PREFACETOTHEFIRSTEDITION
　　1884
　　THEfollowingchaptersare，inasense，theexecutionofabequest。NolessamanthanKarlMarxhadmadeitoneofhisfuturetaskstopresenttheresultsofMorgan’sresearchesinthelightoftheconclusionsofhisown——withincertainlimits，Imaysayour——
　　materialisticexaminationofhistory，andthustomakecleartheirfullsignificance。ForMorganinhisownwayhaddiscoveredafreshinAmericathematerialisticconceptionofhistorydiscoveredbyMarxfortyyearsago，andinhiscomparisonofbarbarismandcivilizationithadledhim，inthemainpoints，tothesameconclusionsasMarx。AndjustastheprofessionaleconomistsinGermanywereforyearsasbusyinplagiarizingCapitalastheywerepersistentinattemptingtokillitbysilence，soMorgan’sAncientSociety[1]receivedpreciselythesametreatmentfromthespokesmenofprehistoricscienceinEngland。
　　Myworkcanonlyprovideaslightsubstituteforwhatmydepartedfriendnolongerhadthetimetodo。ButIhavethecriticalnoteswhichhemadetohisextensiveextractsfromMorgan，andasfaraspossibleIreproducethemhere。
　　Accordingtothematerialisticconception，thedeterminingfactorinhistoryis，inthefinalinstance，theproductionandreproductionoftheimmediateessentialsoflife。This，again，isofatwofoldcharacter。Ontheoneside，theproductionofthemeansofexistence，ofarticlesoffoodandclothing，dwellings，andofthetoolsnecessaryforthatproduction。ontheotherside，theproductionofhumanbeingsthemselves，thepropagationofthespecies。Thesocialorganizationunderwhichthepeopleofaparticularhistoricalepochandaparticularcountryliveisdeterminedbybothkindsofproduction：bythestageofdevelopmentoflaborontheonehandandofthefamilyontheother。
　　Thelowerthedevelopmentoflaborandthemorelimitedtheamountofitsproducts，andconsequently，themorelimitedalsothewealthofthesociety，themorethesocialorderisfoundtobedominatedbykinshipgroups。However，withinthisstructureofsocietybasedonkinshipgroupstheproductivityoflaborincreasinglydevelops，andwithitprivatepropertyandexchange，differencesofwealth，thepossibilityofutilizingthelaborpowerofothers，andhencethebasisofclassantagonisms：newsocialelements，whichinthecourseofgenerationsstrivetoadapttheoldsocialordertothenewconditions，untilatlasttheirincompatibilitybringsaboutacompleteupheaval。Inthecollisionofthenewly-developedsocialclasses，theoldsocietyfoundedonkinshipgroupsisbrokenup。initsplaceappearsanewsociety，withitscontrolcenteredinthestate，thesubordinateunitsofwhicharenolongerkinshipassociations，butlocalassociations。asocietyinwhichthesystemofthefamilyiscompletelydominatedbythesystemofproperty，andinwhichtherenowfreelydevelopthoseclassantagonismsandclassstrugglesthathavehithertoformedthecontentofall_written_history。
　　ItisMorgan’sgreatmeritthathehasdiscoveredandreconstructedinitsmainlinesthisprehistoricbasisofourwrittenhistory，andthatinthekinshipgroupsoftheNorthAmericanIndianshehasfoundthekeytothemostimportantandhithertoinsolubleriddlesofearliestGreek，RomanandGermanhistory。Hisbookisnottheworkofaday。
　　Fornearlyfortyyearshewrestledwithhismaterial，untilhewascompletelymasterofit。Butthatalsomakeshisbookoneofthefewepoch-makingworksofourtime。
　　Inthefollowingpresentation，thereaderwillingeneraleasilydistinguishwhatcomesfromMorganandwhatIhaveadded。InthehistoricalsectionsonGreeceandRomeIhavenotconfinedmyselftoMorgan’sevidence，buthaveaddedwhatwasavailabletome。ThesectionsontheCeltsandtheGermansareinthemainmywork。Morganhadtorelyherealmostentirelyonsecondarysources，andforGermanconditions——apartfromTacitus——ontheworthlessandliberalisticfalsificationsofMr。Freeman。Thetreatmentoftheeconomicaspects，whichinMorgan’sbookwassufficientforhispurposebutquiteinadequateformine，hasbeendoneafreshbymyself。And，finally，I
　　am，ofcourse，responsibleforalltheconclusionsdrawn，insofarasMorganisnotexpresslycited。
　　NOTES
　　[1]AncientSociety，orResearchesintheLinesofHumanProgressfromSavagery，throughBarbarismtoCivilization，byLewisH。Morgan，London，Macmillan&Co。，1877。ThebookwasprintedinAmericaandispeculiarlydifficulttoobtaininLondon。Theauthordiedsomeyearsago。[Forthepurposesofthisedition，allreferencestoAncientSocietyarefromtheCharlesH。Kerredition，Chicago——Ed。]
　　THEORIGINOF
　　THEFAMILY，PRIVATEPROPERTY，ANDTHESTATE
　　byFREDERICKENGELS
　　PREFACETOTHEFOURTHEDITION
　　June161891
　　LondonTHEearlierlargeeditionsofthisworkhavebeenoutofprintnowforalmosthalfayear，andforsometimethepublisherhasbeenaskingmetoprepareanewedition。Untilnow，moreurgentworkkeptmefromdoingso。Sincetheappearanceofthefirsteditionsevenyearshaveelapsed，duringwhichourknowledgeoftheprimitiveformsofthefamilyhasmadeimportantadvances。Therewas，therefore，plentytodointhewayofimprovementsandadditions。allthemoresoastheproposedstereotypingofthepresenttextwillmakeanyfurtheralterationsimpossibleforsometime。
　　Ihaveaccordinglysubmittedthewholetexttoacarefulrevisionandmadeanumberofadditionswhich，Ihope，takedueaccountofthepresentstateofknowledge。IalsogiveinthecourseofthisprefaceashortreviewofthedevelopmentofthehistoryofthefamilyfromBachofentoMorgan。IdosochieflybecausethechauvinisticallyinclinedEnglishanthropologistsarestillstrivingtheirutmosttokillbysilencetherevolutionwhichMorgan’sdiscoverieshaveeffectedinourconceptionofprimitivehistory，whiletheyappropriatehisresultswithouttheslightestcompunction。ElsewherealsotheexampleofEnglandisinsomecasesfollowedonlytooclosely。
　　Myworkhasbeentranslatedintoanumberofotherlanguages。First，Italian：L’originedeltafamiglia，deltaproprietaprivataedellostato，versionsrivedutadall’autore，diPasqualeMartignetti，Benevento，1885。Then，Rumanian：Originafamdei，proprietateiprivatesiastatului，traduceredeJoanNadeide，intheYassyperiodicalContemporanul，September，1885，toMay，1886。Further，Danish：
　　Familjens，PrivatejendommensogStatensOprindelse，Dansk，afForfatterngennemgaaetUdgave，besorgetafGersonTrier，Kobenhavn，1888。AFrenchtranslationbyHenriRave，basedonthepresentGermanedition，isonthepress。
　　*
　　Beforethebeginningofthe’sixties，onecannotspeakofahistoryofthefamily。Inthisfield，thescienceofhistorywasstillcompletelyundertheinfluenceofthefivebooksofMoses。Thepatriarchalformofthefamily，whichwastheredescribedingreaterdetailthananywhereelse，wasnotonlyassumedwithoutquestiontobetheoldestform，butitwasalsoidentified——minusitspolygamy——withthebourgeoisfamilyoftoday，sothatthefamilyhadreallyexperiencednohistoricaldevelopmentatall。atmostitwasadmittedthatinprimitivetimestheremighthavebeenaperiodofsexualpromiscuity。
　　Itistruethatinadditiontothemonogamousformofthefamily，twootherformswereknowntoexist——polygamyintheOrientandpolyandryinIndiaandTibet。butthesethreeformscouldnotbearrangedinanyhistoricalorderandmerelyappearedsidebysidewithoutanyconnection。Thatamongsomepeoplesofancienthistory，aswellasamongsomesavagesstillalivetoday，descentwasreckoned，notfromthefather，butfromthemother，andthatthefemalelinewasthereforeregardedasalonevalid。thatamongmanypeoplesofthepresentdayineverycontinentmarriageisforbiddenwithincertainlargegroupswhichatthattimehadnotbeencloselystudied——thesefactswereindeedknownandfreshinstancesofthemwerecontinuallybeingcollected。
　　Butnobodyknewwhattodowiththem，andevenaslateasE。B。Tylor’sResearchesintotheEarlyHistoryofMankind，etc。1865theyarelistedasmerecuriouscustoms，sidebysidewiththeprohibitionamongsomesavagesagainsttouchingburningwoodwithanirontoolandsimilarreligiousmumbo-jumbo。
　　Thehistoryofthefamilydatesfrom1861，fromthepublicationofBachofen’sMutterrecht。[Mother-right，matriarchate——Ed。]Inthisworktheauthoradvancesthefollowingpropositions：
　　1Thatoriginallymanlivedinastateofsexualpromiscuity，todescribewhichBachofenusesthemistakentermhetaerism。
　　2thatsuchpromiscuityexcludesanycertaintyofpaternity，andthatdescentcouldthereforebereckonedonlyinthefemaleline，accordingtomother-right，andthatthiswasoriginallythecaseamongstallthepeoplesofantiquity。
　　3thatsincewomen，asmothers，weretheonlyparentsoftheyoungergenerationthatwereknownwithcertainty，theyheldapositionofsuchhighrespectandhonorthatitbecamethefoundation，inBachofen’sconception，ofaregularruleofwomengynaecocracy。
　　4thatthetransitiontomonogamy，wherethewomanbelongedtoonemanexclusively，involvedaviolationofaprimitivereligiouslawthatis，actuallyaviolationofthetraditionalrightoftheothermentothiswoman，andthatinordertoexpiatethisviolationortopurchaseindulgenceforitthewomanhadtosurrenderherselfforalimitedperiod。
　　Bachofenfindstheproofsoftheseassertionsininnumerablepassagesofancientclassicalliterature，whichhecollectedwithimmenseindustry。Accordingtohim，thedevelopmentfromhetaerismtomonogamyandfrommother-righttofather-rightisaccomplished，particularlyamongtheGreeks，astheconsequenceofanadvanceinreligiousconceptions，introducingintotheoldhierarchyofthegods，representativeoftheoldoutlook，newdivinities，representativeofthenewoutlook，whopushtheformermoreandmoreintothebackground。
　　Thus，accordingtoBachofen，itisnotthedevelopmentofmen’sactualconditionsoflife，butthereligiousreflectionoftheseconditionsinsidetheirheads，whichhasbroughtaboutthehistoricalchangesinthesocialpositionofthesexesinrelationtoeachother。Inaccordancewiththisview，BachofeninterpretstheOresteiaofAschylusasthedramaticrepresentationoftheconflictbetweendecliningmother-rightandthenewfather-rightthataroseandtriumphedintheheroicage。Forthesakeofherparamour，AEgisthus，Clytemnestraslaysherhusband，Agamemnon，onhisreturnfromtheTrojanWar。butOrestes，thesonofAgamemnonandherself，avengeshisfather’smurderbyslayinghismother。ForthisactheispursuedbytheFuries，thedemonicguardiansofmother-right，accordingtowhichmatricideisthegravestandmostinexpiablecrime。ButApollo，whobythevoiceofhisoraclehadsummonedOrestestothisdeed，andAthena，whoiscalledupontogivejudgment——thetwodeitieswhohererepresentthenewpatriarchalorder——takeOrestesundertheirprotection。Athenahearsbothsides。ThewholematterofthedisputeisbrieflysummedupinthedebatewhichnowtakesplacebetweenOrestesandtheFuries。
　　OrestescontendsthatClytemnestrahascommittedadoublecrime。shehasslainherhusbandandthusshehasalsoslainhisfather。WhyshouldtheFuriespursuehim，andnother，seeingthatsheisbyfarthemoreguilty？Theanswerisstriking：Shewasnotkinbybloodtothemansheslew。
　　Themurderofamannotrelatedbyblood，evenifhebethehusbandofthemurderess，isexpiableanddoesnotconcerntheFuries。theirofficeissolelytopunishmurderbetweenbloodrelations，andofsuchmurdersthemostgraveandthemostinexpiable，accordingtomother-right，ismatricide。ApollonowcomesforwardinOrestes’
　　defense。AthenacallsupontheAreopagites——theAthenianjurors——tovote。thevotesforOrestes’condemnationandforhisacquittalareequal。Athena，aspresident，giveshervoteforOrestesandacquitshim。Father-righthastriumphedovermother-right，thegodsofyoungdescent，astheFuriesthemselvescallthem，havetriumphedovertheFuries。thelatterthenfinallyallowthemselvestobepersuadedtotakeupanewofficeintheserviceoftheneworder。
　　ThisnewbutundoubtedlycorrectinterpretationoftheOresteiaisoneofthebestandfinestpassagesinthewholebook，butitprovesatthesametimethatBachofenbelievesatleastasmuchasAEschylusdidintheFuries，Apollo，andAthena。for，atbottom，hebelievesthattheoverthrowofmother-rightbyfather-rightwasamiraclewroughtduringtheGreekheroicagebythesedivinities。Thatsuchaconception，whichmakesreligiontheleverofworldhistory，mustfinallyendinpuremysticism，isclear。ItisthereforeatoughandbynomeansalwaysagratefultasktoplowthroughBachofen’ssolidtome。Butallthatdoesnotlessenhisimportanceasapioneer。Hewasthefirsttoreplacethevaguephrasesaboutsomeunknownprimitivestateofsexualpromiscuitybyproofsofthefollowingfacts：thatabundanttracessurviveinoldclassicalliteratureofastatepriortomonogamyamongtheGreeksandAsiaticswhennotonlydidamanhavesexualintercoursewithseveralwomen，butawomanwithseveralmen，withoutoffendingagainstmorality。thatthiscustomdidnotdisappearwithoutleavingitstracesinthelimitedsurrenderwhichwasthepricewomenhadtopayfortherighttomonogamy。thatthereforedescentcouldoriginallybereckonedonlyinthefemaleline，frommothertomother。thatfarintotheperiodofmonogamy，withitscertainoratleastacknowledgedpaternity，thefemalelinewasstillalonerecognized。andthattheoriginalpositionofthemothers，astheonlycertainparentsoftheirchildren，securedforthem，andthusfortheirwholesex，ahighersocialpositionthanwomenhaveeverenjoyedsince。Bachofendidnotputthesestatementsasclearlyasthis，forhewashinderedbyhismysticism。Butheprovedthem。andin1861thatwasarealrevolution。
　　Bachofen’smassivevolumewaswritteninGerman，thelanguageofthenationwhichatthattimeinteresteditselflessthananyotherintheprehistoryofthemodernfamily。Consequently，heremainedunknown。
　　Hisfirstsuccessorinthesamefieldappearedin1865，withouteverhavingheardofBachofen。
　　ThissuccessorwasJ。F。McLennan，theexactoppositeofhispredecessor。Insteadofamysticofgenius，wehavethedry-as-dustjurist。insteadoftheexuberantimaginationofapoet，theplausibleargumentsofabarristerdefendinghisbrief。McLennanfindsamongmanysavage，barbarian，andevencivilizedpeoplesofancientandmoderntimesaformofmarriageinwhichthebridegroom，aloneorwithhisfriends，mustcarryoffthebridefromherrelationsbyashowofforce。Thiscustommustbethesurvivalofanearliercustomwhenthemenofonetribedidinfactcarryofftheirwivesbyforcefromothertribes。Whatwastheoriginofthismarriagebycapture？Solongasmencouldfindenoughwomenintheirowntribe，therewasnoreasonwhateverforit。Wefind，however，nolessfrequentlythatamongundevelopedpeoplestherearecertaingroupswhichini865werestilloftenidentifiedwiththetribesthemselveswithinwhichmarriageisforbidden，sothatthemenareobligedtotaketheirwives，andwomentheirhusbands，fromoutsidethegroup。whereasamongotherpeoplesthecustomisthatthemenofonegroupmusttaketheirwivesonlyfromwithintheirowngroup。McLennancallsthefirstpeoplesexogamous
　　andthesecondendogamous。hethenpromptlyproceedstoconstructarigidoppositionbetweenexogamousandendogamoustribes。Andalthoughhisowninvestigationsintoexogamyforcethefactunderhisnosethatinmany，ifnotinmostoreveninall，cases，thisoppositionexistsonlyinhisownimagination，heneverthelessmakesitthebasisofhiswholetheory。Accordingtothistheory，exogamoustribescanonlyobtaintheirwivesfromothertribes。andsinceinsavagerythereisapermanentstateofwarbetweentribeandtribe，thesewivescouldonlybeobtainedbycapture。McLennanthengoesontoask：Whencethiscustomofexogamy？Theconceptionofconsanguinityandincestcouldnothaveanythingtodowithit，forthesethingsonlycamemuchlater。Buttherewasanothercommoncustomamongsavages-thecustomofkillingfemalechildrenimmediatelyafterbirth。Thiswouldcauseasurplusofmenineachindividualtribe，ofwhichtheinevitableandimmediateconsequencewouldbethatseveralmenpossessedawifeincommon：polyandry。Andthiswouldhavethefurtherconsequencethatitwouldbeknownwhowasthemotherofachild，butnotwhoitsfatherwas：hencerelationshiponlyinthefemaleline，withexclusionofthemaleline——mother-right。Andasecondconsequenceofthescarcityofwomenwithinatribe——ascarcitywhichpolyandrymitigated，butdidnotremove——waspreciselythissystematic，forcibleabductionofwomenfromothertribes。
　　Asexogamyandpolyandryarereferabletooneandthesamecause——awantofbalancebetweenthesexes-weareforcedtoregardalltheexogamousracesas-havingoriginallybeenpolyandrous……
　　Thereforewemustholdittobebeyonddisputethatamongexogamousracesthefirstsystemofkinshipwasthatwhichrecognizedblood-tiesthroughmothersonly。McLennan，StudiesinAncientHistory，1886。PrimitiveMarriage，p。124
　　ItisMcLennan’smerittohavedirectedattentiontothegeneraloccurrenceandgreatimportanceofwhathecallsexogamy。Hedidnotbyanymeansdiscovertheexistenceofexogamousgroups。stilllessdidheunderstandthem。Besidestheearly，scatterednotesofmanyobserversthesewereMcLennan’ssources，LathamDescriptiveEthnology，1859hadgivenadetailedandaccuratedescriptionofthisinstitutionamongtheIndianMagars，andhadsaidthatitwasverywidespreadandoccurredinallpartsoftheworld——apassagewhichMcLennanhimselfcites。Morgan，in1847，inhislettersontheIroquoisAmericanReviewandin1851inTheLeagueoftheIroquois，hadalreadydemonstratedtheexistenceofexogamousgroupsamongthistribeandhadgivenanaccurateaccountofthem。whereasMcLennan，asweshallsee，wroughtgreaterconfusionherewithhislegalisticmindthanBachofenwroughtinthefieldofmother-rightwithhismysticalfancies。ItisalsoameritofMcLennanthatherecognizedmatrilinealdescentastheearliersystem，thoughhewashereanticipatedbyBachofen，ashelateracknowledged。ButMcLennanisnotclearonthiseither。healwaysspeaksofkinshipthroughfemalesonly，andthisterm，whichiscorrectforanearlierstage，hecontinuallyappliestolaterstagesofdevelopmentwhendescentandinheritancewereindeedstilltracedexclusivelythroughthefemaleline，butwhenkinshiponthemalesidewasalsorecognizedandexpressed。Thereyouhavethepedanticmindofthejurist，whofixesonarigidlegaltermandgoesonapplyingitunchangedwhenchangedconditionshavemadeitapplicablenolonger。
　　ApparentlyMcLennan’stheory，plausiblethoughitwas，didnotseemanytoowellestablishedeventoitsauthor。Atanyrate，hehimselfisstruckbythefactthatitisobservablethattheformofcaptureisnowmostdistinctlymarkedandimpressivejustamongthoseraceswhichhavemalekinshipshouldbedescentinthemaleline。Ibid。，p。
　　140Andagain：Itisacuriousfactthatnowherenow，thatweareawareof，isinfanticideasystemwhereexogamyandtheearliestformofkinshipco-exist。Ibid。，p。146。Boththesefactsflatlycontradicthismethodofexplanation，andhecanonlymeetthemwithnewandstillmorecomplicatedhypotheses。
　　Nevertheless，histheoryfoundgreatapplauseandsupportinEngland。
　　McLennanwasheregenerallyregardedasthefounderofthehistoryofthefamilyandtheleadingauthorityonthesubject。Howevermanyexceptionsandvariationsmightbefoundinindividualcases，hisoppositionofexogamousandendogamoustribescontinuedtostandastherecognizedfoundationoftheacceptedview，andtoactasblinkers，obstructinganyfreesurveyofthefieldunderinvestigationandsomakinganydecisiveadvanceimpossible。AgainstMcLennan’sexaggeratedreputationinEngland——andtheEnglishfashioniscopiedelsewhere——
　　itbecomesadutytosetdownthefactthatbehasdonemoreharmwithhiscompletelymistakenantithesisbetweenexogamousandendogamoustribesthanhehasdonegoodbyhisresearch。
　　Factswerenowalreadycomingtolightinincreasingnumberwhichdidnotfitintohisneatframework。McLennanknewonlythreeformsofmarriage：polygyny，polyandryandmonogamy。Butonceattentionhadbeendirectedtothequestion，moreandmoreproofswerefoundthatthereexistedamongundevelopedpeoplesformsofmarriageinwhichanumberofmenpossessedanumberofwomenincommon，andLubbockTheOriginofCivilization，1870recognizedthisgroupmarriagecommunalmarriageasahistoricalfact。
　　Immediatelyafterwards，inI871，Morgancameforwardwithnewandinmanywaysdecisiveevidence。HehadconvincedhimselfthatthepeculiarsystemofconsanguinityinforceamongtheIroquoiswascommontoalltheaboriginalinhabitantsoftheUnitedStatesandthereforeextendedoverawholecontinent，althoughitdirectlycontradictedthedegreesofrelationshiparisingoutofthesystemofmarriageasactuallypracticedbythesepeoples。HetheninducedtheFederalgovernmenttocollectinformationaboutthesystemsofconsanguinityamongtheotherpeoplesoftheworldandtosendoutforthispurposetablesandlistsofquestionspreparedbyhimself。Hediscoveredfromthereplies：1thatthesystemofconsanguinityoftheAmericanIndianswasalsoinforceamongnumerouspeoplesinAsiaand，inasomewhatmodifiedform，inAfricaandAustralia。2thatitscompleteexplanationwastobefoundinaformofgroupmarriagewhichwasjustdyingoutinHawaiiandotherAustralasianislands。and3thatsidebysidewiththisformofmarriageasystemofconsanguinitywasinforceinthesameislandswhichcouldonlybeexplainedthroughastillmoreprimitive，nowextinct，formofgroupmarriage。Hepublishedthecollectedevidence，togetherwiththeconclusionshedrewfromit，inhisSystemsofConsanguinityandAffinity，1871，andthuscarriedthedebateontoaninfinitelywiderfield。Bystartingfromthesystemsofconsanguinityandreconstructingfromthemthecorrespondingformsoffamily，heopenedanewlineofresearchandextendedourrangeofvisionintotheprehistoryofman。Ifthismethodprovedtobesound，McLennan’sprettytheorieswouldbecompletelydemolished。
　　McLennandefendedhistheoryinaneweditionofPrimitiveMarriageStudiesinAncientHistory，I876。Whilsthehimselfconstructsahighlyartificialhistoryofthefamilyoutofpurehypotheses，hedemandsfromLubbockandMorgannotmerelyproofsforeveryoneoftheirstatements，butproofsasindisputablyvalidasiftheyweretobesubmittedinevidenceinaScottishcourtoflaw。Andthisisthemanwho，fromTacitus’reportonthecloserelationshipbetweenmaternaluncleandsister’ssonamongtheGermansGernwnia，Chap。20，fromCaesar’sreportthattheBritonsingroupsoftenortwelvepossessedtheirwivesincommon，fromalltheotherreportsofclassicalauthorsoncommunityofwivesamongbarbarians，calmlydrawstheconclusionthatallthesepeopleslivedinastateofpolyandry！
　　Onemightbelisteningtoaprosecutingcounselwhocanallowhimselfeverylibertyinarguinghisowncase，butdemandsfromdefendingcounselthemostformal，legallyvalidproofforhiseveryword。
　　Hemaintainsthatgroupmarriageispureimagination，andbysodoingfallsfarbehindBachofen。HedeclaresthatMorgan’ssystemsofconsanguinityaremerecodesofconventionalpoliteness，theproofbeingthattheIndiansalsoaddressastrangerorawhitemanasbrotherorfather。Onemightaswellsaythatthetermsfather，
　　mother，brother，sisteraremeremeaninglessformsofaddressbecauseCatholicpriestsandabbessesareaddressedasfatherandmother，andbecausemonksandnuns，andevenfreemasonsandmembersofEnglishtradeunionsandassociationsattheirfullsessionsareaddressedasbrotherandsister。Inaword，McLennan’sdefensewasmiserablyfeeble。
　　Butononepointhehadstillnotbeenassailed。Theoppositionofexogamousandendogamoustribesonwhichhiswholesystemrestednotonlyremainedunshaken，butwasevenuniversallyacknowledgedasthekeystoneofthewholehistoryofthefamily。McLennan’sattempttoexplainthisoppositionmightbeinadequateandincontradictionwithhisownfacts。Buttheantithesisitself，theexistenceoftwomutuallyexclusivetypesofself-sufficientandindependenttribes，ofwhichtheonetypetooktheirwivesfromwithinthetribe，whiletheothertypeabsolutelyforbadeit——thatwassacredgospel。Compare，forexample，Giraud-Teulon’s0riginesdelafamille1874andevenLubbock’sOriginofCivilizationfourthedition，1882。
　　HereMorgantakesthefieldwithhismainwork，AncientSocietyi877，theworkthatunderliesthepresentstudy。WhatMorganhadonlydimlyguessedin187Iisnowdevelopedinfullconsciousness。Thereisnoantithesisbetweenendogamyandexogamy。uptothepresent，theexistenceofexogamoustribeshasnotbeendemonstratedanywhere。
　　Butatthetimewhengroupmarriagestillprevailed——andinallprobabilityitprevailedeverywhereatsometime——thetribewassubdividedintoanumberofgroupsrelatedbybloodonthemother’sside，gentes，withinwhichitwasstrictlyforbiddentomarry，sothatthemenofagens，thoughtheycouldtaketheirwivesfromwithinthetribeandgenerallydidso，werecompelledtotakethemfromoutsidetheirgens。Thuswhileeachgenswasstrictlyexogamous，thetribeembracingallthegenteswasnolessendogamous。WhichfinallydisposedofthelastremainsofMcLennan’sartificialconstructions。
　　ButMorgandidnotresthere。ThroughthegensoftheAmericanIndians，hewasenabledtomakehissecondgreatadvanceinhisfieldofresearch。Inthisgens，organizedaccordingtomother-right，hediscoveredtheprimitiveformoutofwhichhaddevelopedthelatergensorganizedaccordingtofather-right，thegensaswefinditamongtheancientcivilizedpeoples。TheGreekandRomangens，theoldriddleofallhistorians，nowfounditsexplanationintheIndiangens，andanewfoundationwasthuslaidforthewholeofprimitivehistory。
　　ThisrediscoveryoftheprimitivematriarchalgensastheearlierstageofthepatriarchalgensofcivilizedpeopleshasthesameimportanceforanthropologyasDarwin’stheoryofevolutionhasforbiologyandMarx’stheoryofsurplusvalueforpoliticaleconomy。ItenabledMorgantooutlineforthefirsttimeahistoryofthefamilyinwhichforthepresent，sofarasthematerialnowavailablepermits，atleasttheclassicstagesofdevelopmentintheirmainoutlinesarenowdetermined。Thatthisopensanewepochinthetreatmentofprimitivehistorymustbecleartoeveryone。Thematriarchalgenshasbecomethepivotonwhichthewholescienceturns。sinceitsdiscoveryweknowwheretolookandwhattolookforinourresearch，andhowtoarrangetheresults。And，consequently，sinceMorgan’sbook，progressinthisfieldhasbeenmadeatafarmorerapidspeed。
　　Anthropologists，eveninEngland，nowgenerallyappreciate，orratherappropriate，Morgan’sdiscoveries。ButhardlyoneofthemhasthehonestytoadmitthatitistoMorganthatweowethisrevolutioninourideas。InEnglandtheytrytokillhisbookbysilence，anddisposeofitsauthorwithcondescendingpraiseforhisearlierachievements。theyniggleendlesslyoverdetailsandremainobstinatelysilentabouthisreallygreatdiscoveries。Theoriginaleditionof。AncientSocietyisoutofprint。inAmericathereisnosaleforsuchthings。inEngland，itseems，thebookwassystematicallysuppressed，andtheonlyeditionofthisepochmakingworkstillcirculatinginthebooktradeis——theGermantranslation。
　　Whythisreserve？Itisdifficultnottoseeinitaconspiracyofsilence。forpoliteness’sake，ourrecognizedanthropologistsgenerallypacktheirwritingswithquotationsandothertokensofcamaraderie。
　　Isit，perhaps，becauseMorganisanAmerican，andfortheEnglishanthropologistsitgoessorelyagainstthegrainthat，despitetheirhighlycreditableindustryincollectingmaterial，theyshouldbedependentfortheirgeneralpointsofviewinthearrangementandgroupingofthismaterial，fortheirideasinfact，ontwoforeignersofgenius，BachofenandMorgan？TheymightputupwiththeGerman——
　　buttheAmerican？EveryEnglishmanturnspatrioticwhenhecomesupagainstanAmerican，andofthisIsawhighlyentertaininginstancesintheUnitedStates。Moreover，McLennanwas，sotospeak，theofficiallyappointedfounderandleaderoftheEnglishschoolofanthropology。Itwasalmostaprincipleofanthropologicaletiquettetospeakofhisartificiallyconstructedhistoricalseries——child-murder，polygyny，marriagebycapture，matriarchalfamily——intonesonlyofprofoundestrespect。Theslightestdoubtintheexistenceofexogamousandendogamoustribesofabsolutemutualexclusivenesswasconsideredrankheresy。Morganhadcommittedakindofsacrilegeindissolvingallthesehalloweddogmasintothinair。Intothebargain，hehaddoneitinsuchawaythatitonlyneededsayingtocarryimmediateconviction。sothattheMcLennanites，whohadhithertobeenhelplesslyreelingtoandfrobetweenexogamyandendogamy，couldonlybeattheirbrowsandexclaim：Howcouldwebesuchfoolsasnottothinkofthatforourselveslongago？
　　Asifthesecrimeshadnotalreadylefttheofficialschoolwiththeoptiononlyofcoldlyignoringhim，Morganfilledthemeasuretooverflowingbynotmerelycriticizingcivilization，thesocietyofcommodityproduction，thebasicformofpresent-daysociety，inamannerreminiscentofFourier，butalsobyspeakingofafuturetransformationofthissocietyinwordswhichKarlMarxmighthaveused。HehadthereforeamplymeritedMcLennan’sindignantreproachthatthehistoricalmethodisantipatheticaltoMr。Morgan’smind，
　　anditsechoaslateas1884fromMr。ProfessorGiraud-TeulonofGeneva。In1874OriginesdelafamillethissamegentlemanwasstillgropinghelplesslyinthemazeoftheMcLennaniteexogamy，fromwhichMorganhadtocomeandrescuehim！
　　OftheotheradvanceswhichprimitiveanthropologyowestoMorgan，Idonotneedtospeakhere。theyaresufficientlydiscussedinthecourseofthisstudy。Thefourteenyearswhichhaveelapsedsincethepublicationofhischiefworkhavegreatlyenrichedthematerialavailableforthestudyofthehistoryofprimitivehumansocieties。
　　Theanthropologists，travelersandprimitivehistoriansbyprofessionhavenowbeenjoinedbythecomparativejurists，whohavecontributedeithernewmaterialornewpointsofview。Asaresult，someofMorgan’sminorhypotheseshavebeenshakenorevendisproved。Butnotoneofthegreatleadingideasofhisworkhasbeenoustedbythisnewmaterial。Theorderwhichheintroducedintoprimitivehistorystillholdsinitsmainlinestoday。Itis，infact，winningrecognitiontothesamedegreeinwhichMorgan’sresponsibilityforthegreatadvanceiscarefullyconcealed。[1]
　　FrederickEngelsLondon，June16，1891
　　NOTES
　　[1]OnthevoyagebackfromNewYorkinSeptember，1888，ImetaformermemberofCongressforthedistrictofRochester，whohadknownLewisMorgan。Unfortunately，hecouldnottellmeverymuchabouthim。HesaidthatMorganhadlivedinRochesterasaprivateindividual，occupiedonlywithhisstudies。Hisbrotherwasacolonel，andhadheldapostintheWarDepartmentinWashington。itwasthroughhimthatMorganhadmanagedtointeresttheGovernmentinhisresearchesandtogetseveralofhisworkspublishedatpublicexpense。WhilehewasamemberofCongress，myinformanthadalsoonmorethanoneoccasionusedhisinfluenceonMorgan’sbehalf。
　　THEORIGINOF
　　THEFAMILY，PRIVATEPROPERTY，ANDTHESTATE
　　byFREDERICKENGELS
　　I。
　　STAGESOFPREHISTORICCULTURE
　　MORGANisthefirstmanwho，withexpertknowledge，hasattemptedtointroduceadefiniteorderintothehistoryofprimitiveman。solongasnoimportantadditionalmaterialmakeschangesnecessary，hisclassificationwillundoubtedlyremaininforce。
　　Ofthethreemainepochs——savagery，barbarism，andcivilization——heisconcerned，ofcourse，onlywiththefirsttwoandthetransitiontothethird。Hedividesbothsavageryandbarbarismintolower，middle，andupperstagesaccordingtotheprogressmadeintheproductionoffood。for，hesays：
　　Upontheirskillinthisdirection，thewholequestionofhumansupremacyontheearthdepended。Mankindaretheonlybeingswhomaybesaidtohavegainedanabsolutecontrolovertheproductionoffood……Itisaccordinglyprobablethatthegreatepochsofhumanprogresshavebeenidentified，moreorlessdirectly，withtheenlargementofthesourcesofsubsistence。
　　[Morgan，op。cit。，p。19-Ed。]
　　Thedevelopmentofthefamilytakesaparallelcourse，butheretheperiodshavenotsuchstrikingmarksofdifferentiation。
　　I。SAVAGERY
　　a。LOWERSTAGE。Childhoodofthehumanrace。Manstilllivedinhisoriginalhabitat，intropicalorsubtropicalforests，andwaspartiallyatleastatree-dweller，forotherwisehissurvivalamonghugebeastsofpreycannotbeexplained。Fruit，nutsandrootsservedhimforfood。Thedevelopmentofarticulatespeechisthemainresultofthisperiod。Ofallthepeoplesknowntohistorynonewasstillatthisprimitivelevel。Thoughthisperiodmayhavelastedthousandsofyears，wehavenodirectevidencetoproveitsexistence。butoncetheevolutionofmanfromtheanimalkingdomisadmitted，suchatransitionalstagemustnecessarilybeassumed。
　　b。MIDDLESTAGE。Beginswiththeutilizationoffishforfoodincludingcrabs，mussels，andotheraquaticanimals，andwiththeuseoffire。Thetwoarecomplementary，sincefishbecomesedibleonlybytheuseoffire。Withthisnewsourceofnourishment，mennowbecameindependentofclimateandlocality。evenassavages，theycould，byfollowingtheriversandcoasts，spreadovermostoftheearth。Proofofthesemigrationsisthedistributionovereverycontinentofthecrudelyworked，unsharpenedflinttoolsoftheearlierStoneAge，knownaspalaeoliths，allormostofwhichdatefromthisperiod。Newenvironments，ceaselessexerciseofhisinventivefaculty，andtheabilitytoproducefirebyfriction，ledmantodiscovernewkindsoffood：farinaceousrootsandtubers，forinstance，werebakedinhotashesoringroundovens。Withtheinventionofthefirstweapons，clubandspear，gamecouldsometimesheaddedtothefare。Butthetribeswhichfigureinbooksaslivingentirely，thatis，exclusively，byhuntingneverexistedinreality。theyieldofthehuntwasfartooprecarious。Atthisstage，owingtothecontinualuncertaintyoffoodsupplies，cannibalismseemstohavearisen，andwaspracticedfromnowonwardsforalongtime。TheAustralianaboriginesandmanyofthePolynesiansarestillinthismiddlestageofsavagerytoday。
　　c。UPPERSTAGE。Beginswiththeinventionofthebowandarrow，wherebygamebecamearegularsourceoffood，andbuntinganormalformofwork。Bow，string，andarrowalreadyconstituteaverycomplexinstrument，whoseinventionimplieslong，accumulatedexperienceandsharpenedintelligence，andthereforeknowledgeofmanyotherinventionsaswell。Wefind，infact，thatthepeoplesacquaintedwiththebowandarrowbutnotyetwithpotteryfromwhichMorgandatesthetransitiontobarbarismarealreadymakingsomebeginningstowardssettlementinvillagesandhavegainedsomecontrolovertheproductionofmeansofsubsistence。wefindwoodenvesselsandutensils，finger-weavingwithoutloomswithfilamentsofbark。
　　plaitedbasketsofbastorosier。sharpenedneolithicstonetools。
　　Withthediscoveryoffireandthestoneax，dug-outcanoesnowbecomecommon。beamsandplanksarcalsosometimesusedforbuildinghouses。
　　Wefindalltheseadvances，forinstance，amongtheIndiansofnorthwestAmerica，whoareacquaintedwiththebowandarrowbutnotwithpottery。Thebowandarrowwasforsavagerywhattheironswordwasforbarbarismandfire-armsforcivilization——thedecisiveweapon。
　　2。BARBARISM
　　a。LOWERSTAGE。Datesfromtheintroductionofpottery。Inmanycasesithasbeenproved，andinallitisprobable，thatthefirstpotsoriginatedfromthehabitofcoveringbasketsorwoodenvesselswithclaytomakethemfireproof。inthiswayitwassoondiscoveredthattheclaymoldansweredthepurposewithoutanyinnervessel。
　　Thusfarwehavebeenabletofollowagenerallineofdevelopmentapplicabletoallpeoplesatagivenperiodwithoutdistinctionofplace。Withthebeginningofbarbarism，however，wehavereachedastagewhenthedifferenceinthenaturalendowmentsofthetwohemispheresoftheearthcomesintoplay。Thecharacteristicfeatureoftheperiodofbarbarismisthedomesticationandbreedingofanimalsandthecultivationofplants。Now，theEasternHemisphere，theso-calledOldWorld，possessednearlyalltheanimalsadaptabletodomestication，andallthevarietiesofcultivablecerealsexceptone。
　　theWesternHemisphere，America，hadnomammalsthatcouldbedomesticatedexceptthellama，which，moreover，wasonlyfoundinonepartofSouthAmerica，andofallthecultivablecerealsonlyone，thoughthatwasthebest，namely，maize。Owingtothesedifferencesinnaturalconditions，thepopulationofeachhemispherenowgoesonitsownway，anddifferentlandmarksdividetheparticularstagesineachofthetwocases。
　　b。MIDDLESTAGE。BeginsintheEasternHemispherewithdomesticationofanimals。intheWestern，withthecultivation，bymeansofirrigation，ofplantsforfood，andwiththeuseofadobesun-driedbricksandstoneforbuilding。
　　WewillbeginwiththeWesternHemisphere，asherethisstagewasneversupersededbeforetheEuropeanconquest。
　　Atthetimewhentheywerediscovered，theIndiansatthelowerstageofbarbarismcomprisingallthetribeslivingeastoftheMississippi
　　werealreadypracticingsomehorticultureofmaize，andpossiblyalsoofgourds，melons，andothergardenplants，fromwhichtheyobtainedaveryconsiderablepartoftheirfood。Theylivedinwoodenhousesinvillagesprotectedbypalisades。Thetribesinthenorthwest，particularlythoseintheregionoftheColumbiaRiver，werestillattheupperstageofsavageryandacquaintedneitherwithpotterynorwithanyformofhorticulture。Theso-calledPuebloIndiansofNewMexico，however，andtheMexicans，CentralAmericans，andPeruviansatthetimeoftheirconquestwereatthemiddlestageofbarbarism。Theylivedinhouseslikefortresses，madeofadobebrickorofstone，andcultivatedmaizeandotherplants，varyingaccordingtolocalityandclimate，inartificiallyirrigatedplotsofground，whichsuppliedtheirmainsourceoffood。someanimalsevenhadalsobeendomesticated——theturkeyandotherbirdsbytheMexicans，thellamabythePeruvians。Theycouldalsoworkmetals，butnotiron。hencetheywerestillunabletodispensewithstoneweaponsandtools。TheSpanishconquestthencutshortanyfurtherindependentdevelopment。
　　IntheEasternHemispherethemiddlestageofbarbarismbeganwiththedomesticationofanimalsprovidingmilkandmeat，buthorticultureseemstohaveremainedunknownfarintothisperiod。Itwas，apparently，thedomesticationandbreedingofanimalsandtheformationofherdsofconsiderablesizethatledtothedifferentiationoftheAryansandSemitesfromthemassofbarbarians。TheEuropeanandAsiaticAryansstillhavethesamenamesforcattle，butthoseformostofthecultivatedplantsarealreadydifferent。
　　Insuitablelocalities，thekeepingofherdsledtoapastorallife：
　　theSemitesliveduponthegrassyplainsoftheEuphratesandTigris，andtheAryansuponthoseofIndiaandoftheOxusandJaxartes，oftheDonandtheDnieper。Itmusthavebeenonthebordersofsuchpasturelandsthatanimalswerefirstdomesticated。Tolatergenerations，consequently，thepastoraltribesappeartohavecomefromregionswhich，sofarfrombeingthecradleofmankind，werealmostuninhabitablefortheirsavageancestorsandevenformanatthelowerstagesofbarbarism。Buthavingonceaccustomedthemselvestopastorallifeinthegrassyplainsoftherivers，thesebarbariansofthemiddleperiodwouldneverhavedreamedofreturningwillinglytothenativeforestsoftheirancestors。Evenwhentheywereforcedfurthertothenorthandwest，theSemitesandAryanscouldnotmoveintotheforestregionsofwesternAsiaandofEuropeuntilbycultivationofgraintheyhadmadeitpossibletopastureandespeciallytowintertheirherdsonthislessfavorableland。Itismorethanprobablethatamongthesetribesthecultivationofgrainoriginatedfromtheneedforcattlefodderandonlylaterbecameimportantasahumanfoodsupply。
　　TheplentifulsupplyofmilkandmeatandespeciallythebeneficialeffectofthesefoodsonthegrowthofthechildrenaccountperhapsforthesuperiordevelopmentoftheAryanandSemiticraces。Itisafact22thatthePuebloIndiansofNewMexico，whoarereducedtoanalmostentirelyvegetariandiet，haveasmallerbrainthantheIndiansatthelowerstageofbarbarism，whoeatmoremeatandfish。Inanycase，cannibalismnowgraduallydiesout，survivingonlyasareligiousactorasameansofworkingmagic，whichisherealmostthesamething。
　　c。UPPERSTAGE。Beginswiththesmeltingofironore，andpassesintocivilizationwiththeinventionofalphabeticwritinganditsuseforliteraryrecords。Thisstageaswehaveseen，onlytheEasternHemispherepassedthroughitindependentlyisricherinadvancesinproductionthanalltheprecedingstagestogether。ToitbelongtheGreeksoftheheroicage，thetribesofItalyshortlybeforethefoundationofRome，theGermansofTacitusandtheNorsemenoftheVikingage。
　　Aboveall，wenowfirstmeettheironplowsharedrawnbycattle，whichmadelarge-scaleagriculture，thecultivationoffields，possible，andthuscreatedapracticallyunrestrictedfoodsupplyincomparisonwithpreviousconditions。Thisledtotheclearanceofforestlandfortillageandpasture，whichinturnwasimpossibleonalargescalewithouttheironaxandtheironspade。Populationrapidlyincreasedinnumber，andinsmallareasbecamedense。Priortofieldagriculture，conditionsmusthavebeenveryexceptionaliftheyallowedhalfamillionpeopletobeunitedunderacentralorganization。
　　probablysuchathingneveroccurred。
　　WefindtheupperstageofbarbarismatitshighestintheHomericpoems，particularlyintheIliad。Fullydevelopedirontools，thebellows，thehand-mill，thepotter’swheel，themakingofoilandwine，metalworkdevelopingalmostintoafineart，thewagonandthewar-chariot，ship-buildingwithbeamsandplanks，thebeginningsofarchitectureasart，walledcitieswithtowersandbattlements，theHomericepicandacompletemythology——thesearethechieflegacybroughtbytheGreeksfrombarbarismintocivilization。WhenwecomparethedescriptionswhichCaesarandevenTacitusgiveoftheGermans，whostoodatthebeginningoftheculturalstagefromwhichtheHomericGreekswerejustpreparingtomakethenextadvance，werealizehowrichwasthedevelopmentofproductionwithintheupperstageofbarbarism。
　　ThesketchwhichIhavegivenhere，followingMorgan，ofthedevelopmentofmankindthroughsavageryandbarbarismtothebeginningsofcivilization，isalreadyrichenoughinnewfeatures。whatismore，theycannotbedisputed，sincetheyaredrawndirectlyfromtheprocessofproduction。Yetmysketchwillseemflatandfeeblecomparedwiththepicturetobeunrolledattheendofourtravels。onlythenwillthetransitionfrombarbarismtocivilizationstandoutinfulllightandinallitsstrikingcontrasts。Forthetimebeing，Morgan’sdivisionmaybesummarizedthus：
　　Savagery——theperiodinwhichman’sappropriationofproductsintheirnaturalstatepredominates。theproductsofhumanartarechieflyinstrumentswhichassistthisappropriation。
　　Barbarism——theperiodduringwhichmanlearnstobreeddomesticanimalsandtopracticeagriculture，andacquiresmethodsofincreasingthesupplyofnaturalproductsbyhumanactivity。
　　Civilization——theperiodinwhichmanlearnsamoreadvancedapplicationofworktotheproductsofnature，theperiodofindustryproperandofart。
　　THEORIGINOF
　　THEFAMILY，PRIVATEPROPERTY，ANDTHESTATE
　　byFREDERICKENGELS
　　CHAPTERII
　　THEFAMILY
　　MORGAN，whospentagreatpartofhislifeamongtheIroquoisIndians——settledtothisdayinNewYorkState——andwasadoptedintooneoftheirtribestheSenecas，foundinuseamongthemasystemofconsanguinitywhichwasincontradictiontotheiractualfamilyrelationships。Thereprevailedamongthemaformofmonogamyeasilyterminableonbothsides，whichMorgancallsthepairingfamily。Theissueofthemarriedpairwasthereforeknownandrecognizedbyeverybody：therecouldbenodoubtaboutwhomtocallfather，mother，son，daughter，brother，sister。Butthesenameswereactuallyusedquitedifferently。TheIroquoiscallsnotonlyhisownchildrenhissonsanddaughters，butalsothechildrenofhisbrothers。andtheycallhimfather。Thechildrenofhissisters，however，hecallshisnephewsandnieces，andtheycallhimtheiruncle。TheIroquoiswoman，ontheotherhand，callshersisters’children，aswellasherown，hersonsanddaughters，andtheycallhermother。Butherbrothers’
　　childrenshecallshernephewsandnieces，andsheisknownastheiraunt。Similarly，thechildrenofbrotherscalloneanotherbrotherandsister，andsodothechildrenofsisters。Awoman’sownchildrenandthechildrenofherbrother，ontheotherhand，calloneanothercousins。Andthesearenotmereemptynames，butexpressionsofactualconceptionsofnearnessandremoteness，ofequalityanddifferenceinthedegreesofconsanguinity：theseconceptionsserveasthefoundationofafullyelaboratedsystemofconsanguinitythroughwhichseveralhundreddifferentrelationshipsofoneindividualcanbeexpressed。
　　Whatismore，thissystemisnotonlyinfullforceamongallAmericanIndiansnoexceptionhasbeenfounduptothepresent，butalsoretainsitsvalidityalmostunchangedamongtheaboriginesofIndia，theDravidiantribesintheDeccanandtheGauratribesinHindustan。
　　TothisdaytheTamilsofsouthernIndiaandtheIroquoisSenecaIndiansinNewYorkStatestillexpressmorethantwohundreddegreesofconsanguinityinthesamemanner。AndamongthesetribesofIndia，asamongalltheAmericanIndians，theactualrelationshipsarisingoutoftheexistingformofthefamilycontradictthesystemofconsanguinity。
　　Howisthistobeexplained？Inviewofthedecisivepartplayedbyconsanguinityinthesocialstructureofallsavageandbarbarianpeoples，theimportanceofasystemsowidespreadcannotbedismissedwithphrases。WhenasystemisgeneralthroughoutAmericaandalsoexistsinAsiaamongpeoplesofaquitedifferentrace，whennumerousinstancesofitarefoundwithgreaterorlessvariationineverypartofAfricaandAustralia，thenthatsystemhastobehistoricallyexplained，nottalkedoutofexistence，asMcLennan，forexample，triedtodo。Thenamesoffather，child，brother，sisterarenomerecomplimentaryformsofaddress。theyinvolvequitedefiniteandveryseriousmutualobligationswhichtogethermakeupanessentialpartofthesocialconstitutionofthepeoplesinquestion。
　　Theexplanationwasfound。IntheSandwichIslandsHawaiitherestillexistedinthefirsthalfofthenineteenthcenturyaformoffamilyinwhichthefathersandmothers，brothersandsisters，sonsanddaughters，unclesandaunts，nephewsandnieceswereexactlywhatisrequiredbytheAmericanandoldIndiansystemofconsanguinity。Butnowcomesastrangething。Onceagain，thesystemofconsanguinityinforceinHawaiididnotcorrespondtotheactualformoftheHawaiianfamily。ForaccordingtotheHawaiiansystemofconsanguinityallchildrenofbrothersandsistersarewithoutexceptionbrothersandsistersofoneanotherandareconsideredtobethecommonchildrennotonlyoftheirmotherandhersistersoroftheirfatherandhisbrothers，butofallthebrothersandsistersofboththeirparentswithoutdistinction。While，therefore，theAmericansystemofconsanguinitypresupposesamoreprimitiveformofthefamilywhichhasdisappearedinAmerica，butstillactuallyexistsinHawaii，theHawaiiansystemofconsanguinity，ontheotherhand，pointstoastillearlierformofthefamilywhich，thoughwecannowhereproveittobestillinexistence，neverthelessmusthaveexisted。forotherwisethecorrespondingsystemofconsanguinitycouldneverhavearisen。
　　Thefamily[saysMorgan]representsanactiveprinciple。Itisneverstationary，butadvancesfromalowertoahigherformassocietyadvancesfromalowertoahighercondition……Systemsofconsanguinity，onthecontrary，arepassive。recordingtheprogressmadebythefamilyatlongintervalsapart，andonlychangingradicallywhenthefamilyhasradicallychanged。
　　[Morgan，op。cit。，p。444——Ed。]
　　And，addsMarx，thesameistrueofthepolitical，juridical，religious，andphilosophicalsystemsingeneral。Whilethefamilyundergoeslivingchanges，thesystemofconsanguinityossifies。whilethesystemsurvivesbyforceofcustom，thefamilyoutgrowsit。ButjustasCuviercoulddeducefromthemarsupialboneofananimalskeletonfoundnearParisthatitbelongedtoamarsupialanimalandthatextinctmarsupialanimalsoncelivedthere，sowiththesamecertaintywecandeducefromthehistoricalsurvivalofasystemofconsanguinitythatanextinctformoffamilyonceexistedwhichcorrespondedtoit。
　　Thesystemsofconsanguinityandtheformsofthefamilywehavejustmentioneddifferfromthoseoftodayinthefactthateverychildhasmorethanonefatherandmother。IntheAmericansystemofconsanguinity，towhichtheHawaiianfamilycorresponds，brotherandsistercannotbethefatherandmotherofthesamechild。buttheHawaiiansystemofconsanguinity，onthecontrary，presupposesafamilyinwhichthiswastherule。Herewefindourselvesamongformsoffamilywhichdirectlycontradictthosehithertogenerallyassumedtobealonevalid。Thetraditionalviewrecognizesonlymonogamy，with，inaddition，polygamyonthepartofindividualmen，andattheverymostpolyandryonthepartofindividualwomen。beingtheviewofmoralizingphilistines，itconcealsthefactthatinpracticethesebarriersraisedbyofficialsocietyarequietlyandcalmlyignored。Thestudyofprimitivehistory，however，revealsconditionswherethemenliveinpolygamyandtheirwivesinpolyandryatthesametime，andtheircommonchildrenarethereforeconsideredcommontothemall——andtheseconditionsintheirturnundergoalongseriesofchangesbeforetheyfinallyendinmonogamy。Thetrendofthesechangesistonarrowmoreandmorethecircleofpeoplecomprisedwithinthecommonbondofmarriage，whichwasoriginallyverywide，untilatlastitincludesonlythesinglepair，thedominantformofmarriagetoday。
　　Reconstructingthusthepasthistoryofthefamily，Morgan，inagreementwithmostofhiscolleagues，arrivesataprimitivestagewhenunrestrictedsexualfreedomprevailedwithinthetribe，everywomanbelongingequallytoeverymanandeverymantoeverywoman。
　　Sincetheeighteenthcenturytherehadbeentalkofsuchaprimitivestate，butonlyingeneralphrases。Bachofen——andthisisoneofhisgreatmerits——wasthefirsttotaketheexistenceofsuchastateseriouslyandtosearchforitstracesinhistoricalandreligioussurvivals。Todayweknowthatthetraceshefounddonotleadbacktoasocialstageofpromiscuoussexualintercourse，buttoamuchlaterform——namely，groupmarriage。Theprimitivesocialstageofpromiscuity，ifiteverexisted，belongstosucharemoteepochthatwecanhardlyexpecttoproveitsexistencedirectlybydiscoveringitssocialfossilsamongbackwardsavages。Bachofen’smeritconsistsinhavingbroughtthisquestiontotheforefrontforexamination。
　　[NOTEbyEngels：Bachofenproveshowlittleheunderstoodhisowndiscovery，orratherhisguess，byusingthetermhetaerismtodescribethisprimitivestate。FortheGreeks，whentheyintroducedtheword，hetaerismmeantintercourseofmen，unmarriedorlivinginmonogamy，withunmarriedwomen，italwayspresupposesadefiniteformofmarriageoutsidewhichthisintercoursetakesplaceandincludesatleastthepossibilityofprostitution。Thewordwasneverusedinanyothersense，anditisinthissensethatIuseitwithMorgan。
　　Bachofeneverywhereintroducesintohisextremelyimportantdiscoveriesthemostincrediblemystificationsthroughhisnotionthatintheirhistoricaldevelopmenttherelationsbetweenmenandwomenhadtheirorigininmen’scontemporaryreligiousconceptions，notintheiractualconditionsoflife。]
　　Latelyithasbecomefashionabletodenytheexistenceofthisinitialstageinhumansexuallife。Humanitymustbesparedthisshame。Itispointedoutthatalldirectproofofsuchastageislacking，andparticularappealismadetotheevidencefromtherestoftheanimalworld。for，evenamonganimals，accordingtothenumerousfactscollectedbyLetourneauEvolutiondumanageetdelafaults，1888，completepromiscuityinsexualintercoursemarksalowstageofdevelopment。ButtheonlyconclusionIcandrawfromallthesefacts，sofarasmanandhisprimitiveconditionsoflifeareconcerned，isthattheyprovenothingwhatever。Thatvertebratesmatetogetherforaconsiderableperiodissufficientlyexplainedbyphysiologicalcauses-inthecaseofbirds，forexample，bythefemale’sneedofhelpduringthebroodingperiod。examplesoffaithfulmonogamyamongbirdsprovenothingaboutman，forthesimplereasonthatmenarenotdescendedfrombirds。Andifstrictmonogamyistheheightofallvirtue，thenthepalmmustgotothetapeworm，whichhasacompletesetofmaleandfemalesexualorgansineachofits50-200proglottides，orsections，andspendsitswholelifecopulatinginallitssectionswithitself。Confiningourselvestomammals，however，wefindallformsofsexuallife——promiscuity，indicationsofgroupmarriage，polygyny，monogamy。Polyandryaloneislacking-ittookhumanbeingstoachievethat。Evenournearestrelations，thequadrumana，exhibiteverypossiblevariationinthegroupingofmalesandfemales。andifwenarrowitdownstillmoreandconsideronlythefouranthropoidapes，allthatLetourneauhastosayaboutthemisthattheyaresometimesmonogamous，sometimespolygamous，whileSaussure，quotedbyGiraud-Teulon，maintainsthattheyaremonogamous。ThemorerecentassertionsofthemonogamoushabitsoftheanthropoidapeswhicharecitedbyWestermarckTheHistoryofHumanMarriage，London，1891，arealsoveryfarfromprovinganything。Inshort，ourevidenceissuchthathonestLetourneauadmits：Amongmammalsthereisnostrictrelationbetweenthedegreeofintellectualdevelopmentandtheformofsexuallife。AndEspinasDessocietesanimates，1877，saysinsomanywords：
　　Theherdisthehighestsocialgroupwhichwecanobserveamonganimals。Itiscomposed，soitappears，offamilies，butfromthestartthefamilyandtheherdareinconflictwithoneanotheranddevelopininverseproportion。