IneachcaseStatecraftisanArt，andthefinancialpolicyisanartisticorcreativeworkinwhichquantitiesareusedbutdonotdirectordominate。
　　Bythislineofargumentitmayappearasifwehadrepudiatedtheentireutilityofascientificcalculus。This，however，isnotthecase。
　　Forthoughallthedeterminantactsofpolicyorwelfare，performedbyanindividualorasociety，involveorganicunityofdesign，andthequalitativeconsiderationsappertainingthereto，importantandindeednecessaryassistanceisrenderedbythequantitativeanalysisofpastactsexpressedintheformofscientificgeneralisations。Aclearerunderstandingofthenatureandextentofthiscooperationbetweenscienceandartintheconductoflifeenforcesthistruth。
　　§；11。SciencetakesitsstanduponatwofoldapplicationoftheassumptionoftheuniformityofNature，first，thatalldifferencesofcompositioncanbetreatedasdifferencesofquantityordegree，secondly，thathistoryrepeatsitself。Now，justsofarastheseassumptionsfitthefacts，Scienceisvalidforinterpretationandforguidance。Thisexplainswhyastronomy，physicsandchemistryaremore'exact'sciencesthanbiologyorpsychology，andwhytheyareabletogivemorereliableandauthoritativerulesfortheartsofnavigation，engineeringanddrug-making，thanthelattercanformedicine，forbreedingorforeducation。EdwardCarpenterhasremarkedthatastronomyisthemostexactoftheappliedsciences，becauseweknowleastaboutit，i。e。，becausewetreatitssubject-matteralmostentirelyfromthesinglequantitativestandpointofspacerelations。
　　Inallartsdealingentirelyormainlywithinorganicmatterscienceoccupiesaseatofhighauthority，becauseofthehighrelativeuniformityofthismatterandthecomparativeregularityofitsbehaviour。Inphysicsorininorganicchemistrytheindividualdifferencesoreccentricitiesofthematerialaresotrivialthattheycanusuallybedisregarded，andhistoryrepeatsitselfwithsomuchregularitythatquantitativelawsapply。
　　Thepassagefromtheinorganictotheorganicinvolves，aswerecognise，adoubleassertionofthequalitative:first，inrespectoftheunityanduniquenessoftheorganicstructure，andsecondly，byreasonofthenoveltythatattendseachactoforganicchange，vitalmovement，assimilation，growth，reproductionordecay。Theuniquenessoftheindividualorganismandthenoveltyofeachofitschangesareanassertionofthequalitativenatureofthesubject-matter。Sofarasthisqualitativenatureprevailsandcountsfor'conduct，'scientificanalysisisimpotentforinterpretationandadvice。Whenorganicmatterattainsthecharacterofconsciousnessandthestillhighercharacterofself-consciousness，thequalitativeconsiderationsreachamaximum，andtheinterpretationanddirectivepowerofscienceaminimum。Butthatminimummustnotbedisparaged。Itisnotinconsiderable。
　　Theassistancewhichscientificlawscanrendertothefinestartsofhumanconductisveryimportantandiscapableofconstantaugmentation。Forsofarashumannatureisuniformandstableamongtheunitswhichconstitutethelifewhoseconductandwelfareareinquestion，theinterpretationanddirectionofsciencehasvalidity。Tothisextentautilitariancalculus，baseduponanalysisofpastexperience，canaidthestatesmanorthephilanthropistinworkingouthisdesign。Intheregionofindustrytheextentofthisscientificservicewillbeevengreaterthanintheartsofconductwhosematerialismoreexclusivelyorganicorpsychical。Forindustry，consideredasanartofhumanwelfare，willconsistlargelyintheorderlyandprogressiveadaptationofinorganicmatter，oroforganicmatterwhoseorganicdifferencescanbeignored，tothesatisfactionofthoseneedsofmankindinwhichmenaresimilar。Thatistosay，inindustrythereexistsandwillremainagreatdealofworkandofconsumptionwhichisessentiallyofauniformorroutinecharacter，requiringtobedonebymeasuredrules，anddependingforitsutilityupontheexclusionofallindividualityorquality。Thisapplies，notonlytothoseindustrialprocesseswhichwetermstrictlymechanical，buttoagreatmanyotherswherequalityisamatterofcomparativeindifference。Intheprogressiveeconomyofhumanwelfaremechanicalorroutineproductionwillevenfrequentlydisplaceanartinwhichqualitywasoncedisplayed。Sohome-baking，intowhichnosmalldegreeofculinaryskillcouldgo，hasgivenwaytomachine-bakinginwhichtheelementofpersonalskillplaysadiminishedpart，andonwhichtheindividualtasteoftheconsumerexertslittledirectiveinfluence。Thismaybetakenasatypicalexampleofthedisplacementofqualitativeartbyquantitativemechanism。Itis，ofcourse，ofverywideextension，being，infact，commensuratewiththeapplicationofscientificmethodsintheworldofindustry。Indeed，thesciencesofchemistryandphysics，botanyandbiology，areeverywhereinvadingthe'arts'ofindustryandimposing'rules'uponindustrialprocesses。
　　Evenmoresignificantistheapplicationofthestillinfantilescienceofpsychologytotheartsofbusinessorganisationandenterpriseandofmarketing。Howcanpsychologyassistinthedelicateartofrecommendinggoodstopossiblepurchasers？Onlyonthesuppositionthatthereissufficientuniformityandstabilityinhumannaturetoenablethemeasuredrulesofpastexperimentuponothermentoholdofthisman。Onlysofarasmenarereallythesamesortofstuff，orsofarasanydifferencesaremeasurableandcalculable。Noveltyalonecanbaffleappliedscience。
　　Ifitweretrue，assomeappeartothink，thatmachineryandroutinemethodweredestinedcontinuallytoabsorbalargerandlargerproportionofhumanwork，andtodirectalargerandlargershareofhumanlife，economicsciencewithitsquantitativecalculuswouldacquireacontinualincreaseofexactitude，andagrowingcapacityfordirectionintheartofsocialconduct。Butif，asseemsmorereasonable，progressiveindustrymustservetofeedaricherlibertyandnoveltyofindividualandsociallife，thedomainofquantitativecalculus，thoughabsolutelyenlarging，mayberelativelyshrinking。
　　Wenowseemabletogetamoreaccurateunderstandingofwhatascientificcalculuscandofortheassistanceoftheartofsocialwelfare。Itcandoforthatartwhatitcandoforeveryotherart，viz。，furnishrulesfortheregular。Sofarasthestuffwhichconstitutesorcomposeshumanwelfareisuniform，i。e。，sofarasmenarealikeintheirneeds，andthematerialforthesatisfactionoftheseneedsissimilar，itcansupplyrulesofsocialeconomywhichwillhaveahighdegreeofvalidity。Thoughnotwohumanorganismsareidenticalinstructure，allhumanorganismswithinawiderangeofenvironmentaresosimilarinthekindsoffood，airandothermaterialgoodswhichtheyrequire，thatitissound'socialpolicy'toignoretheirdifferencesandtotreatthemasidenticalinthequalitiesoftheirdemandsanddissimilaronlyinthequantities。Thepracticaleconomyof'markets'standsuponthisbasis，andthequantitativetreatmentfindsitstruejustificationintheutilityofmarkets。Therecanbenomarketforthesingleor'singular'consumer。Amarket，i。e。，apracticalinstrumentformeasurementofeconomicwants，impliesastandardisationofthedesiresofbuyersandsellers。Justsofarasthemembersofaneconomiccommunityarethusstandardisedintheirpreferences，areeconomiclawsapplicable。Thus，forthescientificinterpretationofsuchacommunity，muchdependsupontherelativestrengthandimportanceofthestandardisingandtheindividualisingforces。Inasocietywheretheso-called'arts'
　　ofindustryandofconsumptionhavealikepassedbyimitationortraditionintofirmconventionsfromwhichtheleasttransgressionisbrandedasanimpietyorawickedness，economiclaws，baseduponasufficientstudyofthepastandpresent，willenableonetopredictthefuturewithconsiderableaccuracy。Primitiveorbackwardcommunitiesareusuallyinthisconservativecondition。Moreover，astheyadvanceandbecomeeconomicallyprogressive，itisobservablethatthemostconservativeandmostcalculablewantsandactivitiesarethoserelatingtothesatisfactionoftheprimarymaterialneeds。Henceitisevidentthatscientificpredictions，basedeitherupongeneralconsiderationsofhumannatureoruponpastmeasurements，willcomenearesttofulfilment，accordingastheyrelatetotheproductionandconsumptionofthosearticlesmostdeeplyembeddedinthestandardofliving。Conveniencesandcomfortsaremorechangeablethannecessaries，andluxuriesmostchangeableofall。Nowthemarginalorleastusefulportionofthosesupplies，whichintheearlierormostusefulincrementssatisfysomeprimeneed，areoftenluxuries。Themarginalportionofthewheatsupplygoesforcakes，oristhrownintothedust-binaswastebread:themarginaloilgoesintomotorrides。Takingexpenditureingeneral，wefindthelasttenpercentofeveryincomemostincalculableinitsoutlay，becauseitrepresentsthosepurchasesinwhichcustomisweakestandindividualtasteoropportunitythestrongest。Inaword，itispreciselyinthoseeconomicactionswhichexpressmarginalpreferences，thepivotofthemechanicalcalculus，thatwefindthemaximumofinstabilityandincalculability。
　　Foreachofthesenicemarginalpreferencesproceedsdirectlyfromthechangingnatureoftheorganicpersonality。Whereasfiftypercentofaman'sexpendituremayexpressthecommonsatisfactionofthefixedphysicalneedswhichcustomhasembeddedinastandardofsubsistence，thirtypercentthelighterbutfairlystablecomfortsbelongingtohisclass，thelasttwentypercentisthepartinwhichheexpresseshisindividualcharacterandhiscravingsforpersonaldistinctionandvarietyofenjoyment。
　　Theformalinvalidityofthe'marginalist'methodhasalreadybeendisclosed。Theconsiderationsjustadducedindicateitspracticalfutilityasameansofguidanceforeconomicart。NeitherasadeductivenorasaninductivesciencecanEconomicsfurnishaccuraterulesforcalculatingordirectingfutureeconomicevents。Itcanonlyprophesywithinsuchlimitsasaresetbytheassumptionsofthestabilityofhumannatureandofitsenvironment。Itsrulesor'laws'willbestinterpretandpredictthoseeconomicactionswhicharemostremotefromthemargin，i。e。，thosewhicharemostconservativeorregular。Marginalpreferenceswillthereforebepreciselythosewhichitisprecludedfrominterpretingorpredictingbythenecessarydefectoftheintellectualinstrument。
　　§；12。Thusthefinalfutilityofthemechanicalmethodofmarginalismliesinitsinsistenceuponapplyingaquantitativemethodofinterpretationtothemostqualitativeportionofthesubject-matter，thatportionwheretheorganicconditionsofpersonalityandnoveltyareofparamountsignificance。
　　Indeed，itisforthisreasonthateconomicscience，thoughabletosupplyrelevantandimportantevidence，canneversolveconclusivelyanysocial-economicproblem，eveninthatfieldofactionwhereherauthorityismoststronglyasserted。Agivenriseorfallofpricecanneverproducethesameeffectupondemandtwicerunning。Why？Becausethedesiresandbeliefsofthemoreunsettledsectionofbuyers，the'marginal'buyers，willhavechanged。Norcanthisalterationineffectupondemandbecalculated。
　　Whynot？Becausethechangesindesiresandbeliefsareorganicqualitativechanges。Observationsofpastpricemovementsandlawsbaseduponthemarenottherebyrendereduseless。Fortheseorganicchangeswilloftenbenegligiblesofarasthebulkofthemarketisconcerned。Buttheynegatethepossibilitiesofexactprediction，andoftenofapproximatepredictionsonthemargin。
　　Thisiswhythe'great'businessmanoftenpreferstoactbyintuitionthanbyexpresscalculation。Herecognisesthat，sofarasthemoredelicatejudgmentsareconcerned，his'feeling'of'howthingswillgo'ismoretrustworthythananyestimate。Hedoesnotactblindly。Hefeedsandfortieshismindwithfactsandfigures，untilheissteepedinfamiliaritywiththesubjectmatter。Buthedoesnotdeliberatelybalanceagainstoneanotherthesemeasuredforcesandcommithimselftotheresultant。Forheisawarethattheproblemisnotoneofmeremechanics，acounting-houseproposition，butoneinvolvingforitssolutionsympathyandimagination。
　　Butthecrucialinstanceoftheorganicandspiritualnatureofadistinctlyeconomicproblemisinthecaseofcredit。Themathematicalmechanicaltreatmentclaimstofinditssupremejustificationinthepartplayedbymoney，themostabstractofeconomicphenomena。Credit，initsobjectivesense，istheeconomicplenipotentiary，theabsoluterepresentativeofeconomicpower。Forhewhohascredithasthecommandofland，capital，labour，abilityofeverysort，atanytimeandinanyplace。Creditisproductivepowerandpurchasingpower，forhewhopossessesitcanconvertitintoanysortofsupplyordemandhechooses。Itisabsolutelyquantitative，fluid，divisibleandmeasurable。Suchiscredit，treatedobjectivelybyeconomicscience。Butcreditisalsotheheartandbrainsoftheindustrialsystem。Subjectivelyregarded，itisanessentiallyspiritualthing，adelicate，sensitivecreatureofhumanbeliefsanddesires。Itsvolumeanditspowerforpracticalworkareaffectedbythisspiritualnature。Foritsspringsarefear，hope，prestige，superstition，sympathyandunderstanding。
　　Itstruebasisisneithergold，norgoods，butcredibility。Andthatqualityofcredibilityisfluctuatingallthetimeforeveryindividual，everybusiness，everystate。Newunpredictableeventsareconstantlyaffectingit。Noonecanthereforesaywithanyassuranceofcorrectness"aBankshouldkeep20%ofitsresourcesinreserveoratcall，"orputanysuchrigidlimitfortheoperationsofanyBank。Ifwedosetanysuchquantitativelimit，weshouldrealisethatitisonlyaroughpracticalrule，which，ifinterpretedwithautomaticrigour，leadstowasteanderrorintheactualworkingoffinance。Forbynoplottingofcurvescanyoureckonthefutureflowofhumancredibility，ortheapplicationofagivenamountofconcretecredittotheever-changinggainsandrisksofhumanindustry。TakethecriticalcaseofacollapseofcreditandtherunuponaBank。Topredictwithevenapproximateaccuracythecourseofsucharun，ortocheckitbycalculations，baseduponpastexperienceofsimilarcrisesappliedtotherecordsofpresentassetsandliabilities，wouldbeimpossible。Why？
　　Chieflybecauseofthepsycho-physicalfactors，theplayoforganicforces。
　　Youcancalculatewithcloseexactitudethestrainimposeduponabridgeofagivensize，materialandstructurebyagivenweight，distributionandpaceoftraffic。Youcannotcalculatewithequalexactitudethestrainwhichagivenquantityofliabilities，howevercarefullyanalysedandgraded，willimposeuponaBankreserveofagivensize。
　　Theincalculableelementconsistsoforganicnovelty，thechangesduetohavingtodealwithmatternotdeadandhomogeneousbutlivingandorganised。
　　Thecitationofsuchinstancesisnotdesignedtoprovethatmonetaryandotherstatisticsarepracticallyuselessforthepredictionandsolutionofsocial-economicproblems。Onthecontrary，theyareexceedinglyuseful。
　　Buttheformalexactitudewhichtheycarryintheirmethodcanneverbeconveyedintotheworktheyarerequiredtoassistindoing。Themostabundantsupplyofthemostaccuratestatistics，utilisedbythemostapprovedmethodsofeconomicscience，canonlyaffordresultsofarudeapproximatevalidity，expressedintendencies。Thepracticalmaninbusiness，inpolitics，ineverymodeofsocialconduct，willsupplementandcorrecttheapplicationofthescientificrulebytheplayofprivatejudgmentandintuition。***
　　§；13Ifthisistrueasregardsallpredictionsoffutureeconomichappenings，itistillmoretrueoftheconsciouspurposiveguidanceofthesehappeningsbytheapplicationofahumanstandardofvalues。Thepracticalstatesmanorsocialreformer，confrontedwithaconcretesocialproblem，e。g。，thedemandforastateenforcementofanationalminimumofwages，localoptionfortheclosureofpublichouses，orareferendumforconstitutionalchanges，willfindhimself'payingattention'and'givingweight'toanumberofdiverseandopposingconsiderations。Howwilltheselectionandthe'weighing'oftheseconsiderationsbebroughtabout？
　　Notdirectlyandconsciouslybytheapplicationofwhatmaybetermedhissocialideal，theimageinhissoulofthesocietywhichseemstohimabsolutelythemostdesirable。Therelationofthatultimateidealtotheparticularschemeunderconsideration，e。g。，anationalminimumwage，maybetoodistantandtoodubioustoaffordvaluationanddirection。Theoperativeidealwillbederivative，oneofarelatedsetofpossible-desirables，limitedandpracticableidealswhichformthemostpotentinstrumentsofhisstatecraft。
　　SuchanoperativeidealforanEnglishmanatthepresenttimemightbethevisionoftheState，asthecollectivewill，securingbylawaclearlyconceivedstandardofsoundefficientlifefortheordinaryworking-classfamily。Thispresentpracticalideal，derivedfromawiderconceptionofthedutyoftheStateinrelationtotheindividualmembersofacivilisedsociety，woulditselfbeafarwiderschemethantheparticularproposal，thatofnationalminimumwage，whichitwasinvokedtoassess。Thestatesman，enlightenedbythisderivativeideal，wouldapplyitasatestandstandardtotheparticularproposal。Hewouldconsiderit，notmerely'uponitsownmerits'butasincorporatedinthemorecomplexorganicplanofhisnationalminimum。Thisorganicplanandpurposewoulddeterminethe'value'
　　hegavetothevarious'pros'and'cons，'asforinstancetotheconsiderationhowfarlegalinterventionmightweakentheprivateorganisationofworkmenintheirtrade-unions，sodamagingotherbenefitsoftrade-unionism，ortheconsiderationhowfaritwasbettertowaitandsecureamoredemocraticallyadministeredStatebeforeentrustingitwiththedelicatefunctionofadjustingpecuniaryarrangementsbetweenworkmenandemployers。Thisplanorpurposeofanationalminimum，asapossibledesirable，willofcoursenotremainquitestableinhismind，willnotbearigidstandard。Itwillchangesomewhatinpattern，andindefinitenessofoutline，assomefreshouterorinnerexperiencemakesanypartofit，orthewhole，seemmoreorlessdesirable，ormoreorlesspossible，thanformerly。
　　§；14。Buttheimportantpointtonoteisthatitisthislargerorganicplanorvision，thecharacterandchangesofwhichareessentiallyqualitative，thatfurnishesthestandardandstampswiththeirrespective'values'thevariousconsiderationswhicharesaidto'determine'thepracticalvalueoftheproposalanditsacceptanceorrejection。Nosocial-economicproposal，howeverdistinctivelyquantitativeitappears，canbehumanlyvaluedinanyotherway。Itisforthisreasonthatamereeconomistisalwaysdisabledfromgivingpracticaladviceinanycourseofconduct。
　　Taketwoexamples。Politicaleconomycanlegitimatelyapplylawsofvaluesoastoshowthat，undercompetitiveconditions，anationmustproducealargerquantityofmarketablegoodsunderapolicyoffreeimportsthanunderanysortofTariff。ButthatproofinitselfcanneverbesufficientgroundforrejectingeitheraTariffforrevenue，orevenaTariffforprotection。FortheStatesmancannevertakethemaximumofmarketablevaluesashisfinalandsufficienttest。Ifitcouldbeshownthatnationalsecuritywereinvolvedinaprotectivesystemwhichkeptallnecessaryindustrieswithinthenationallimits，hemightplead'defenceismorethanopulence。'Or，ifitcouldbeshownthataprotectivetariffcouldbeoperatedsoastodistributeaslightlyreducedaggregateofwealthinamannermoreconducivetothepopularwelfareandthatthisconsiderationwasnotoffsetbyfearofcorruptionorofimpairedindustrialefficiency，orotherdisadvantages，theStatesmanmightrightlyadoptaTariffintheteethof'economiclaws。'9
　　Or，takeanotherexample，theproposalforaneighthoursday，securedbylaw。Apurelyeconomicenquirymight，byconsideringtheelasticityoflabourinvariousemployments，arriveattheconclusionthatageneralshorteningofthework-daywouldinvolveapresentreductionoftheproductbysomuchpercentageindifferenttrades，andthatitmightinvolveareductionofprofitsandofwagesandaprobablelossofsomuchexporttradeinvariousindustries。Itmightevenpresentsometentativeestimatesastotheeffectsofthepressureofthisnewcostofproductioninstimulatingimprovedeconomiesinmines，factoriesorrailways。Suchinformationwouldbeusefulandrelevant，butnotauthoritativeuponthejudgmentoftheStatesman。Forthesocialvalueofashorterwork-daywoulddependmainlyupontheorganicreactionsofincreasedleisureuponthewholestandardoflifeoftheworkingfamily，howitaffectedhisexpenditureofhiswages，itseffectuponhishealth，educationandrecreations，thecultivationoffamilyaffection，thebetterperformanceofneighbourlyandcivicduties，andallthatisinvolvedinmorelibertyandalargeroutlookuponlife。
　　Itisevident，inthefirstplace，thattheseessentialconsiderationslieoutsidethecalculationsoftheeconomist，and，secondly，thattheactualvaluesetoneachofthemwilldependuponandbederivedfromthewholefaithandsocialvisionofthestatesmaninquestion。
　　Thissocialorhumanvaluationofaso-calledeconomicprocessorgood，involvesthentwodeparturesfromaquantitativecalculus；first，thereductionoftheparticulareconomicfactorsthemselvesfromfinancialorotherquantitativetermstovitalorsubjectiveterms；secondly，therestorationofthisartificiallyseveredeconomicprocesstothelargerintegratedprocessofhumanlifefromwhichitwasabstractedbythescientificspecialismoftheeconomist。
　　Theeconomistcanfindthefacts，buthecannotfindtheirhumanimportanceorvalue，becauseassigninghumanvaluemeansreferringtoanextra-economicstandard。Itmeansmorethanthis。Itmeansareferencetoanextra-scientificstandard，onewhosedistinctivecharacterconsistsinitsbeingtheexpressionandoperationoftheorganiccomplexofforcescomposingthesocialpersonalityasmirroredintheconsciousorunconsciouseffortsoftheindividualsandoftheSocietywhomakethevaluationsandframetheirconductuponthem。
　　§；15。Inconclusionitisnecessarytoenforceanexceedinglyimportantdistinctionintheconceptionofsocialorhumanvaluation。Thetermmeanstwothings，theattributionofhumanorsocialvaluebyanindividualandbyasociety。InmostofourillustrationswehavetakenthestandpointoftheStatesmanorthereformer，orofsomeotherperson，andregardedsocialvaluesfromhiseyes。Wehavetakenhisidealasasocialideal。
　　Soitisinthesenseofbeinghisidealofasociety。Butitisessentialalsotoconsidersocietyasseekingtorealiseitsownideal。'Thewholesuccessionofmenduringmanyages，'saidPascal，'shouldbeconsideredasoneMan，everlivingandconstantlylearning。'Thisisthetrueorganicviewofhumanity，regardedeitherasasinglewholeorinitsseveralraces，nationsorcommunities。Theapophthegmisnotprimarilyofpoliticalorofethicalsignificance，butastatementofnaturalhistory。Itiscorroboratedinastrikingmannerbymodernbiologicalteaching，withitscontinuityofthegerm-plasm，itsembryonicrecapitulationanditsspecificevolution。
　　Butnotuntilnaturalhistoryisrescuedfromtheexcessivedominationofapurelyphysicalbiology，andisreadinthelanguageofcollectivepsycho-physics，dowegraspthefullbearingoftheorganicconceptioninitsapplicationtoasociety。Forthisconceptionofmankindasworkingoutthehumancareerbytheoperationofitsoriginalsupplyoffacultiesandfeelings，inwhichinstinctivephysicalmotivestakeanincreasingadmixtureofconsciousrationalguidance，isthekeytoanunderstandingoftheascentofman。Thereisnoclearevidenceofthecontinuousascentofmanregardedasindividual，atanyratewithin'historic'times。Thereisevidenceoftheascentofhumansocietytowardsalargerandclosercomplexityofhumanrelationsandaclearerintellectualandmoralconsciousness。
　　Thismeansthatmankind，asawhole，anditsseveralsocieties，isbecomingmorecapableofahumanvaluationandofacollectiveconductofaffairsguidedbythisconsciousprocess。Inpolitics，regardedinitswidermeaning，thistruthhastakenshapeinthemodernconceptionofthegeneralwill，whichinpopularly-governedStatesfunctionsthroughpublicopinionandrepresentativeinstitutions。Followingourexaminationofthelimitsofscienceor'rationalism'intheprocessesofvaluationandofconductonthepartofindividuals，weshallexpecttofindsomecorrespondinglimitsincollectiveman。Inotherwords，thegeneralwillofapeoplecannotberegarded，eitherinitsestimatesoritsdeterminations，asamerelyoramainlycalculativeprocess，workingouttherespectivevaluesofexistingcircumstances，orproposedchanges，intermsofclearly-definedutility。
　　Itdoesnotevenwithfullerinformation，widereducationandfirmerself-control，tendtowardsthisscientificpolitics。Collectiveself-government，likeindividualself-government，willalwaysremainessentiallyanart，itsdirectionanddeterminantmotivesbeingcreative，qualitative，androotedintheprimalinstinctsofman。
　　§；16。Itisuponthisconceptionofthecollectiveinstinctsofsocietyregardedasanorganismthatarationalfaithindemocracyisbased。
　　Theanimalorganism，itselfasocietyofcells，isendowedwithenergyofbodyandmind，operatingthroughanequipmentofinstinctivechannelstowardsitsownsurvivalanddevelopmentandthesurvivalanddevelopmentofitsspecies。Wherethereisdangerlesttoomuchofthisenergyshouldbeconsumeduponindividualends，toolittleonspecificends，thesocialorself-sacrificinginstinctsarestrengthenedintheindividual，andarereinforcedbytheherdorspecificfeelingsofotherindividuals，aswhereplunderersofthecommonstockorshirkersinthecommontasksaredestroyedbythehiveorherd。Theinstinctforthesurvivalanddevelopmentofthehive，herdorspecies，cannotbesatisfactorilyexplainedasbelongingonlytothepsycho-physicalequipmentoftheindividualmembers。Onthisbasis，viz。，thatofattributingasocialnatureonlytotheindividualmembersofasociety，theactsofdevotionandself-sacrifice，andstillmoretheactsofpreparatoryskill，theelaborateperformanceofdeedsthataremeanstothesurvivalandwell-beingofafuturegeneration，becomemerehaphazardmiracles。TakethefamiliarexampleoftheHuntingWasp。
　　'ThelarvaeofthevariousHuntingWaspsdemandamotionlesspreywhowillnot，bydefensivemovements，endangerthedelicateeggand，afterwards，thetinygrubfixedtoapartofthepreyInaddition，itisnecessarythatthisinertpreyshallbeneverthelessalive；forthegrubwouldnotacceptacorpseasfood。Itsvictualsmustbefreshmeatandnotpreservedprovisions。ThesetwoantagonisticconditionsofimmobilityandlifetheHymenopterarealisesbymeansofparalysis，whichdestroysmovementandleavestheorganicprincipleoflifeintact。Withaskillwhichourmostfamousvivisectorswouldenvy，theinsectdrivesitspoisonstingintothenervecentres，theseatofmuscularstimulation。Theoperatoreitherconfineshimselftoasinglestrokeofthelancet，orelsegivestwo，orthreeormore，accordingtothestructureoftheparticularnervoussystemandthenumberandgroupingofthenervecentres。Theexactanatomyofthevictimguidestheneedle。'10
　　Suchconductisnotmadeintelligiblebyanyotherhypothesisthanthatofacollectivelifeofthespecies，theindividuallivesbeing，infact，partsofacommonspecificlifetowardswhichtheycontributeinamannersimilartothatinwhichthecells，withtheirparticularlives，contributetothelifeoftheirorganism。Onlybythisapplicationorextensionofthe'organicmetaphor'totherelationsbetweenmembersofanexistinggeneration，andbetweensuccessivegenerations，canweconstructanintelligiblesequenceofcausationbetweenthesepreparatoryactsofindividualinsectsofonegenerationandtheresultsaccruingtootherindividualsofanothergeneration。
　　This'generalwill'maywenotcallitso？，urgingtheindividualstothefulfilmentofapurposewhichisbutslightlytheirs，andisnotmainlythatoftheexistinggeneration，butwhichembodiesthegeneralpurposeofthespeciesorsomewiderpurposeofastilllargerorganicwhole，canonlyberealisedforthoughtandfeelingasasinglecurrentofwillimplyingandconferringunityoflifeuponthespeciesorthelargerunity。
　　In'lower'animalsphereswerecognisethisfact。Butthereisatendencytoholdthatman，subjecttosomesuchspecificurgeorinstinctsinhisprimitivestages，hasbecomemoreandmoreindividualisedandhasdonesolargelybybecomingmorerational。Thegradualdisplacementofinstinctbyreason，itiscontended，hasmademanmoreself-sufficient，hislifemoreofthenatureofanend，lessofameanstowardsthelifeofhistribeornation，oreventowardsthatofhumanityasawhole。Isthisso？Therearetwoissuesthatopenhere。Intheprocessofcivilisationamancertainlybecomesmoreindividual。Hediffersincharactermorefromhisfellowsthaninearliertimes；heisabletodevote，anddoesdevote，alargershareofhisenergiesofbodyandmindtoactivitieswhichareprimarilyself-regarding。Moreover，hetendstorelylessexclusivelyorpredominantlyuponwhatwouldbecalledhisinstinctsandmoreuponhisreason。
　　§；17。The'generalwill，'whichthroughformsoftribalcustomandofgregariousinstinctpulsedsovigorouslyandsoinsistentlyintriballife，seemstohaveweakenedwitheveryexpansionofsocialareaandwiththeadvancingcomplexityofsocialrelations。Theeconomyofhumanenergyallowsindividualstoapplyalargershareofthelife-forcethatflowsthroughthemtowhatappeartothemtheirprivatepurposes，asmallertotheprotectionanddevelopmentofthesocietyorspecies。Ifweweretoassignanyfinalvaliditytotheoppositionofindividualandsociety，thischangemightberegardedasashrinkageofthedominionofthe'generalwill，'thespecificascontrastedwiththeindividualpurpose。Butthoughthenarrowintensetribalwillmaythusappeartohaveyieldedtoabroader，feeblerandlessimperativeformofnationalorsocialwill，itbynomeansfollowsthatthislatterworkslesseffectivelyforthecommongood。Asmanbecomesmoreintelligentandmorereflective，andhasfortifiedhimselfwithlargerandmorereliablerecordsandbettermethodsofcontrollinghisenvironment，theinstinctiveoperationsofthewillofgroupsoftribalanimalsgiveplacetomoreconscious，morerational，purposes。
　　Thechangemustnotindeedbeoverstressed。Thevalidityofthegeneralwilldoesnotdependuponthedegreeofconsciousrationalpurposeithasattained。Itremainsto-dayinthemosthighlycivilisedcommunitieswhatitwasinprimitivetriballife，anorganicinstinct。Therationalisationofthisblindfacultyoforganicself-protectionandadvancementhasnotyetgoneveryfar。Indeed，itisexceedinglyimportanttorecognisethatanorganicinstinctofconservationandofprogressunderliesthewisdomofthepeople。Thosewhoconsiderpoliticsarightfulmonopolyoftheeducatedclassesdoublyerr；first，inignoringtheinstinctivewisdomofthepeople，secondlyinclaimingforeducationahighervalueforpoliticaldirectionthanitpossesses。ThepoliticalwisdomoftheRomanorthegermanicpeoplespartakesfarmoreofanaturalsagacitythanofareasonedprocess。Ifthisappliestothegreatstatesman，itisstillmoreapplicabletothebodyofthepeoplewhoseconsentoractivecooperationcontributestotheevolutionofastableandaprogressivestate。Itisimpossibletounderstandortoexplainanylongandcomplexmovementinnationalhistorybypiecingtogethertheconsciousrationaldesignsoftheindividualsorgroupsofmenwhoexecutedtheseveralmovesofwhichthemovementseemedtoconsist。
　　SuchastructureastheBritishConstitution，suchanepisodeastheFrenchRevolution，cannotbeotherwiseregarded，initsorganicunity，thanasaproductofenergiesofcommonwillandpurpose，wider，deeperandobscurerintheirworkingthantheparticularintelligiblemotivesandaimswhichappearedonthestageofparliamentarydebates，militarycampaignsormobviolence。Everystudentofthe'spirit'ofoneofthesegreatnationaldramasisdriventorecognisesomemouldingordirectinginfluence，someurgeofevents，bywhichtheyseemtounfoldthemselvesinalargerandmorecomplexpatternorconsistencythanisperceivedbyanyoftheagents。
　　Thereissometimesatendencytogiveamysticalinterpretationtothistruth。SoVictorHugowritesoftheFrenchRevolution:
　　'Ê；treunmembredelaConvention，c'é；taitê；treunevaguedel'Ocean。Etcecié；taitvraidesplusgrands。Laforced'impulsionvenaitd'enhaut。IlyavaitdanslaConventionunevolonté；quié；taitcelledetouseta'é；taitcelledepersonne。Cettevolonté；
　　é；taituneidé；e，idé；eindomptableetdé；mesuré；equisoufflaitdansl'ombreduhautduciel。NousappelonscelalaRé；volution。
　　Quandcetteidé；epassaitelleabattaitl'unetsoulevaitl'autre；
　　elleemportaitcelui-ciené；cumeetbrisaitcelui-là；auxé；cueils。Cetteidé；esavaitoù；elleallait，etpoussaitlegouffredevantelle。Imputerlaré；volutionauxhommes，c'estimputerlamaré；eauxflots。'11
　　Theexplanationofourcolonialempireastheresultofacareerofconquestandexpansionconducted'inafitofabsenceofmind'isanexactstatementofthetruth。Forthoughafewgreatempire-builders，suchasWarrenHastings，Molesworth，Elgin，GreyandRhodes，mayhaveplayedtheirpartswithsomemeasureofconsciousdesign，theindividualchannelsofthiscurrentofadventurousandconstructiveenergyembodiedinthegeneralprocesshadaslittleanideaoftheimperialedificeasanyworkingbeeofthegreatsymmetricalstructureofthehive。
　　§；18。Thissenseof'manifestdestiny'issurelynoillusion。Itistheevolutionarymethodbywhichallorganicprocessisachieved，whetherinthegrowthofanoaktreefromitsacorn，ofamotorcarfromtheearliesthand-barrow，amusicalsymphonyfromasavagetom-tom，oramodernfederalstatefromtheprimitivetribalorder。Ineverycaseanumberofwhatseemseparatelymotivedactionsareseentocarryandexpressthecontinuityofsomecommontendencywhichbringsthemunderthecontrolofasinglecollectivedesign。Thiswiderpurposeisseenoperatinguponthelargerorganicstageofconductinwayscloselyanalogoustotheoperationsofthepoetortheartistinanyhumanfineart。Itexhibitstheurgeofaninnerflowofpsycho-physicalenergyseekingeverfinermodesofexpressionbymouldingthematerialsatitsdisposal。Assoonaswegraspthisideaofthecollectiveartistryofaspeciesoranyotherorganicgroup，werecognisehowlackinginlogicalfinalityistheacceptedantithesisofinstinctandreason。Thereasonoftheorganismwillappearasablindinstinctivedrivetothecellwhoseconductitdirects。Sothespecificpurposewillshowitselfasinstinctintheindividualorganism，thoughitmaybeneitherblindnorunconscioustothespeciestakenastheorganicunit。Nay，wemaygofurtherandsuggestthatadvancingreasonintheindividualanimalmayconsistinagrowingsympathyandsyn-noesiswiththeoperationsofthewiderorganism。Mustnotthisbewhathappenswhenwhatwetermreasonendorsesandreinforcestheinstinctiveactionsofspecificpreservationandwell-being，substitutingreflectionforimpulse，plansforcustoms，orderlyandchanginginstitutionsforblindordinanceswhoseauthorityisgregariousimitationorSuperstitiousprestige？Arewewrongwhenwetraceaninstinctofobediencetoachieftransformedintoareasonedsubmissiontothelaw？Maynotthenthewholeprocessoftherationalisationofmanberegardedasabringingoftheindividualmanintovitalcommunionofthoughtandfeelingwiththethoughtsandfeelingsoftherace，ofhumanity，perhapsofthelargerorganicbeingofthekosmos？Foramanonlybecomesrationalsofarashetakesadisinterestedviewofhimself，hisfellow-menandoftheworldhelivesin，andthewider，closer，keenerthatviewthemorerationalhebecomes。Thustheevolutionofthemindofmanintoafullerrationalitymeansthestrengtheningandclarifyingofthoserelationsoffeelingandthoughtwhichbindhimtohisfellowsandtohisworldandwhicharerootedinthe'blind'instinctsofgregarious，superstitious，curiousman。
　　§；19。Theupshotoftheseconsiderationsistobreakdowntheabruptnessofthecontrastbetweenreasonandinstinctandtorecogniseinreasonitselfthesubtlestplayofthecreativeinstinct。The'disinterested'
　　natureofthesearchfortruthhasbeenasubjectofderisionamongsomethinkers，whoseenowaybywhichmantheindividualcandisengagehimselffromtheselfishmotiveswhichseemtorulehimandtodisposealikeofhisemotionalandintellectualenergies。Inmanregardedasindividualitisverydifficulttorecogniseanypossibilityofadisinterestedmotive，becauseallsuchmotivesareruledoutexhypothesi。Butregardtheindividualmanassubjecttothedominantcontrolofsomewiderlifethanhis，thatofrace，society，humanityorkosmos，andthedifficultydisappears。Hebecomescapableof'disinterested'curiosity，'disinterested'love，'self-sacrifices'
　　ofvariouskinds，becauseheisacentreofwiderintereststhanthoseofhisownparticularself。TheactionofaJapanesewhothrowshimselfupontheRussianbayonetsatthewordofcommand，ofadoctorwhoinoculateshimselfwithadeadlypoisonforthesakeofscience，thesteadylifelongtoilofmillionsofpeasantsgrowingthefoodsupplyforunknownmillionsoftown-dwellers，arenolonger'disinterested'whentheyarelookedatfromthestandpointoftheinterestsofhumanityasawhole。Thiscollectivewillandintelligencecanneverbeconsideredwholly'blind'whenregardedfromthecollectivestandpoint。Everydirectiveinstinctofanorganism，atanyrateintheanimalworld，mustbeaccreditedwithsomerelatedemotion，12
　　andthisemotion，regardedasafactinconsciousness，mustbeaccreditedwithsomemeasureofintelligence。Thecreaturesubjecttothedriveofanemotionmusthavesomeideaofwhatheisabout，thoughthefullpsycho-biological'purpose'ofhisactionmaybehiddenfromhim。Thisorganicstandpointgivesanintelligiblemeaningtowhatwemaycallthe'naturalwisdomofthepeople。'Theherd，thetribe，thenationisendowedwithinstinctsofself-protectionandofgrowth。Theseinstinctsareaccompaniedbycorrespondingemotionswhich，accordingtothedegreeofintelligencetheycontain，impelittoarightoreconomicaluseofthephysicalandspiritualenvironmentforsurvivaland'progress。'Theinstinctiveandemotionalstreamofthiscommonlifebecomesmore'rational'asthefactorsofintelligenceaccompanyingtheemotionsbecomeclearer，bettercoordinatedandendowedwithlargercapacityofcentraldirection。Intheevolutionofanimalorganismsthisgrowthofrationalityimplies，andiscompassedby，adeclineofthespecialinstinctswithaconsequentweakeningofthespecialemotionsattachedtothem，andthesubstitutionofaflexiblegeneralinstinctoperatingthroughacentralisednervoussystemandcoordinatingthespecialorganicemotionsandactivitiestoserveamoreclearlyconceivedorganicpurposeoftheindividualortherace。Reason，regardedasamotivepowerandnotasamereintellectualorgan，mustbeconsideredasthisgeneralinstinctofsurvivalandgrowth，havingitsrootsintheapparentlyseparateinstinctsofhunger，procreation，shelter，pugnacity，flight，gregariousness，protectionofyoung，curiosity，constructiveness，acquisitivenessandthelike，andutilisingtheemotionspropertotheseseveralinstinctsfortheeconomyofsomemoregeneralplanoflife。Reasoning，asan'intellectualprocess，'
　　willprobablyderiveitsemotionalfoodandimpetusprincipallyfromtheemotionscarriedbytheinstinctsofflightandpursuit，whichinvolvequickjudgmentintheuseofmeans，andbythecuriosityandconstructivenesswhichimpelthemorereflectivestudyandadaptationofmaterialenvironment。
　　Itis，however，nopurposeofminetoenterintotheparticularsofthistheoryofthenaturaloriginsofreason。Itissufficienttorecognise；
　　firstthatpriortothedawnof'reason'inorganicevolution，theinstinctscarryandapplyawisdomofdirectionoftheirown；secondlythatwhenreasontakesovermuchofthisdirectingpoweritoperatesbycoordinating，notbycreating，motivepower。
　　Sowhenwesubstitutefortheindividualorganismtheherd，thetribe，thenation，ascendingtolargercollectivewholes，sustainedbyaclearerconsciousnessofunityandafulleruseofcentralconsciouspurpose，wefollowthesameeconomyofgovernment。If，asisoftenurged，anation，regardedasanorganism，mustbeclassedasacomparativelyprimitivetype，onalevelratherwiththespongesoralgaethanwiththehigheranimals，weshallexpecttofindthataverylargemeasureofsuch'wisdom'asitpossesseswillbeinstinctiveratherthan'rational。'Theevolutionofageneralwill，whetheroperativebypublicopinionorgovernmentalinstitutions，willonsuchahypothesispossessnogreatdegreeofcentralityorclearconsciousness。Goodgovernmentinsuchasocietycouldnotbecompassedbyanoligarchyorevenarepresentativeassemblyassumingameasureofdetailedandfar-sightedpolicyforwhichthecollectivelifewasnotyetripe。Alargemeasureofwhatfromtherationalstandpointwouldrankas'opportunism'wouldbethetruepolicyatsuchastageofsocialevolution，andthewisestatesmanwouldkeephiseartothegroundsoastolearntheinstinctivemovementsofthepopularmindwhichwouldyieldthebestfreightofpoliticalwisdomathisdisposal。OnlyaseducationandcloserandmorereliablecommunicationselevatedtheorganicstructureofSociety，impartinghigherspirituality，morecentralityandclearerconsciousnesstoitslife，shouldweexpectanyconsiderablerationalisationofthegeneralwill。Meanwhilearisethetemptationanddangeroftheformalinstrumentsofgovernmentfallingintothehandsofalittlehighlyself-consciousgrouporclass，whomayseektoimposeupontheconductofthenationitsclearerplansandfar-sightedpurposes"underthenameandpretextofthecommonwealth。"Theabsoluteoractualwisdomoftheirwilltheywillbeapttorepresentasembodyingtherealityofthegeneralwill。Itiswhattheythink'thepeople'oughttowillandthereforewhatthepeoplewillcometowillassoonastheyarereallycapableofwillingintelligently!
　　Itis，however，exceedinglyimportanttotryandrecognisetheinstinctivewisdomofthepeople，inorderthatamisrepresentativegovernmentmaybepreventedfromignoringitandsubstitutingtherationalismofsomelittleconsciousclass。
　　Thisdoesnotmeanthatagovernmentmustalwaysgovernandadaptitslawstothelevelofthecurrentfeelings，desiresandaspirationsoftheaverageman，givinghimnoleadorstimulustohigherrationality。Suchacoursewouldbetoignorethatcapacityforprogressandthatsusceptibilitytoproximateidealswhicharethemselvesimplantedintheinstinctsofmankind。Butitdoesrequirethatagovernmentshallkeepitselfintheclosestsympathywiththeconcretefeelingsandideasofthepeople，maintainingsuchcontactsasshallenableitsactsofpolicytorankassubstantiallycorrectinterpretationsofthegeneralwill，notasthedesignsofasupremegoverningcasteorgroupofinterests，pumpeddownthroughsomeartfullycontrivedelectoralmachinerysoastoreceivethefalseformalimpressof'thegeneralwill。'
　　Thesereflectionsuponthenatureofpopulargovernmentmayappeartohavecarriedusfarafield。Buttheyhavebeennoirrelevantexcursion。
　　Foruponourviewofthenatureandmeasureofrationalitytobeimputedtotheprocessesofreformorprogressinnationallifemustdependourviewofthepartwhichcanbeplayedbythesocialscienceswhichareinvokedasthechiefinstrumentsofconsciouscollectiveconduct。
　　Recognisingthatsocialprogressinallitsdepartmentsremainsalwaysacollectiveart，inspiredandsustainedbycreativeimpulseswhichoweneithertheiroriginortheirvaliditytoscience，weshallregardthesocialsciencesasservantsratherthandirectorsofsocialprogress。Weshallbeconcernedtoask，Whataretheproperandparticularservicessuchsciencescanrender？Howcantheyassistapeopleinutilisingitshumanandnaturalresourcesfortheattainmentofthebestconditionsofhumanlife，individualandsocial？
　　Thisworkiswrittenasapartialandillustrativeanswertothesequestions。Takingindustry，thatdepartmentofsocialconductmostsusceptibleofthequantitativemeasurementwhichistheinstrumentofscience，wehaveendeavoredtoconstructandapplyanorganonofhumanvaluationtoitsactivitiesandachievements。Recognisingthatindustry，regardedfromtheindividualorthesocialstandpoint，wasanorganicactivity，involvingcontinualreactionsuponthewholelifeoftheindividualandthesociety，weinsistedthatthestandardofvaluationmustbeconstructedintermsoforganicwell-being。Inotherwords，industry，bothfromitsproductiveanditsconsumptiveside，mustbevaluedintermsofindividualandsocialhealth，thattermbeingselectedastheonewhichbestexpressestheconditionsofconservationandofprogressuniversallyrecognisedastheessentialsofa'valuable'life。Intheactualinterpretationofthisorganicwelfare，wetookforourvaluer'enlightened'common-sense。Therootsofthiscommon-sensewefindlaidinthesilent，instinctiveorganicstrivingsofmankind。Itisthebusinessofscience，ororganisedknowledge，todirectthesestrivingssoastoenablethemtoattaintheirendsmoreeconomically。Itdoesthisbyinterpretingexperienceandsupplyingtheinterpretationintheshapeof'laws'toenlightencommon-senseandsoenableittochooseitspaths。
　　Fortheeconomyofblindinstinctsisonlyaccommodatedtosimpleactivitiesinastableenvironment，andiseventhensubjecttoenormousvitalwastes。
　　Forcomplicatedactivitiesinarapidlychangingandcomplexenvironment，ageneralinstinctofadaptabilityofmeanstoends，involvingconsciousreflection，isrequired。Reasonisthisgeneralinstinctandscienceisitsinstrument。Society，asitsprocessesofevolutionbecomemoreconscious，willbeabletousemoreprofitablytheservicesofscience。Thoseservicesconsistnotinauthoritativelegislationforsocialconduct，forlawsbaseduponexperienceofthepastcanhavenofullauthoritytobindthefuture。
　　Faithandrisk-taking，involvinglargeelementsoftheincalculable，areinherentinorganicprocesses，andaretheverysapofspiritualinterestinlife。Theycanneverbebroughtunderthedominionofascientificeconomy。
　　Butthemainstapleineveryartofconductisrepetitionandconsideredadaptation，restinguponacontinuityofconditions。Forthispartofsocialconductscience，whensufficientlyequipped，canandwillofferauthoritativeadvice。Throughoutallnaturetheartsofconservationandcreationruntogether。Theartofconservationisthepracticalfunctionofscience:
　　theartofcreationeverremainsaregionofbeckoningliberty，continuallyannexedbyscience，andyetundiminishedinitssizeandtsappeal。
　　'ForallexperienceisanarchwherethroughGleamsthatuntravelledlandwhosemarginfadesForeverandforeveraswemove。'
　　NOTES:
　　1。ItwaspreciselyonthisrockthatJ。S。Mill'sutilitarianismsplit。
　　HetriedtoincorporateinthequantitativecalculusofBenthamitepleasureandpaindistinctionsofthequalityorworthofdifferentsortsofpleasureandpain，andfailedtofurnishanymethodofreducingthemtocommonterms。
　　2。Wicksteed，CommonSenseofPoliticalEconomy
　　7。Thisolderdoctrineofmarginalism，concernedwiththecomparisonofmarginalutilities，ormarginalcosts，intheapplicationofexpenditureofproductiveenergy，mustnotbeconfusedwiththenoveldoctrinewhichwediscussedinChapterXIinrelationtowages。Inthenewerdoctrineanyunitofasupplymayberegardedasthemarginalunitandeveryunitasequallyproductiveoruseful。Accordingtotheolderdoctrineeachunithasadifferentcostorutility。
　　8。ProfessorPigouinhisWealthandWelfarediscusseswithskillandprecisionthemeasurableinfluencesofanincreaseofthegeneraldividendupongeneralwelfare，butomitstotakeintoconsiderationthe'cost'factorswhichenterinto'welfare，'howeverthattermbedefined。
　　9。Protectionistscanseldom，ifever，pleadsuccessfullyeitherofthesecases。ByreducingthecommunityofeconomicinterestsbetweennationsProtectionnormallyincreasesthechancesofwar，whilelesseningthenationalresourceswhicharethesinewsofwar。So，likewise，itsnormaltendencyistoworsenthedistributionofWealthwithinthenation。