtribes，andthereforeformednopartofthepopulusRomanus，therealRomanpeople。Theywerepersonallyfree，couldownpropertyinland，andhadtopaytaxesanddomilitaryservice。Buttheycouldnotholdanyoffice，nortakepartintheassemblyofthecuriae，norshareintheallotmentofconqueredstatelands。Theyformedtheclassthatwasexcludedfromallpublicrights，theplebs。Owingtotheircontinuallyincreasingnumbers，theirmilitarytrainingandtheirpossessionofarms，theybecameapowerfulthreattotheoldpopulus，whichnowrigidlybarredanyadditiontoitsownranksfromoutside。Further，landedpropertyseemstohavebeenfairlyequallydividedbetweenpopulusandplebs，whilethecommercialandindustrialwealth，thoughnotasyetmuchdeveloped，wasprobablyforthemostpartinthehandsoftheplebs。
ThegreatobscuritywhichenvelopsthecompletelylegendaryprimitivehistoryofRome-anobscurityconsiderablydeepenedbytherationalisticallypragmaticalinterpretationsandaccountsgivenofthesubjectbylaterauthorswithlegalisticminds——makesitimpossibletosayanythingdefiniteaboutthetime，course，oroccasionoftherevolutionwhichmadeanendoftheoldgentileconstitution。Allthatiscertainisthatitscauselayinthestrugglesbetweenplebsandpopulus。
Thenewconstitution，whichwasattributedtotherexServiusTulliusandfollowedtheGreekmodel，particularlythatofSolon，createdanewassemblyofthepeople，inwhichpopulusandplebeianwithoutdistinctionwereincludedorexcludedaccordingtowhethertheyperformedmilitaryserviceornot。Thewholemalepopulationliabletobeararmswasdividedonapropertybasisintosixclasses。Thelowerlimitineachofthefiveclasseswas：1100，000asses。275，000
asses。350，000asses。425，000asses。511，000asses。accordingtoDureaudelaMalle，theequivalenttoabout14，000。10，500。7，000。
3，600。and1，570marksrespectively。Thesixthclass，theproletarians，consistedofthosewithlesspropertythanthelowerclassandthoseexemptfrommilitaryserviceandtaxes。Inthenewpopularassemblyofthecenturiescomitiacenturiatathecitizensappearedinmilitaryformation，arrangedbycompaniesintheircenturiesofahundredmen，eachcenturyhavingonevote。Nowthefirstclassputeightycenturiesinthefield，thesecondtwenty-two，thethirdtwenty，thefourthtwenty-two，thefifththirty，andthesixthalsooncenturyforthesakeofappearances。Inaddition，therewasthecavalry，drawnfromthewealthiestmen，witheighteencenturies。total，193。ninety-sevenvoteswerethusrequiredforaclearmajority。Butthecavalryandthefirstclassalonehadtogetherninety-eightvotes，anthereforethemajority。iftheywereagreed，theydidnotasktheothers。theymadetheirdecision，anditstood。
Thisnewassemblyofthecenturiesnowtookoverallpoliticalrightsoftheformerassemblyofthecuriae，withtheexceptionofafewnominalprivileges。Thecuriaeandthegentesofwhichtheywerecomposedwerethusdegraded，asinAthens，tomereprivateandreligiousassociationsandcontinuedtovegetateassuchforalongperiodwhiletheassemblyofthecuriosoonbecamecompletelydormant。
Inorderthatthethreeoldtribesofkinshipshouldalsobeexcludedfromthestate，fourlocaltribeswereinstituted，eachofwhichinhabitedonequarterofthecityandpossessedanumberofpoliticalrights。
ThusinRomealso，evenbeforetheabolitionoftheso-calledmonarchy，theoldorderofsocietybasedonpersonaltiesofbloodwasdestroyedandinitsplacewassetupanewandcompletestateconstitutionbasedonterritorialdivisionanddifferenceofwealth。Herethepublicpowerconsistedofthebodyofcitizensliabletomilitaryservice，inoppositionnotonlytotheslaves，butalsotothoseexcludedfromserviceinthearmyandfrompossessionofarms，theso-calledproletarians。
Thebanishmentofthelastrex，TarquiniusSuperbus，whousurpedrealmonarchicpower，andthereplacementoftheofficeofrexbytwomilitaryleadersconsulswithequalpowersasamongtheIroquoiswassimplyafurtherdevelopmentofthisnewconstitution。Withinthisnewconstitution，thewholehistoryoftheRomanRepublicrunsitscourse，withallthestrugglesbetweenpatriciansandplebeiansforadmissiontoofficeandshareinthestatelands，andthefinalmergingofthepatriciannobilityinthenewclassofthegreatlandandmoneyowners，who，graduallyswallowingupallthelandofthepeasantsruinedbymilitaryservice，employedslavelabortocultivatetheenormousestatesthusformed，depopulatedItalyandsothrewopenthedoor，notonlytotheemperors，butalsototheirsuccessors，theGermanbarbarians。
NOTES
[1]AsgentesisheretheLatinwordusedbytheRomans，itisprintedinitalicstodistinguishitfromthegeneraltermgensusedthroughoutthebook——Ed。
[2]TheLatinrexisthesameastheCeltic-Irishrightribalchief
andtheGothicreiks。thatreikssignifiedheadofthegensortribe，asdidalsooriginallytheGermanwordFurstmeaningfirst——cf。
EnglishfirstandDanishforste，isshownbythefactthatalreadyinthefourthcenturytheGothshadaspecialwordforthelaterking，
themilitaryleaderofthewholepeople：thiudans。InUlfilas’
translationoftheBible，ArtaxerxesandHerodarenevercalledreiks，butthiudans，andtheempireoftheEmperorTiberiusisnotcalledreiki，butthiudinassus。InthenameoftheGothicthiodansor，asweinaccuratelytranslate，king，ThiudareikTheodorich，i。e。Dietrich，bothtitlescoalesce。
THEORIGINOF
THEFAMILY，PRIVATEPROPERTY，ANDTHESTATE
byFREDERICKENGELS
CHAPTERVII
THEGENSAMONGCELTSANDGERMANS
SPACEdoesnotallowustoconsiderthegentileinstitutionsstillexistingingreaterorlesserdegreeofpurityamongthemostvarioussavageandbarbarianpeoples，northetracesoftheseinstitutionsintheancienthistoryofthecivilizedpeoplesofAsia。Theinstitutionsortheirtracesarefoundeverywhere。Afewexampleswillbeenough。
Beforethegenshadbeenrecognized，themanwhotookthegreatestpainstomisunderstandit，McLennanhimself，proveditsexistence，andinthemainaccuratelydescribedit，amongtheKalmucks，Circassians，SamoyedsandthreeIndianpeoples：theWarali，MagarsandMunniporees。
RecentlyithasbeendiscoveredanddescribedbyM。KovalevskyamongthePshavs，Shevsurs，SvanetsandotherCaucasiantribes。HerewewillonlygivesomeshortnotesontheoccurrenceofthegensamongCeltsandGermans。
TheoldestCelticlawswhichhavebeenpreservedshowthegensstillfullyalive：inIreland，afterbeingforciblybrokenupbytheEnglish，itstilllivestodayintheconsciousnessofthepeople，asaninstinctatanyrate。inScotlanditwasstillinfullstrengthinthemiddleoftheeighteenthcentury，andhereagainitsuccumbedonlytotheweapons，laws，andcourtsoftheEnglish。
TheoldWelshlaws，whichwererecordedinwritingseveralcenturiesbeforetheEnglishconquest，atthelatestintheeleventhcentury，stillshowcommontillageofthesoilbywholevillages，evenifonlyasanexceptionalrelicofaoncegeneralcustom。eachfamilyhadfiveacresforitsowncultivation。apieceoflandwascultivatedcollectivelyaswellandtheyieldshared。InviewoftheanalogyofIrelandandScotland，itcannotbedoubtedthatthesevillagecommunitiesrepresentgentesorsubdivisionsofgentes，eventhoughfurtherexaminationoftheWelshlaws，whichIcannotundertakeforlackoftimemynotesdatefrom1869，shouldnotprovidedirectproof。ButwhatisdirectlyprovedbytheWelshsourcesandbytheIrishisthatamongtheCeltsintheeleventhcenturypairingmarriagehadnotbyanymeansbeendisplacedbymonogamy。
InWalesamarriageonlybecameindissoluble，orratheritonlyceasedtobeterminablebynotification，aftersevenyearshadelapsed。Ifthetimewasshortofsevenyearsbyonlythreenights，husbandandwifecouldseparate。Theythensharedouttheirpropertybetweenthem。
thewomandividedandthemanchose。Thefurniturewasdividedaccordingtofixedandveryhumorousrules。Ifitwasthemanwhodissolvedthemarriage，hehadtogivethewomanbackherdowryandsomeotherthings。ifitwasthewoman，shereceivedless。Ofthechildrenthemantooktwoandthewomanone，themiddlechild。Ifaftertheseparationthewomantookanotherhusbandandthefirsthusbandcametofetchherbackagain，shehadtofollowhimevenifshehadalreadyonefootinhernewmarriagebed。If，ontheotherhand，themanandwomanhadbeentogetherforsevenyears，theywerehusbandandwife，evenwithoutanypreviousformalmarriage。Chastityofgirlsbeforemarriagewasnotatallstrictlyobserved，norwasitdemanded。
theprovisionsinthisrespectareofanextremelyfrivolouscharacterandnotatallinkeepingwithbourgeoismorality。Ifawomancommittedadultery，thehusbandhadtherighttobeatherthiswasoneofthethreeoccasionswhenhewasallowedtodoso。otherwisehewaspunished，butnotthentodemandanyothersatisfaction，sincefortheoneoffensethereshallbeeitheratonementorvengeance，butnotboth。Thegroundsonwhichthewifecoulddemanddivorcewithoutlosinganyofherclaimsinthesubsequentsettlementwereverycomprehensive。ifthehusbandhadbadbreath，itwasenough。Themoneywhichhadtobepaidtothechiefofthetribeorkingtobuyoffhisrightofthefirstnightgobrmerch，whencethemedievalname，marcheta。FrenchMarquette，playsalargepartinthecodeoflaws。
Thewomenhadtherighttovoteintheassembliesofthepeople。WhenweaddthattheevidenceshowssimilarconditionsinIreland。thatthere，also，temporarymarriageswerequiteusualandthatattheseparationveryfavorableandexactlydefinedconditionswereassuredtothewoman，includingevencompensationforherdomesticservices。
thatinIrelandtherewasafirstwifeaswellasotherwives，andthatinthedivisionofaninheritancenodistinctionwasmadebetweenchildrenborninwedlockoroutsideit——wethenhaveapictureofpairingmarriageincomparisonwithwhichtheformofmarriageobservedinNorthAmericaappearsstrict。Thisisnot120surprisingintheeleventhcenturyamongapeoplewhoevensolateasCaesar’stimewerestilllivingingroupmarriage。
TheexistenceoftheIrishgenssept。thetribewascalledclann，clanisconfirmedanddescribednotonlybytheoldlegalcodes，butalsobytheEnglishjuristsoftheseventeenthcenturywhoweresentovertotransformtheclanlandsintodomainsoftheEnglishcrown。
Untilthen，thelandhadbeenthecommonpropertyoftheclanorgens，insofarasthechieftainshadnotalreadyconverteditintotheirprivatedomains。Whenamemberofthegensdiedandahouseholdconsequentlycametoanend，thegentilechieftheEnglishjuristscalledhimcapi4tcognationismadeanewdivisionofthewholeterritoryamongtheremaininghouseholds。Thismusthavebeendone，broadlyspeaking，accordingtotherulesinforceinGermany。Fortyorfiftyyearsagovillagefieldswereverynumerous，andeventodayafewoftheserundales，astheyarecalled，maystillbefound。Thepeasantsofarundale，nowindividualtenantsonthesoilthathadbeenthecommonpropertyofthegenstillitwasseizedbytheEnglishconquerors，payrentfortheirrespectivepieceofland，butputalltheirsharesinarableandmeadowlandtogether，whichtheythendivideaccordingtopositionandqualityintoGewanne，astheyarecalledontheMoselle，eachreceivingashareineachGewann。moorlandandpasture-landareusedincommon。Onlyfiftyyearsagonewdivisionswerestillmadefromtimetotime，sometimesannually。Thefield-mapofsuchavillagelooksexactlylikethatofaGermanGehoferschaft[peasantcommunity]ontheMoselleorintheMittelwald。Thegensalsolivesoninthefactions。TheIrishpeasantsoftendividethemselvesintopartiesbasedapparentlyonperfectlyabsurdormeaninglessdistinctions。totheEnglishtheyarequiteincomprehensibleandseemtohavenootherpurposethanthefavoriteceremonyoftwofactionshammeringoneanother。Theyareartificialrevivals，modernsubstitutesforthedispersedgentes，manifestingintheirownpeculiarmannerthepersistenceoftheinheritedgentileinstinct。Insomedistrictsthemembersofthegensstillliveprettymuchtogetherontheoldterritory。inthe’thirtiesthegreatmajorityoftheinhabitantsofCountyMonaghanstillhadonlyfourfamilynames，thatis，theyweredescendedfromfourgentesorclans。[1]
InScotlandthedecayofthegentileorganizationdatesfromthesuppressionoftherisingof1745。TheprecisefunctionoftheScottishclaninthisorganizationstillawaitsinvestigation。butthattheclanisagentilebodyisbeyonddoubt。InWalterScott’snovelstheHighlandclanlivesbeforeoureyes。Itis，saysMorgan：……anexcellenttypeofthegensinorganizationandinspirit，andanextraordinaryillustrationofthepowerofthegentilelifeoveritsmembers……Wefindintheirfeudsandbloodrevenge，intheirlocalizationbygentes，intheiruseoflandsincommon，inthefidelityoftheclansmantohischiefandofthemembersoftheclantoeachother，theusualandpersistentfeaturesofgentilesociety……Descentwasinthemaleline，thechildrenofthemalesremainingmembersoftheclan，whilethechildrenofitsfemalemembersbelongedtotheclansoftheirrespectivefathers。
[Morgan，op。cit。，pp。368-369——Ed。]
Butthatformerlymother-rightprevailedinScotlandisprovedbythefactthat，accordingtoBede，intheroyalfamilyofthePictssuccessionwasinthefemaleline。AmongtheScots，asamongtheWelsh，arelicevenofthepunaluanfamilypersistedintotheMiddleAgesintheformoftherightofthefirstnight，whichtheheadoftheclanortheking，aslastrepresentativeoftheformercommunityofhusbands，hadtherighttoexercisewitheverybride，unlessitwascompoundedformoney。
*
ThattheGermanswereorganizedingentesuntilthetimeofthemigrationsisbeyondalldoubt。TheycanhaveoccupiedtheterritorybetweentheDanube，Rhine，Vistula，andthenorthernseasonlyafewcenturiesbeforeourera。theCimbriandTeutonswerethenstillinfullmigration，andtheSuevididnotfindanypermanenthabitationuntilCaesar’stime。Caesarexpresslystatesofthemthattheyhadsettledingentesandkindredsgentibuscognationtbusque，andinthemouthofaRomanoftheJuliangensthewordgentibushasadefinitemeaningwhichcannotbearguedaway。ThesamewastrueofalltheGermans。theyseemstilltohavesettledbygentesevenintheprovincestheyconqueredfromtheRomans。ThecodeoflawsoftheAlemanniconfirmsthatthepeoplesettledbykindredsgenealogiaeintheconqueredterritorysouthoftheDanube。genealogiaisusedinexactlythesamesenseasMarkgenossenschaftorDorfgenossenschaft[Markorvillagecommunity——Ed。]later。Kovalevskyhasrecentlyputforwardtheviewthatthesegenealogia-arethelargehouseholdcommunitiesamongwhichthelandwasdivided，andfromwhichthevillagecommunityonlydevelopedlater。Thiswouldthenprobablyalsoapplytothefara，withwhichexpressiontheBurgundiansandtheLombards——thatis，aGothicandaHerminonianorHighGermantribe——
designatednearly，ifnotexactly，thesamethingasthegenealogiaeintheAlemanniancodeoflaws。Whetheritisreallyagensorahouseholdcommunitymustbesettledbyfurtherresearch。
TherecordsoflanguageleaveusindoubtwhetheralltheGermanshadacommonexpressionforgens，andwhatthatexpressionwas。
Etymologically，theGothickuni，MiddleHighGermankunne，correspondstotheGreekgenosandtheLatingens，andisusedinthesamesense。
Thefactthatthetermforwomancomesfromthesameroot——Greekgyne，Slavzena，Gothicqvino，OldNorsekona，kuna——pointsbacktothetimeofmother-right。AmongtheLombardsandBurgundianswefind，asalreadymentioned，thetermfara，whichGrimmderivesfromanimaginaryrootfisan，tobeget。Ishouldprefertogobacktothemoreobviousderivationfromfaranfahren，totravelorwander。farawouldthendenoteasectionofthemigratingpeoplewhichremainedpermanentlytogetherandalmostasamatterofcoursewouldbecomposedofrelatives。Intheseveralcenturiesofmigration，firsttotheeastandthentothewest，theexpressioncametobetransferredtothekinshipgroupitself。Thereare，further，theGothicsibia，Anglo-Saxonsib，OldHighGermansippia，sima，kindred。OldNorseonlyhasthepluralsifiar，relatives。thesingularonlyoccursasthenameofagoddess，Sif。Lastly，stillanotherexpressionoccursintheHildebrandslied，whereHildebrandasksHadubrand：Whoisthyfatheramongthemenofthepeople……orofwhatkinartthou？eddohuilihescnuosiesdusis。InasfarastherewasacommonGermannameforthegens，itwasprobablytheGothichunithatwasused。thisisrenderedprobable，notonlybyitsidentitywiththecorrespondingexpressionintherelatedlanguages，butalsobythefactthatfromitisderivedthewordkuning，Konigking，whichoriginallydenotestheheadofagensorofatribe。Sibia，kindred，doesnotseemtocallforconsideration。
atanyrate，sifiarinOldNorsedenotesnotonlybloodrelations，butalsorelationsbymarriage。thusitincludesthemembersofatleasttwogentes，andhencesifitselfcannothavebeenthetermforthegens。
AsamongtheMexicansandGreeks，soalsoamongtheGermans，theorderofbattle，boththecavalrysquadronsandthewedgeformationsoftheinfantry，wasdrawnupbygentes。Tacitus’useofthevagueexpressionbyfamiliesandkindredsistobeexplainedthroughthefactthatinhistimethegensinRomehadlongceasedtobealivingbody。
AfurtherpassageinTacitusisdecisive。Itstatesthatthematernalunclelooksuponhisnephewashisownson，andthatsomeevenregardthebondofbloodbetweenthematernaluncleandthenephewasmoresacredandclosethanthatbetweenfatherandson，sothatwhenhostagesaredemandedthesister’ssonisconsideredabettersecuritythanthenaturalsonofthemanwhomitisdesiredtobind。Herewehavelivingevidence，describedasparticularlycharacteristicoftheGermans，ofthematriarchal，andthereforeprimitive，gens。[2]Ifamemberofsuchagensgavehisownsonasapledgeofhisoathandthesonthenpaidthepenaltyofdeathforhisfather’sbreachoffaith，thefatherhadtoanswerforthattohimself。Butifitwasasister’ssonwhowassacrificed，thenthemostsacredlawofthegenswasviolated。Thememberofthegenswhowasnearestofkintotheboyoryouth，andmorethanallotherswasboundtoprotecthim，wasguiltyofhisdeath。eitherheshouldnothavepledgedhimorheshouldhavekepttheagreement。EvenifwehadnoothertraceofgentileorganizationamongtheGermans，thisonepassagewouldsuffice。
Stillmoredecisive，becauseitcomesabouteighthundredyearslater，isapassagefromtheOldNorsepoemofthetwilightofthegodsandtheendoftheworld，theVoluspa。Inthisvisionoftheseeress，
intowhichChristianelementsarealsointerwoven，asBangandBuggehavenowproved，thedescriptionoftheperiodofuniversaldegenerationandcorruptionleadinguptothegreatcatastrophecontainsthefollowingpassage：
Broedhrmunuberjaskokatbonumverdask，munusystrungarsifjumspilla。
Brotherswillmakewarupononeanotherandbecomeoneanother’smurderers，thechildrenofsisterswillbreakkinship。Systrungarmeansthesonofthemother’ssister，andthatthesesisters’sonsshouldbetraytheblood-bondbetweenthemisregardedbythepoetasanevengreatercrimethanthatoffratricide。Theforceoftheclimaxisinthewordsystrungar，whichemphasizesthekinshiponthemother’sside。ifthewordhadbeensyskina-born，brothers’orsisters’
children，orsyskinasynir，brothers’orsisters’sons，thesecondlinewouldnothavebeenaclimaxtothefirst，butwouldmerelyhaveweakenedtheeffect。HenceeveninthetimeoftheVikings，whentheVoluspawascomposed，thememoryofmother-righthadnotyetbeenobliteratedinScandinavia。
InthetimeofTacitus，however，mother-righthadalreadygivenwaytofather-right，atleastamongtheGermanswithwhosecustomshewasmorefamiliar。Thechildreninheritedfromthefather。iftherewerenochildren，thebrothers，andtheunclesonthefather’sandthemother’sside。Thefactthatthemother’sbrotherwasallowedtoinheritisconnectedwiththesurvivalsofmother-rightalreadymentioned，andagainproveshownewfather-rightstillwasamongtheGermansatthattime。Tracesofmother-rightarealsofounduntillateintheMiddleAges。Apparentlyevenatthattimepeoplestilldidnothaveanygreattrustinfatherhood，especiallyinthecaseofserfs。When，therefore，afeudallorddemandedfromatownthereturnofafugitiveserf，itwasrequired——forexample，inAugsburg，BasleandKaiserslautern——
thattheaccusedperson’sstatusasserfshouldbesworntobysixofhisnearestbloodrelations，andthattheyshouldallberelationsonthemother’sside。Maurer，Stadteverfassung，I，p。381。
Anotherrelicofmother-right，whichwasstillonlyinprocessofdyingout，wastherespectoftheGermansforthefemalesex，whichtotheRomanswasalmostincomprehensible。YounggirlsofnoblefamilywereconsideredthemostbindinghostagesintreatieswiththeGermans。Thethoughtthattheirwivesanddaughtersmightbetakencaptiveandcarriedintoslaverywasterribletothemandmorethananythingelsefiredtheircourageinbattle。theysawinawomansomethingholyandprophetic，andlistenedtoheradviceeveninthemostimportantmatters。Veleda，thepriestessoftheBructeriansontheRiverLippe，wastheverysoulofthewholeBatavianrisinginwhichCivilis，attheheadoftheGermansandBelgae，shookthefoundationsofRomanruleinGaul。Inthehome，thewomanseemstohaveheldundisputedsway，though，togetherwiththeoldpeopleandthechildren，shealsohadtodoallthework，whilethemanhunted，drank，oridledabout。That，atleast，iswhatTacitussays。butashedoesnotsaywhotilledthefields，anddefinitelydeclaresthattheserfsonlypaidtribute，butdidnothavetorenderlabordues，thebulkoftheadultmenmusthavehadtodowhatlittleworkthecultivationofthelandrequired。Theformofmarriage，asalreadysaid，wasapairingmarriagewhichwasgraduallyapproachingmonogamy。Itwasnotyetstrictmonogamy，aspolygamywaspermittedfortheleadingmembersofthetribe。Ingeneral，strictchastitywasrequiredofthegirlsincontrasttotheCelts，andTacitusalsospeakswithspecialwarmthofthesacrednessofthemarriagetieamongtheGermans。Adulterybythewomanistheonlygroundfordivorcementionedbyhim。Buttherearemanygapshereinhisreport，anditisalsoonlytooapparentthatheisholdingupamirrorofvirtuebeforethedissipatedRomans。Onethingiscertain：
iftheGermansweresuchparagonsofvirtueintheirforests，itonlyrequiredslightcontactwiththeoutsideworldtobringthemdowntotheleveloftheaveragemanintherestofEurope。AmidsttheRomanworld，thelasttraceofmoralausteritydisappearedfarmorerapidlyeventhantheGermanlanguage。Forproof，itisenoughtoreadGregoryofTours。ThatintheGermanprimevalforeststherecouldbenosuchvoluptuousabandonmenttoalltherefinementsofsensualityasinRomeisobvious。thesuperiorityoftheGermanstotheRomanworldinthisrespectalsoissufficientlygreat，andthereisnoneedtoendowthemwithanidealcontinenceinthingsoftheflesh，suchashasneveryetbeenpracticedbyanentirenation。
Alsoderivedfromthegentileorganizationistheobligationtoinherittheenmitiesaswellasthefriendshipsofthefatherortherelatives。
likewisethewergeld，thefineforidlingorinjuring，inplaceofbloodrevenge。Thewergeld，whichonlyagenerationagowasregardedasaspecificallyGermaninstitution，hasnowbeenshowntobegeneralamonghundredsofpeoplesasamilderformofthebloodrevengeoriginatingoutofthegentileorganization。Wefindit，forexample，amongtheAmericanIndians，whoalsoregardhospitalityasanobligation。Tacitus’descriptionofhospitalityaspracticedamongtheGermansGermania，Ch。XXIisidenticalalmosttothedetailswiththatgivenbyMorganofhisIndians。
Theendless，burningcontroversyastowhethertheGermansofTacitus’
timehadalreadydefinitelydividedthelandornot，andhowtherelevantpassagesaretobeinterpreted，nowbelongstothepast。Nomorewordsneedbewastedinthisdispute，sinceithasbeenestablishedthatamongalmostallpeoplesthecultivatedlandwastilledcollectivelybythegens，andlaterbycommunistichouseholdcommunitiessuchaswerestillfoundbyCaesaramongtheSuevi，andthatafterthisstagethelandwasallottedtoindividualfamilieswithperiodicalrepartitions，whichareshowntohavesurvivedasalocalcustominGermanydowntoourday。IfintheonehundredandfiftyyearsbetweenCaesarandTacitustheGermanshadchangedfromthecollectivecultivationofthelandexpresslyattributedbyCaesartotheSuevitheyhadnodividedorprivatefieldswhatever，hesaystoindividualcultivationwithannualrepartitionoftheland，thatissurelyprogressenough。Thetransitionfromthatstagetocompleteprivatepropertyinlandduringsuchashortperiodandwithoutanyoutsideinterferenceisasheerimpossibility。WhatIreadinTacitusissimplywhathesaysinhisowndrywords：theychangeordivideafreshthecultivatedlandeveryyear，andthereisenoughcommonlandleftover。ItisthestageofagricultureandpropertyrelationsinregardtothelandwhichexactlycorrespondstothegentileconstitutionoftheGermansatthattime。
Ileavetheprecedingparagraphunchangedasitstoodintheformereditions。Meanwhilethequestionhastakenanotherturn。SinceKovalevskyhasshowncf。pages5I-52thatthepatriarchalhouseholdcommunitywasaverycommon，ifnotuniversal，intermediateformbetweenthematriarchalcommunisticfamilyandthemodernisolatedfamily，itisnolongeraquestionofwhetherpropertyinlandiscommunalorprivate，whichwasthepointatissuebetweenMaurerandWaitz，butaquestionoftheformofthecommunalproperty。ThereisnodoubtatallthattheSueviinCaesar’stimenotonlyownedthelandincommon，butalsocultivateditincommonforthecommonbenefit。
Whethertheeconomicunitwasthegensorthehouseholdcommunityoracommunistickinshipgroupintermediatebetweenthetwo。orwhetherallthreegroupsoccurredaccordingtotheconditionsofthesoil——thesequestionswillbeindisputeforalongtimetocome。Kovalevskymaintains，however，thattheconditionsdescribedbyTacituspresupposetheexistence，notofthemarkorvillagecommunity，butofthehouseholdcommunityandthatthevillagecommunityonlydevelopsoutofthelattermuchlater，asaresultoftheincreaseinpopulation。