1。Collectiveorcooperativeconsumptionoutsidethehomeorfamilyisofcourseincreasing。Notonlyhavewemunicipalsuppliesforpub1icuse，e。g。，schools，libraries，museums，parks，baths，lighting，etc。，butmanyformsofprivateexpenditureofincomeoneducational，recreative，philanthrophicandothercooperativemodesofconsumption。
　　2。ForthefullestandmostrecentexpositionofthistheoryseeMr。
　　J。M。Robertson'sTheEvolutionofStatesWatts&；Co。。CHAPTERX:CLASSSTANDARDSOF
　　§；1。Wemaynowapplythesegeneralconsiderationsregardingtheevolutionofwantstoclassandindividualstandardsofconsumption。Inaconcreteclassstandardofconsumptionwemayconvenientlydistinguishthreedeterminantfactors:1st。Theprimaryorganicfactor，theelementsinconsumptionimposedbygeneralorparticularconditionsofphysicalenvironment，suchassoil，climate，inrelationtophysicalneeds。2nd。
　　Theindustrialfactor，themodificationsinorganicneedsduedirectlyorindirectlytoconditionsofwork。3rd。Theconventionalfactor，thoseelementsinastandardofconsumptionnotbaseddirectlyuponconsiderationsofphysicaloreconomicenvironmentbutimposedbysocialcustom。
　　Sofarasthefirstfactorisconcerned，weareforthemostpartintheregionofmaterialnecessariesinwhich，aswehavealreadyseen，theorganicsecuritiesforhumanutilityarestrongest。Whereanypopulationhasformanygenerationsbeensettledinalocality，itmustadaptitselfintwowaystothephysicalconditionsofthatlocality。Itschiefconstituentsoffood，clothing，shelter，etc。，mustbeaccommodatedtoallthemorepermanentandimportantconditionsofsoil，climate，situationandofthefloraandfaunaofthecountry。Atropicalpeoplecannotbegreatmeat-eatersoraddictedtostrongdrinks，thoughthematerialsforbothhabitsmaybeabundant。Anarcticpeople，ontheotherhand，mustfindinanimalfatsaprincipalfood，andintheskinsofanimalsaprincipalarticleofclothing。
　　Inacountrywhereearthquakesfrequentlyoccur，thematerialsandstructureofthehousesmustbelight。Inthesamecountrythepeopleofthemountains，thevalleys，theplains，thesea-shores，willbefoundwithnecessarydifferencesintheirfundamentalstandardofconsumption。Itis，indeed，self-evidentthatphysicalenvironmentmustexerciseanimportantselectiveandrejectivepowerrepresentedinthematerialstandardofconsumption。Sofarasmancanmodifyandalterthephysicalenvironment，asbydrainage，forestry，orthedestructionofnoxiousanimalsorbacteria，hemaytothatextentreleasehisstandardofconsumptionforthisregionalcontrol。
　　Primitiveman，again，andevenmostmenincomparativelyadvancedcivilisations，areconfinedforthechiefmaterialsoffood，shelterandothernecessaries，totheresourcesoftheircountryorlocality。Theymustaccommodatetheirdigestionsandtheirtastestothefoodsthatcanberaisedconvenientlyandinsufficientquantitiesintheneighbourhood:theymustbuildtheirhousesandmaketheirdomesticandotherutensilsoutofthematerialproductswithineasyreach。Theearlyevolutionofastandardofnecessaryconsumption，workingunderthiscloseeconomyoftrialanderror，appearstoguaranteeafree，natural，instinctiveselectionoforganicallysoundconsumables。
　　Theprimaryphysicalcharacteristicsofacountry，alsoofcourse，affectwithvaryingdegreesofurgencythoseelementsinastandardofconsumptionnotdirectlyendowedwithstrongsurvivalvalue，thosewhichwecallconveniences，comforts，luxuries。Themodesandmaterialsofbodilyadornment，thestylesofdomesticandotherarchitecture，religiousceremonies，formsofrecreation，willevidentlybedeterminedinadirectmannerbyclimaticandotherphysicalconsiderations。
　　Recentcivilisation，withitsrapidextensivespreadofcommunications，anditsequallyrapidandvariousexpansionoftheartsofindustry，hasbroughtaboutaninterferencewiththisnaturaleconomywhichhasdangersaswellasadvantages。Theswiftexpansionofcommercebringsgreatquantitiesoffoodsandotherconsumablesfromremotecountries，andplacesthematthedisposalofpopulationsunderconditionswhichgivenoadequatesecurityfororganicutilityofconsumption。Underaneconomyofnaturalselectionexoticsarebyrightsuspect，atanyrateuntiltimehastriedthem。Theincorporationofarticlessuchasteaandtobaccoinourpopularconsumptionhastakenplaceunderconditionswhichaffordnoproperguaranteeoftheirindividualutility，oragainstthebadreactionstheymaycauseinthewholecomplexstandardsofconsumption。
　　Thebackstrokeofthiscommercialexpansionisseeninsuchoccurrencesasthedeforestationofgreattractsofcountryandthealterationoftheclimaticcharacter，withitseffectsuponthelivesoftheinhabitants。
　　Butthoughcertainerrorsandwastesattendtheseprocessesofcommercialismandindustrialism，theymustnotbeexaggerated。Thereisnoreasontoholdthatmankindingeneralhasbeensodeeplyandfirmlyspecialisedinneedsandsatisfactionsbylocalphysicalconditionsthathecannotadvantageouslyavailhimselfofthematerialproductsofawiderenvironment。
　　Thoughthedigestiveandassimilativeapparatusmaynotbesoadaptableasthebrain，thereisnogroundforholdingthatconformityduringmanygenerationstoaparticularformofdietprecludestheeasyadoptionofexoticelementsoftencontainingbetterfood-propertiesinmoreassimilableforms。AChinesepopulation，habituatedtorice，canquicklyrespondinhigherphysicalefficiencytoawheatdiet，noristhefactthatbananasareatropicalfruitdetrimentaltotheirvalueasfoodforLondoners。
　　Howfarthepurelyempiricalwayinwhichfoodsandotherelementsinanecessarystandardhavebeenevolvedcanbeadvantageouslycorrectedorsupplementedbyscientifictests，isaquestionremainingfordiscussionaftertheotherfactorsinstandardsofconsumptionhavebeenbroughtunderinspection。
　　§；2。Industrialconditions，themselvesofcourselargelydeterminedbyphysicalenvironment，affectclassandindividualconsumptioninveryobviousways。Eachoccupationimposesontheworker，andindirectlyuponallthemembersofhisfamily，certainmethodsofliving。Physiologicallawsprescribemanyofthosemethods。Aparticularsortofoutputofmuscularornervousenergydemandsaparticularsortofdiettoreplacetheexpenditure。
　　Theproperdietofanagriculturallabourer，amilloperativeandaminer，willhavecertainrecogniseddifferences。Muscularandmental，activeandsedentary，monotonousandinterestingwork，willinvolvedifferentamountsandsortsofnourishment，anddifferentexpendituresforleisureoccupations。
　　Thesedifferenceswillextendbothtothenecessariesandthehigherelementsinstandardsofconsumption。Industrialrequirementswillstampthemselveswithmoreorlessforceandexactitudeuponeachoccupation。Ananalysisofbudgetswouldshowthatthestandardoftheclergymanwasnotthatofthemerchantorevenofthedoctor，andthatthesamefamilyincomewouldbedifferentlyapplied。Thestockbrokerwillnotlivelikethemill-owner，northejournalistliketheshopkeeper。Sorightthroughthevariousgradesofworkers。Theskilledmechanic，thefactoryhand，therailwayman，theclerk，theshop-assistant，thelabourer，willallhavetheirrespectivestandards，mouldedormodifiedbytheconditionsoftheirwork:theirneedsandtastesforfood，clothing，recreation，etc。，willbeaffectedinsubtlewaysbythatwork。
　　'Productive'consumptionisthetermgivenbyclassicalpoliticaleconomytothatportionofconsumptionappliedsoastomaintainorimprovetheefficiencyoflabour-powerintheworkerandhisfamily。Necessariesalonewereheldabsolutelyproductive，conveniencesandcomfortsweredubious，luxurieswereunproductive。Regardedevenfromthecommercialstandpoint，itwasashallowanalysis，confinedtoapresentutilisationofimmediatelyusefulcommodities，andignoringthereactionsuponfutureproductivityofariseineducationandrefinement。Itbelongedtoanagebeforetheeconomyofhighwagesorthemoralstimuliofhopeandanintelligentoutlookuponlifehadwonanyconsiderablerecognitionas'productive'stimuli。
　　Butfromthestandpointofouranalysisthedefectofthistreatmentisadeeperone。Forusthedistinctionbetweenproductiveandunproductiveconsumptionisasfundamentalasintheoldereconomictheory。Thedifferenceliesintheconceptionofthe'product'thatistogiveameaningto'productive'。
　　Productiveconsumption，accordingtotheoldereconomictheory，wasmeasuredbytheyieldofeconomicproductivity，accordingtoourtheorybytheyieldofvitalwelfare。Thetwonotmerelyarenotidentical，theymayoftenbeconflictingvalues。
　　Adietproductiveofgreatmuscularenergyforanavvy，foundrymanordrayman，mayproduceacoarsetypeofanimalismwhichprecludestheformationofahighernervousstructureandthefinerqualitiesofcharacterthatareitsspiritualcounterpart。Theindustrialconditionsofmanyproductiveemploymentsarenotoriouslysuchastoimpairthephysiqueandthemuscleoftheworkersengagedinthem，andthereisnogroundforassumingthatthehabitsofconsumption，conducingtoincreasedproductivityinsuchtrades，carryanynetfreightofhumanutility。
　　Norisitonlyinmanuallabourthattheindustrialinfluencesmouldingastandardofconsumptionmaydamageitshumanquality。Muchsedentaryintellectualworkinvolvessimilarlyinjuriousreactionsuponmodesofliving。Thephysicalabusesofathleticism，stimulantsanddrugs，areveryprevalentresultsofdisorderedcompetitioninintellectualemployments。
　　But，asbadelementsinstandardsofexpenditure，theintellectualexcesses，thefatuousordegradingformsofliterature，drama，art，music，whichthislifegenerates，areperhapsevenmoreinjurious。Oneoftheheaviesthumancostsofanover-intellectuallifetodayisits'culture'。
　　§；3。Whenwecometo'conventional'elementsinstandardsofcomfort，weenteraregionwhichappearstoadmitanindefiniteamountofwasteanderror。
　　Theveryterm'conventional'，setasitisinoppositionto'natural'，indeed，suggestsanabsenceoforganicutility。Wehearof'conventionalnecessaries'eveninthelowestlevelsofworking-classexpenditure。I
　　presumethattheexpenditureinbeer，tobacco，uponspreesorfunerals，orupondecorativeclothing，wouldbeplacedinthiscategory。
　　Fromthepurelyeconomicstandpointsuchexpenditurehasbeenaccountedeitherwaste，or，evenworse，'disutility'。
　　Itisoftenarguedthatalabouringfamilyon21s。perweekcouldbekeptinphysicalefficiency，ifeverypennywereexpendedeconomicallyinobtaining'organicvalue'。Thisistheidealofacertainorderofadvocatesofthriftandtemperance。Wholegenerationsofeconomistshaveaccumulatedeasyvirtuebypreachingthisrigorouseconomyfortheworking-classes。
　　Ithasalwaysseemedpossibletosqueezeoutofthestandardofanyworking-classenoughoftheconventionalorsuperfluoustojustifytheopinionthatmostofthemiseryofthepooristheirownfault，inthesensethat，iftheymadeacompletelyrationaluseoftheirwages，theycouldsupportthemselvesindecency。Theamountspentbytheworkersondrinkalonewould，itisoftencontended，makeampleprovisionagainstmostoftheworstemergenciesofworking-classlife。
　　Nowthereareseveralcommentstobemadeonthisattitudetowardsconventionalexpenditure。1。Asoneascendsabovetheprimaryorganicneeds，theevolutionofdesiresbecomeslessreliableandmorecomplicated:theelementofwillandchoiceandthereforeofchoosingbadly，becomeslarger。
　　Somecondimentsareusefulforassistingthedigestionofprimaryfoods，butitiseasiertomakemistakesincondimentsthaninstaplefoods。Sowithallthehigherandmorecomplexwants。Asonerisesabovetheprimerequisitesandconveniences，organicinstincts，ortastesdirectlydependentonthem，playadiminishingpartasfaithfuldirectorsofconsumption。
　　Thisnaturalguidancedoesnotindeeddisappear。Theevolutionofahumanbeingwithfinernervousstructure，andwithhigherintellectualandmoralneedsanddesiresrelatedtothatstructure，isafairlycontinuousprocess。
　　Thefinestandbest-balancednaturesthuscarryintotheirmorecomplexmodesofsatisfactionatruepsycho-physicalstandardofutility。Butitisalreadyadmittedthattheliabilitytogowrongisfargreaterinthosemodesofexpenditurewhicharenotdirectlycontributorytosurvival。Thisisthecase，whetherindividualtastesorsomeacceptedconventiondeterminestheexpenditure。
　　Thisissogenerallyrecognisedthatitislikelythattheorganicutilityofpersonaltastesontheonehand，customandconventionontheother，hasbeenundulydisparaged。Thetemperofeconomistsinassessingvalueshasbeentooshort-sightedandtooinelastic。Agooddealofpersonalexpenditurethatiswastefulorworsewhentakenonitsseparatemeritsmaybejustifiedasarudeexperimentalprocessbywhichapersonlearnswisdomandfindshissoul。Whatistrueofcertainfreakishpersonalconductisprobablytruealsoofthoseconventionalpractices，inwhichwholesocietiesorclassesconducttheircollectiveexperimentsintheartofliving。
　　Atoorigorouseconomy，whetherdirectedbyinstinctorreason，whichshouldrulewithminuteexactitudetheexpenditureofindividualsorsocieties，inordertoextractfromallexpenditureofincomethemaximumofseenutilities，wouldbeboundtosinagainstthatlawofprogresswhichdemandsanadequateprovisionfortheseexperimentalprocessesinlifewhich，takenbythemselves，appearsowasteful。
　　Socialpsychologybringsamoreliberalandsympatheticunderstandingtobearuponsomeofthepracticeswhichtoashortsightedeconomistappearmerewastefulextravagance，destituteofutilityanddisplacingsomeimmediatelyserviceableconsumption。Letmetakesomenotableexamplesfromcurrentworking-classexpenditure。Thelavishexpenditureuponbank-holidays，inwhichlargeclassesofwage-earners'blow'alargeproportionofanysurplustheypossessbeyondthesubsistencewage，isthesubjectofcausticcriticismbythriftymiddle-classfolk。Butmaynotthisholidayspirit，withacertainabandonitcontains，beregardedasa'natural'andevenwholesomereactionagainstthecrampingpressureofroutineindustrialismandthenormalrigourofaclosedomesticeconomy？Itmaynot，indeed，beanideallygoodmodeofreaction，mayevencontainelementsofpositivedetriment，andyetmaybetheventforvaluableorganicinstinctsseekingafterthosequalitiesoffreedom，joyandpersonaldistinctionthatareessentialtoalifeworthliving。1
　　Ortakethegravestofalldefectsofworking-classexpenditure，thedrink-bill。Thiscraving，hostileasitistothephysicalandmorallifeofman，isnotunderstood，andthereforecannotbeeffectivelyeradicated，unlessdueaccountistakenofcertainemotionalimplications。Theyieldingtodrinkisnotmerebrutality。Brutesdonotdrink。Itisinsomeparttheresponsetoaninstincttoescapefromtheimprisonmentinanarrowcrampingenvironmentwhichaffordsnoscopeforaspirationandachievement。
　　Itmayindeedbesaidthatthedrinkerdoesnotaspireanddoesnotachieve。
　　Heisdoubtlessthevictimofanillusion。Butitisacertaindimsenseofahigherfreerlifethatlureshimon。'Elevation'iswhatissought。
　　'KingsmaybeblessedbutTamwasgloriousO'era'theillso'lifevictorious。'
　　Ortakestillanotheritemofworking-classexpenditurefrequentlycondemnedasatypicalexampleofextravagance，therelativelylargeexpenseoffunerals。
　　Isthistobedismissedoffhandasmerewantonwaste？Amorehumaninterpretationwillfindinitotherelementsofmeaning。Intheordinarylifeof'thecommonpeople'thereislittlescopeforthatpersonaldistinctionwhichamongtheupperclassesfindsexpressioninsomanyways。Thequietworking-manorwomanhasneverforabriefhourthroughalonglifetimestoodoutamonghisfellows，orgatheredroundhimthesympatheticattentionofhisneighbours。
　　Isitwhollyunintelligibleorregrettablethatthosewhocareforhimshouldwishtogivethisnarrow，thwarted，obscurepersonalityamomentofdignityandglory？Thesumoflifeisaddedupinthispompofreckoning，andthefamilyisgatheredintoafocusofneighbourlyattentionandgood-feeling，theoutwardemblemsofhonouraredisplayed，andawholerangeofhumanemotionsfindsexpression。Suchexcessasexistsmustbeunderstoodasanaturalfruitofthoseaspiringqualitiesofpersonalitywhich，thwartedintheirnaturalandhealthygrowthbynarrownessofopportunity，cravethistraditionaloutlet。
　　Infact，themorecloselywestudytheconventionalfactorsinconsumption，thelessareweabletodismissthemoutofhandasmereextravaganceorwaste。Someorganicimpulse，halfphysical，halfpsychical，nearlyalwaysentersintoeventheleastdesirableelements。Amarginofexpenditure，eitherconventionalorexpressingindividualcaprice，2whichservestoevokepleasure，tostirinterest，andabovealltosatisfyasenseofpersonaldignity，eventhoughattheexpenseofsomemoreobviousandimmediateutilities，maybejustifiedbyconsiderationsofindividualandsocialprogress。
　　§；4。Suchconsiderationsmustnot，however，bepressedveryfarinthedefenceevenofthemostfirmly-rootedelementsofconventionalconsumption。For，thoughthedeeperorganicforceswhichworkthrough'naturalselection'musteliminatetheworstormostinjuriousmodesofexpenditurefromthepermanentstandardofaraceorclass，itmayleaveelementsfraughtwithgravedanger。Forneithertheanimalnorthespiritualnatureofmanisequippedwithaselectiveapparatusfortestingaccuratelyforpurposesoforganicwelfaretheinnumerablefreshapplicantsfor'consumption'whichappearastheevolutionofwants，ontheonehand，andofindustriesupontheother，becomesmorecomplexandmorerapid。
　　Anextremeinstancewillenforcemymeaning。TotakeaRedIndianoraBantufromanaturalandsocialenvironmentrelativelysimpleandstaple，andtoplungehimsuddenlyintotheswirlofamodernWesterncitylifeistocourtphysicalandmoraldisaster。Why？Becausethepressuresofanimaldesiresortheemotionsofprideandcuriosity，whichwererelatedbyeffective'taboos'intheprimitivelifefromwhichheisdrawn，nowworktheirwillunchecked。Forthe'taboos'ofcivilisedsocietyarebothill-adaptedtotheemotionaltextureofhisnature，andintheirnoveltyandcomplexityarenotadequatelycomprehended。Butevenforthosebornandbredintheenvironmentofarapidlychangingcivilisationthereareevidentlygreathazards。Notonlyindividualbutwidelycollectiveexperimentsinnoveltiesofconsumptionwilloftenbeinjurious。Thismaybeexplainedinthefirstinstanceasduetotheperversionordefectiveworkingofthe'instincts'originallydesignedtoprotectandpromotethelifeoftheindividualandthespecies。
　　Ananimallivinguponwhatmaybetermedunmodifiednatureispossessedofinstinctswhichmakepoisonousplantsoranimalsrepellenttoitstaste。
　　Amanlivinginahighlymodifiedenvironmentfindssuchshredsofinstinctivetastesashepossessesinadequatetotheriskofrejectingthefabricatedfoodsbroughtfromremotequartersoftheearthtotempthisappetite。
　　Ifthisholdsofarticlesoffood，whereerrorsmaybemortalandwheresomeprotection，howeverinsufficient，isstillfurnishedbythepalateandthestomach，stillmoredoesitholdofthe'higher'tastescomparativelyrecentlyimplantedincivilisedman。'Badtastes'thusmayintroducetheuseofbooksorartthatdisturbthemindwithoutinformingit，recreationsthatdistractanddissipateourpowerswithoutrecreatingandrestoringthem。Nordoesthe'socialorganism'furnishreliablecheckswhichshallstopthespreadofindividualerrorsintoconventionalconsumption。
　　§；5。Thequestionofindividualerrorsandwastesintheprocessofevolvingstandardsofconsumptionmustnotdetainus。Forthoughitrightlyfallswithinthescopeofafullyelaboratedvaluationofconsumption，itmustnotbeallowedtointrudeintoourmoremodestendeavourtodiscusstheseveralgradesofwantswhichcompriseaclassstandardofconsumption。
　　Therelativesizeofthewastesordefectsoftheconventionalfactorsinaclassstandardwillnotindeeddependuponthemereadditionoftheperversionoftheseparatechoicesofitsindividuals。Foraconventionisnotproducedbyamerecoincidenceofseparateactionsofindividualdesire。
　　Itmaybewellheretoreverttothedistinctionwhichwefoundconvenienttoemployinouranalysisofthehumanvalueofdifferentformsofwork，viz。，thedistinctionbetweencreationandimitation。Hereitwilltakeshapeinanenquiryastothewaysinwhichnewwantsarediscoveredandpassintoconventionaluse。Letustakeforanexamplethecaseofamedicinewhichhasbecomearecognisedremedyforadisease。Amonganimalsor'primitive'
　　manthehabitofeatingacurativeherbmayberegardedasduetoanorganicinstinctcommontoeachmemberoftheherdorgroup。Suchconsumption，however，wouldnotreallyfallwithinthecategoryofour'conventionalconsumption'。Itwouldineffectbeconfinedtoalimitednumberofarticlescontainingstrongelementsof'survivalvalue'，inapre-economicperiod，though，assoonastribalsocietybegantoevolvethemedicineman，hisprescriptionswouldaddmanyelementsofwasteanderror。Buttheconsumableswhoseoriginwearenowconsideringmustberegardedasinvolvinginventionordiscovery，andconsciousimitationoradoptionbythegroup。Unlesswesupposethatthechewingofcinchonabarkhadabackingofinstinctiveadaptation，andsopassedbytraditionintolateragesofIndianlife，wemustholdthatthefirstbeginningsoftheuseofquinineasacureforintermittentfeversinSouthAmericaweredueeithertochanceortoearlyempiricismintreatment。
　　Someperson，probablyenjoyingdistinctioninhistribe，triedcinchonabarkandrecoveredofhisfever，otherstriedituponthisexampleandgotbenefit，andsothefameoftheremedyspreadfirstfromasinglecentre，andafterwardsfromanumberofotherpersonalcentresbyconsciousimitation。Or，similarly，taketheadoptionofsomearticleofdiet，suchassugarortobacco，whichisanelementnotofprimephysicalutilitybutofcomfortorpleasure。Thefirstmenwhochewedthesugar-cane，ortriedthefumesoftheherbanicotina，mustbedeemedtohavedoneso'byaccident'。Likingtheresult，theyrepeatedtheexperimentbydesign，andthispersonalhabitbecomethecustomaryhabitofthegroup，mouldedbyatraditioncontinuouslysupportedbyarepetitionofthefeelingwhichattendedthefirstchanceexperience。
　　Suchaccretionstoastandardofconsumptionmayberegardedaspossessingguaranteesofutilityorsafeguardsagainststrongpositivedisutilityintheirmethodofadoption。Theyhavegrownintotheconventionalstandard'ontheirmerits'。Those'merits'mayindeedbevariouslyestimatedfromthe'organic'standpoint。Quininehasahighorganicvirtue，sugarperhapsanevenwiderbutlessvitalvirtue，whilethevirtueoftobaccomaybepurelysuperficialandcompensatedbyconsiderableorganicdemerits。Butbothdiscoveryandpropagationhavebeeninallthesecases'natural'and'reasonable'processes，intheplainordinaryacceptationoftheseterms。
　　Someactualutilityhasbeendiscoveredandrecognised，andnewarticlesthusincorporatedinastandardofconsumption，eitherforregularorspecialuse，haveatanyratesatisfiedapreliminarytestoforganicwelfare。
　　Ifallnewhabitsofconsumptionaroseinthisfashion，andthepreliminarytestcouldbeconsideredthoroughlyreliable，theeconomyoftheevolutionofstandardsofconsumptionwouldbeasafeandsoundone。Thishypothesisinitsveryformindicatestheseverallinesoferrordiscernibleintheactualevolutionofclassstandards。Afalsificationofthestandard，involvingtheadmissionofwastefulorpositivelynoxiousconsumables，mayarise，eitherintheinitialstageofinvention，orintheprocessofimitativeadoption。Thiswilloccurwherevertheinitialortheimitativeprocessisvitiatedbyanextraneousmotive。Averysmallproportionofmedicinesincustomaryuseamongprimitivepeopleshavetheorganicvalidityofquinine。
　　Mostofthemare'charms'，inventedbymedicinemen，notastheresulteitherofachanceorplannedexperiment，butastheworkofanimaginationoperatinguponthelinesofanempiricalpsychology，inwhichtherelationoftheactualorknownpropertiesofthemedicinetowardsthediseaseplaynoappreciablepart。
　　Soawholemagicalpharmacopoeiawillbeerecteduponabasisoftotemistandanimistbeliefs，mingledwithcircumstantialmisconceptionsandgratuitousfabrications，andcontainingnoorganicutility。Eachadditionorvariantwillbeginasanartificialinventionandwillbeadoptedforreasonsofprestige，authorityorfear，carryingnoneofthatorganicconfirmationwhichsecureditspositionforquinine。Thelimitoferrorinsuchcaseswillbethatthemedicinemustnotfrequentlycauseaseriousandimmediateaggravationofthesufferingofthepatient。Thepatentor'conventional'
　　medicinesamongcivilisedpeoplesmustbeconsideredinthemainascontainingafalsificationofstandardofthesamekind，thoughdifferentindegree。
　　Astheprimitivemedicineman，calledupontocureafeveroradrought，isprimarilymotivedbythedesiretomaintainorenhancehispersonalorcasteprestige，whiletheadoptionofhisspecificintoaconventionisduetoawhollyirrationalauthorityortoawhollyaccidentalsuccess，soisitwithalargeproportionofmodernremedies。Evenintheorthodoxbranchesofthemedicalprofessiontheprocessofconvertingvagueempiricismintoscientificexperimenthasgonesuchalittlewayastofurnishnoguaranteeforthefullorganicefficacyofmanyofthetreatmentsuponwhichthepatientpublicspendsanincreasingshareofitsincome。Butasregardstheprofessionthereisatanyratesomebasisofconfidenceinthedisinterestedapplicationofsciencetothediscoveryofgenuineorganicutility。
　　Inthepatentmedicinetradethereisverylittle。Herewehaveaconditionverylittlebetterthanthatofthepowerofthewitch-doctorinprimitivesociety。Themaxim'caveatemptor'carriesvirtuallynosecurity，fortheguidanceofthepalateisruledout，whilethetestofexperience，exceptforpurgationorforsomeequallysimpleandimmediateresult，isnearlyworthless。
　　§；6。Whentheinventionandpropagationofamodeofconsumptionhavepassedintothehandsofatrade，theguaranteesoforganicutility，thechecksagainstorganicinjury，areattheirweakest。Forneitherprocessisdirected，eitherbyinstinctorreason，alongserviceablechannels。
　　Wherethecommercialmotivetakestheinitiative，therecanbenoadequatesecuritythatthearticleswhichpassasnewelementsintoastandardofconsumptionshallbewealth，notillth。Whereaninventionisstimulatedtomeetagenuinely'long-feltneed'，thegeneralityanddurationofthatneedmaybeafairguaranteeofutility。Butthisisnotthecasewherethesupplyprecedesandevokesthedemand，themoreusualcaseunderdevelopedcommercialism。Neitherintheactionoftheinventor，norinthespreadofthenewhabitofconsumption，isthereanysafegaugeofutility。Theinventor，orcommercialinitiator，isonlyconcernedwiththequestion，CanImakeandsellasufficientquantityofthisarticleataprofit？
　　Inordertodoso，itistrue，hemustpersuadeenoughbuyersthatthey'want'thearticleand'want'itmorethansomeotherarticlesonwhichtheyotherwisemightspendtheirmoney。Tounreflectingpersonsthis，nodoubt，appearsasufficienttestofutility。Butisit？Thepurchasermustbemadetofeelorthinkthatthearticleis'good'forhimatthetimewhenitisbroughtbeforehisnotice。Forthispurposeitmustbeendowedwithsomespeciouslyattractiveproperty，orrecommendedaspossessingsuchaproperty。Acheapmercerisedcottoncloth，manufacturedtosimulatesilk，sellsbyitsinherentsuperficialattraction。Anewlineindrapery'pushed'intousebytherepeatedstatement，falseatthebeginning，that'itisworn'，illustratesthesecondmethod。
　　Inaword，theartsofthemanufacturerandofthevendor，whichhavenodirectrelationwhatevertointrinsicutility，overcomeandsubjugatetheuncertain，untrainedor'artificially'pervertedtasteoftheconsumer。Thusitarisesthatinacommercialsocietyeverystandardofclasscomfortiscertaintocontainlargeingredientsofuselessornoxiousconsumption，articles，notonlybadinthemselves，butoftenpoisoningordistortingthewholestandard。
　　Theartsofadulterationandofadvertisingareofcourseresponsibleformanyoftheworstinstances。Askilledcombinationofthetwoprocesseshassucceededincancellingthehumanvalueofaverylargeproportionofthenewincrementsofmoneyincomeinthelowermiddleandtheworking-classes，whereagrowingsusceptibilitytonewdesiresisaccompaniedbynointelligentchecksupontheplayofinterestedsuggestionastothemodesofsatisfyingthesedesires。
　　Wherespeciousfabricationandstrongskilledsuggestioncooperatetoplantnewingredientsinastandardofconsumption，thereisthusnosecurityastotheamountofutilityordisutilityattachingtothe'realincome'representedbythese'goods'。Butthisvitiationofstandardsisnotequallyapplicabletoallgradesofconsumption，ortoallclassesofconsumers。Somekindsofgoodswillbeeasiertofalsifyortoadulteratethanothers，someclassesofconsumerswillbeeasierto'imposeupon'
　　thanothers。Theseconsiderationswillsetlimitsupontheamountofwasteand'illth'containedinthegoodsandserviceswhichcompriseourrealincome。
　　First，astotheartsoffalsification。Severallawsoflimitationhereemerge。Somematerials，suchasgoldandrubber，havenoeasilyprocurableandcheapersubstitutesforcertainuses。Othergoodsareinsomeconsiderabledegreeprotectedfromimitationandadulterationbythesurvivalofreliabletestsandtastes，touchandsight，inlargenumbersofconsumers。Thisappliestosimplersortsofgoodswhoseconsumptionisdeepestinthestandardandhasastrongbasisofvitalutility。Itwillbemoredifficulttoadulteratebreadorplainsugartoanylargeextentthansaucesorsweets。Itwillbeeasiertofakephotographsthantopassoffplaiceforsoles。Butitcannotbeassertedasageneraltruththatthenecessariesarebetterdefendedagainstencroachmentsofadulterationandothermodesofdeceptionthanconveniences，andconveniencesthanluxuries。Indeed，therearetwoconsiderationsthattelltheotherway。
　　Amanufacturerormerchantwhocanpalmoffacheapersubstituteforsomecommonnecessaryoflife，orsomewell-establishedconvenience，hasadoubletemptationtodoso。For，inthefirstplace，themagnitudeandreliabilityofthedemandmakethefalsificationunusuallyprofitable。Inthesecondplace，sofarasalargeproportionofarticlesareconcerned，hecanrelyuponthefactthatmostconsumptionofnecessariesliesbelowthemarginofclearattentionandcriticism。Exceptinthecaseofcertainprimearticlesofdiet，itisprobablethataconsumerismorelikelytodetectsomechangeofqualityinthelatestluxuryaddedtohisstandardthaninthehabitualarticlesofdailyuse，suchashisshoe-leatherorhissoap。Infact，sowellrecognisedisthisprotectionaffordedtothesellerbytheunconsciousnesswhichhabitbringstotheconsumer，that，incateringforquitenewhabits，suchascerealbreakfastfoodsorcigarettes，themanufacturerwaitsuntiltheoriginalattractionsofhisgoodshavestampedthemselvesfirmlyincustomaryuse，beforehedarestolowerthequalityorreducethequantity。
　　Theseconsiderationsmakeitunlikelythatwecandiscoveraclearlawexpressingtheinjuryofcommercialismintermsofthegreaterorlessorganicurgencyofthewantsministeredtobythedifferentordersofcommodities。
　　Itwillevenbedifficulttoascertainwhethertheartsofadulterationorfalsesubstitutionplaymorehavocamongthenecessariesthanamongtheluxuriesoflife。Inneitheristhereanyadequatesafeguardfortheorganicworthofthearticlesboughtandsold，thoughinboththeremustbeheldtobeacertainpresumptionfavourabletosomeorganicsatisfactionattendingtheimmediateactofconsumption。Ifa'law'offalsificationcanbefoundatall，itismorelikelytoemergefromacomparativestudynotofnecessaries，conveniences，comfortsandluxuries，inaclassstandard，butofthevarioussortsofsatisfactionsclassifiedinrelationtotheneedswhichunderliethem。Wheregoodsareconsumedassoonastheyarebought，andbysomeprocessinvolvingastrongappealtothesenses，thereislesschanceforvulgarfraudthanwhereconsumptionisgradualorpostponed，andisnotattendedbyanymomentofvividrealisation。Otherthingsequal，onemightexpectmoreeasilytosellshoddyclothingthansimilarlydamagedfood:theadulterationofajerry-builthouseislesseasilydetected，orlessadequatelyreprobated，thanthatofajerry-builtsuitofclothes。
　　Alongsimilarlineswemight，inconsideringnon-materialconsumption，urgethattherearemoresafeguardsforutilityintheexpenditureuponbooksormusic-hallperformancesthanuponeducationorchurchmembership。
　　Andinasensethisistrue。IfIbuyabookorattendaconcert，IamsurertogetwhatIregardasaquidproquoformyexpenditurethaninthecaseofaprolongedprocessinvolvingmanysmallconsecutiveacts。
　　Sofarasthisistrue，itmeansthatrelicsoforganicguidancearemoretrulyoperativeinsomekindsofsatisfactionthaninothers，andfurnishsomebettercheckuponthedeceptionwhichcommercialismmayseektopractise。But，ofcourse，ourvaluationofsuchcheckswilldependuponhowfarwecanacceptthemasreliabletests，notofsomeshort-rangeimmediatesatisfaction，butofthewiderindividualandsocialwelfare。Thefactthatsomanynotoriouslybadhabitscanbeacquiredbyreasonofanimmediate'organic'attractivenessthatisafalsecluetothelargerwelfare，mustputusonourguardagainstacceptinganyeasylawbasedonthetestof'natural'tastes。
　　§；7。But，inconsideringthedegradationofstandardsofconsumption，itiswelltobringsomecloseranalysistobearupontheprocessesofsuggestionandadoptionthatarecomprisedin'imitation'。Inanalysingtheformsofwealth，thegoodsandservices，whicharetherealincomeofthenation，intermsoftheirproduction，werecognisedthat，otherthingsequal，thehumancostofanybodyofthatwealthvarieddirectlywiththeamountofroutineorpurelyimitativeworkputintoit，andinverselywiththeamountofcreativeorindividualwork。Thatjudgment，however，wefeltboundtoqualifybytheconsiderationthatacertainproportionofroutinework，thoughinitselfperhapsdistastefulanduninteresting，hadanorganicvaluebothfortheindividualandforsociety。
　　HowfarcanweapplyananalogousjudgmenttothesamebodyofWealthonitsconsumptionside？Canweassumethattheutilityofconsumptionofanygivenbodyofwealthvariesdirectlywiththeamountoffreepersonalexpressionwhichitsuseconnotes，andinverselywiththeroutineorconventionalcharacteritbears？Evidentlynot。Thesameanalysisdoesnotapply。Thechiefreasonforthedifferencehasalreadybeenindicated，bypointingoutthat，inamodernindustrialsociety，eachman，asproducer，ishighlyspecialised，asconsumerhighlygeneralised。Thehighhumancostsofroutineworkwere，wesaw，adirectresultofthisspecialisingprocess。Alittleroutineworkofseveralsorts，regularlypractised，wouldinvolvenoorganiccost，andmightindeedyieldafundofpositiveutilityasawholesomeré；gimeofexercise，provideditwasnotcarriedsofarastoencroachuponthefundofenergyneededfortheperformanceofotherspecialwork，creativeandinteresting。
　　Indeed，theusualeconomicjustificationoftheexcessivedivisionoflabourexistingatpresentinadvancedindustrialsocietiesisthatitisessentialtoyieldthatlargebodyofobjectivewealthwhich，byitsdistribution，enrichesandgivesvarietytotheconsumptionofallmembersofthesociety。Theproducerissacrificedtotheconsumer，thedamagedonetoeachmaninhisformercapacitybeingmorethancompensatedbythebenefitsconferreduponhiminhislattercapacity。
　　Thefullvalidityofthisdoctrinewillbeconsideredwhenwegathertogetherthetwosidesofouranalysisandconsidertheinter-relationsbetweenproductionandconsumptionasanaspectoftheproblemofhumanvalues。
　　Atpresentwemaybeginbyacceptingvarietyofconsumptionasaconditioninitselffavourabletothemaximisationofhumanwelfare。
　　Thisassumptionisnot，however，quiteself-evident。Theroutinefactorsinastandardofconsumptionandastandardquastandardconsistsofroutine，sofarastheyarelaiddownunderthedirectionofaninstinctiveorarationalevolutionofwants，mustberegardedascontainingaminimumofwasteordisutility。Sincetheyarealsothefoundationandtheindispensableconditionforallthe'higher'formsofmaterialornon-materialconsumptioninwhichtheconsciouspersonalityofindividualsfindsexpression，theymaybeheldtocontainperunitamaximumofhumanvalue。Fromthisstandpointtherewouldseemtoemergealawoftheeconomyofconsumption，totheeffectthatthemaximumofsocialwelfarewouldbegotfromadistributionofwealthwhichabsorbedtheentireproductinthisroutinesatisfactionofthecommonneedsoflife。Thiseconomyneednotbeconceivedmerelyintermsofauniformstandardofmaterialsatisfactions。Awiderinterpretationoflifeandofnecessariesmightextenditsoastocovermanyhighergradesofsatisfaction，allthe'joysthatareinwidestcommonaltyspread。'Thenaturalevolutionofsuchaneconomyofconsumptionmight，itisarguable，yieldthegreatestquantityofsocialwelfare。
　　§；8。Butahighuniformlevelofwelfarethroughoutsocietydoesnotexhaustthedemandsofhumanwelfare。Itevidentlyoverstressesthelifeofthesocialasagainsttheindividualorganism，imposingaregimenofequalitywhichabsorbsthemanyintotheone。Now，desiroustoholdthebalancefairbetweentheclaimsofindividualpersonalityandofsociety，wecannotacquiesceinanidealofeconomicalconsumptionwhichmakesnodirectprovisionfortheformer。Sofar，however，astheconsumptionofanindividualisofaroutinecharacter，expressingonlytheneedsofahumannatureheldincommonwithhisfellows，itdoesnotreallyexpresshisindividualityatall。Therealisationoftheuniquevaluesofhispersonality，andtheconscioussatisfactionthatproceedsfromthisindividualexpression，canonlybegotbyactivitieswhichliebeyondthescopeofcustomandconvention。Thoughthisissuehasmostimportantbearingsthatareoutsidetheeconomicfield，itisalsovitallyconnectedwiththeuseofeconomicgoods。For，unlessadueproportionofthegeneralincometheaggregateofgoodsandservicesisplacedatthefreedisposalofindividualsinsuchformsastonourishandstimulatethewholesomeandjoyousexpansionoftheirpowers，thatsocialprogresswhichfirstmanifestsitselfinthefreeexperimentalandcreativeactionsofindividualswhosenaturesvaryinsomefineandserviceablewayfromthecommonlife，willbethwarted。
　　Thisbringsustoabetterunderstandingofthenatureandoriginofthehumaninjuryandwastecontainedinlargesectionsofthatconventionalconsumptionwhichplayssolargeandsodepressingapartineveryclassstandardofcomfort。
　　Wheretheproductionofaneconomicsocietyhasgrownsofarastoyieldaconsiderableandagrowingsurplusbeyondthatrequiredforsurvivalpurposes，thissurplusisliabletoseveralabuses。Insteadofbeingappliedasfoodandstimulustothephysicalandspiritualgrowthofindividualandsociallife，itmaybesquandered，eitheruponexcessivesatisfactionofexistingroutinewantsinanyclassorclasses，orinthestimulationandsatisfactionofmoreroutinewantsandtheevolutionofacomplexconventionalstandardofconsumption，containinginitsnewfactorsadiminishingamountofhumanutilityorevenanincreasingamountofhumancosts。Iftheindustrialstructureissuchthatparticulargroupsofbusinessmencanmakeprivategainsbystimulatingnewwastefulmodesofconventionalconsumption，thisprocess，aswehaveseen，isgreatlyfacilitated。
　　But，afterall，thebusinessmotiveisnotinitselfanadequateexplanation。
　　Businessfirmssuggestnewwants，butthesusceptibilitytosuchsuggestions，theactiveimitationbywhichanewarticlepassesintotheconventionalconsumptionofagrouporclass，requirescloserconsideration。Falsificationofastandardcanseldombeunderstoodasamereperversionofthefreechoiceofindividuals。Aconventionisnotproducedbyamerecoincidenceofseparatechoices。Imitationplaysanimportantpartinthecontagionandinfectionofexample。Inendeavouringtoassessthehumanutilityoftheconsumptionofwealthweseetheplayofseveralimitativeforces。
　　CurrentPrestige，Tradition，Authority，Fashion，Respectabilitysupplementoroftendisplacetheplayofindividualtaste，goodorbad，inmouldingaclassandfamilystandardofconsumption。Thepsychologyandsociologyofthesedistinctivelyimitativeforceswhichformorchangestandardsareexceedinglyobscure。
　　Themerelygregariousinstinctmayleadtothespreadinaclassorgroupofanynoveltywhichattractsattentionandisnotoffensive。Wheresupportedbyanyelementofpersonalprestige，suchnovelty，irrespectiveofitsrealvirtuesoruses，mayspreadandbecomeembeddedinastandardofconsumption。Thebeginningsofeveryfashionlargelybelongtothisorderofimitation。Someprestigeisusuallyneededfairlytolaunchanewfashion；oncelauncheditspreadsmainlyby'gregariousness'，theinstincttobe，orlook，oract，likeotherpeople。Thelimitsoferror，disutilityorinconvenience，whichcanbesetuponanoveltyoffashion，appeartodependmainlyupontheinitialforceofprestige。TheKingmightintroduceintoLondonsocietyareallyinconvenienthighhat，thoughtheQueenperhapscouldnotcarryafullrevivalofthecrinoline。
　　Fashionschangebuttheyleavedepositsofconventionalexpenditurebehind。Whatisatfirstfashionableoftenremainsasrespectableandliveslongintheconventionalhabitsofaclass。Everyclassstandardisencrustedwithlittleelementsofdeadfashion。
　　§；9。ButthisformativeinfluenceofPrestigeitselfdemandsfullerconsideration。Foritnotmerelyimplantselementsofexpenditureinthestandardofconsumption，butinfectsthestandarditself。
　　Atruestandardwouldrestonabasisoforganicutility，expenditurebeingapportionedsoastopromotethesoundest，fullesthumanlife。Butallconventionalconsumptionisdeterminedlargelybyvaluationsimposedbytheclasspossessingmostprestige。Itis，ofcourse，acommonplacethatfashionsindress，andincertainexternalmodesofconsumption，descendbysnobbishimitationfromhighlifethroughthedifferentsocialstrata，eachclasscopyingtheclassabove。Itisamatteroffarmorevitalimportancethatreligion，ethics，art，literatureandthewholerangeofintellectualactivities，manners，amusements，taketheirshapesandvalueslargelybythesameprocessofinfiltrationfromabove。
　　Thisisnotthecaseeverywhere。Inmanynationsthedistinctionsofcaste，class，localityoroccupation，aresostrongastoprecludethepassageofhabitsofmaterialconsumption，manners，tastesandideas，fromonesocialstratumtoanother。Theexclusivepossessionofacodeoflife，oflanguage，thoughtandfeelingsbyacasteorclass，isitselfamatterofpride，andoftenoflegalprotection。ThisholdsnotonlyofmostAsiaticcivilisationsbut，thoughlessrigorously，ofthoseEuropeancountrieswhichhavenotbeenfullysubjectedtothedissolvingforcesofindustrialism。
　　ButinsuchcountriesasEnglandandtheUnitedStates，wheretheindustrialartsarerapidlyevolvingnewproductsandstimulatingnewtastes，andwhereatthesametimethesocialstratapresentacontinuousgradationwithmuchmovementfromonestratumtoanother，theprocessofStationbyprestigeisveryrapidandgeneral。
　　Theactualexpenditureoftheincomeofeveryclassinthesecountriesisverylargelydetermined，notbyorganicneeds，butbyimitationoftheconventionalconsumptionoftheclassimmediatelyaboveinincomeorinsocialesteem。Thatconventionalconsumptioninitsturnisformedbyimitationoftheclassabove。Thearistocracy，plutocracy，orclasswithmostpowerorprestige，thusmakesthestandardsfortheotherclasses。
　　Now，evenifitwerearealaristocracy，acompanyofthebest，itbynomeansfollowsthatastandardoflivinggoodforthemwouldbeequallygoodforothersocialgrades。Buttherewouldbeatleastastrongpresumptioninitsfavour。Tocopygoodexamples，evenifthecopyingisdefective，isanelevatingpractice，andinasmuchastheessentialsofhumanityarefoundalikeinall，thoughtlessimitationofone'sbettersmightraiseone'sownstandard。Ifinasocietythemenoflightandleadingoccupiedthisplacebecausetheyhaddiscoveredageniusfortheartofnobleliving，theswiftunconsciousimitationoftheirmodeoflife，themoralsandmannersofthisaristocracy，wouldsurelybethefinestschoolingforthewholepeople:themodelsofthegood，thetrue，thebeautiful，whichtheyafforded，wouldinformeachlowergrade，accordingtoitscapacity。
　　Butwherethewholeforcesofprestigeandimitationaresetonashamaristocracy，copyingascloselyaspossibletheirmodesofconsumption，theirwaysofthoughtandfeeling，theirvaluationsandideals，incalculabledamageandwastemayensue。Forthedefectsinthestandardoftheupperfewwill，byimitation，bemagnifiedaswellasmultipliedinthelowerstandardsofthemany。Letmeillustrate。
　　Ifgamblingisbadfortheupperclasses，itsimitationbecomesprogressivelyworseasitdescends，poisoningthelifeandconsumingalargerproportionofthediminishingmarginoftheincomeofeachclass。Iftheinconvenienceofdecorativedressisbadforrichwomen，wholivealifeofeaseandleisure，itsimitationbytheactivehousewivesofthemiddle，andthewomen-workersofthelowerclasses，inflictsagraverdisutility。Forthewasteofincomeismoreinjuriousandthephysicalimpedimentstolibertyofmovementaremoreonerous。Itistheimmeasurableimportanceofthisprestigeoftheupperclass，percolatingthroughalllowersocialgrades，andimposing，notmerelyelementsofconventionalconsumption，butstandardsandideasoflifewhichaffectthewholemodeofliving，thatrequiresustogivecloserconsiderationtothelifeoftheleisureclass。
　　§；10。HerewecanfindvaluableaidinaremarkablebookentitledTheTheoryoftheLeisureClass，byMr。Veblen，anAmericansociologist。