uponthegrowthofmaterialconsumptionandareasonableregulationofthegrowthofpopulation。For，asluxuryandmaterialwasteareseenlargelytoariseasinstrumentsforthedisplayofindividualprowessincompetitiveindustry，theremovalofthatcompetitionfromfieldswhichyieldlargemeansforsuchdisplaywouldnecessarilyquenchthezestwhichitexhibits，aswellasstopthesourcesofsuchextravagantexpenditure。Forwhenprofusedisplayofmaterialapparatusisnolongerpossible，thenaturaldesireforpersonaldistinction，whichisthedeepest-rootedofallpersonaldesires，willtendmoreandmoretofindexpressioninthoseartsofrefinedlivingwhicharemoretrulypersonalinthattheycausethemoreintellectualandspiritualqualitiesofpersonalitytoshineforth。If，forthequantitativedisplayofmaterialgoods，therecangraduallybesubstitutedaqualitativedisplayofspiritualgoods，thischangewillbeattendedbyacorrespondingchangeineconomicactivities。Therewillbeareductioninthecoarserformsofproductiveenergymakinglargedraftsuponthematerialresourcesofnature，andanincreaseofthehigherformsofenergywhosedraftsonthesematerialresourcesarerelativelysmall。
　　Theproportionofnon-materialtomaterialwealthwillincrease，andtherewillbeacorrespondingincreaseintheproportionofproductiveactivitiesthatcontainlargefactorsofcreativeinterest。Everyenlargementofthescopeforfreeindividualexpressionthrougheconomicdemand，evenforpurelymaterialgoods，willhaveanecessaryeffectincurbingthedominionofmachineryandofroutinelabour。Forsocialarrangementswhichenableandinciteeachconsumertoseekamorepersonalsatisfactionofhisindividualneedswillforceproducerstostudytheseindividualneedsandsatisfythem。Thiscannotbedonebymeremachine-economy，whichrestsupontheoppositehypothesisthatlargenumbersofconsumerswillconsenttosinktheirindividualdifferencesofneedandtasteacceptingcertainroutineformsofgoodswhichdonotexactlymeettherequirementsofanyoneofthem。Itis，therefore，reasonabletoexpectthatamoreequalandequitabledistributionofincomewillevokeinthemassesofpopulation，whonowconsenttoconsumecommon'routine'goodsbecausetheycannotaffordtoconsulttheirparticulartastesandpreferences，amorepersonalanddiscriminativedemand，whichwillsetstrictlimitsuponthemachineeconomyandcallforalargerapplicationofindividualskillinthevariouscrafts。
　　Orif，valuingmorehighlyasfieldsforpersonalexpressionthelessmaterialelementsintheirstandardofliving，theystillconsenttoutiliseroutineindustryforthesatisfactionoftheircommonphysicalneeds，theywillapplyanincreasingproportionoftheirinterestsandtheirincomestotheacquisitionandenjoymentofthosegoods，artistic，intellectual，emotional，whicharemoreennoblingalikeintheirproductionandtheirconsumption。
　　§；7Afinalworduponpopulation。Istherenotreasontobelieveandhopethatthissounderdistributionofworkandwealthwillcontributetoasatisfactorysolutionbothofthequantitativeandthequalitativepopulationquestion？ifwomenwerenolongerforcedbyeconomicpressureintomarriagesforwhichtheyhadnonaturalinclination，muchunfitparentageandmuchincompetentnurturewouldbeaverted。Iftheywerefreetoliveunmarried，ortochoosethefatheroftheirchildrenandthesizeoftheirfamily，thenormalcurrentofthoseinstinctsmakingforthepreservationandinstinctoftherace，obstructedbyartificialbarriersofeconomiccircumstances，wouldberestoredtotheirnaturalcourse。Ifthesupportofayoungfamilywerenolongeraheavyandinjuriousstrainupontheeconomicresourcesoftheparentsandtheirfuturecareeragraveanxiety，thehumanloveofchildrenandtheattractionsofacompletehomelifewouldprobablycheckthatrapiddeclineofthebirth-ratewhichtomanyisoneofthedarkestfeaturesofourpresentorder。Itwouldnot，indeed，restoretherecklesspropagationofformertimeswhichimposedonparents，andchieflyuponthemother，aburdeninjuriousinitsprivateincidenceanddetrimentaltosociety。Butwhilethebettereconomicorderwouldstopcompulsorymarriagesandundesiredandthereforeundesirableoffspring，itwouldrestoretheplayofthenormalphiloprogenitiveinstincts。Theneteffectwouldseemtobesomeretardationofthedeclineofbirth-rateinthosetypesoffamilieswheretheconditions，physicalandpsychical，appearfavourabletogoodnatureandgoodnurtureforchildren，andapositiveeliminationofcertaintypesofunionunfavourabletosoundoffspring。
　　Thetotaleffectuponthequantitativeissuewouldofcoursedependuponthebalancebetweenthisfreerplayofthephiloprogenitiveinstinctandtheotherinfluences，notdirectlyaffectedbyeconomiccauses，whichmakeforsmallerfamilies。Butthatthequalityorcharacterofthepopulationmustbeimprovedbythemorenaturalplayoftherejectiveandselectiveinfluenceshereindicatedcanhardlyadmitofcontroversy。Indeed，itmaywellbeurgedthatthecrowningtestimonytothevalidityofthehumanlawofdistributionwillconsistinthehigherqualityofhumanlifeitwillevokebyliberatingandnourishingthenaturalartofeugenicsinsociety。
　　NOTES:
　　1。Ruskinhadacuriousnotionofthissortcf。TimeandTide，par。107，MuneraPulveris，par。109，ForsClavigera，Letterlxxxii，andtherecentAmerican'ScientificManagement'appearstoendorseit。
　　2。TimeandTide，par。123。
　　CHAPTERXXII:SOCIALSCIENCEAND
　　SOCIALART
　　§；1。Thetaskofahumanvaluationofindustryinvolvedattheoutsetthearbitraryassumptionofastandardofvalue。Thatstandardconsistedinaconceptionofhumanwell-beingapplicabletothevariousformsofhumanlife，manasindividual，asgroupornation，ashumanity。Startingfromthatconceptionofthehealth，physicalandspiritual，oftheindividualhumanorganism，whichisofwidestacceptance，weproceededtoapplytheorganicmetaphortothelargergroupings，soastobuildupanintelligiblestandardofsocialwell-being。Thisstandard，atoncephysicalandspiritual，staticandprogressive，wasassumedtobeofsuchakindastoprovideaharmonyofindividualwelfareswhenthegrowingsocialnatureofmanwastakenintodueaccount。
　　Withthestandardofhumanwell-beingwethenproceededtoassignvaluestotheproductiveandtheconsumptiveprocessesofwhichindustryconsists，examiningthemintheirbearinguponthewelfareoftheindividualsandthesocietiesengaginginthem。
　　Nowthismodeofprocedure，theonlypossible，ofcourseinvolvedanimmensepetitioprincipii。Theassumptionofanycloseagreementastothenatureofindividualwell-being，stillmoreofsocialwell-being，waslogicallyquiteunwarranted。
　　Economicvalueshave，indeed，anagreed，exactandmeasurablemeaning，derivedfromthenatureofthemonetarystandardinwhichtheyareexpressed。
　　Now，nosuchstandardofthehumanvalueofeconomicgoodsorprocessescanbeestablished。Yetwepretendedtosetupastandardofsocialvalueandtoapplyacalculusbaseduponit，claimingtoassessthehumanworthwhichunderliestheeconomiccostsandutilitiesthatenterintoeconomicvalues。
　　Hasthisprocedureprovedutterlyillicit？Iventuretothinknot。
　　Thoughattheoutsetourstandardwasonlyageneralphrasecommittingnobodytoanything，theprocessofconcreteapplication，intestingtheactualformsofworkandwealthwhichmakeupindustry，gavetoitacontinualincreaseofmeaning。Whilethewidestdivergencewouldbefoundintheformaldefinitionsofsuchtermsas"humanwelfare"or"socialprogress，"
　　alargeandgrowingbodyofagreementwouldemerge，whenasufficientnumberofpracticalissueshadbeenbrought-upforconsideration。Thetruthofourstandardandthevalidityofourcalculusareestablishedbythisworkingtest。Itisnotwonderfulthatthisshouldbeso，forthenatureandcircumstancesofmankindhavesomuchincommon，andtheprocessesofcivilisationaresopowerfullyassimilatingthem，astofurnishacontinuallyincreasingcommunityofexperienceandfeeling。Itis，ofcourse，thisfundof'commonsense'thatconstitutesthetruecriterion。Theassumptionthat'commonsense'isadequateforataskatoncesograveanddelicatemay，indeed，appearverydisputable。Grantingthathumanexperiencehassomuchincommon，canitbeclaimedthatthereasoningandthefeelingbasedonthisexperiencewillbesocongruousandsosoundastofurnishanyreliableguideforconduct？Surely'commonsense'initsbroadestpopularsensecangoaverylittlewaytowardssuchataskasahumaninterpretationofindustry。
　　Thereisnodoubtagooddealofforceinthisobjection。Ifwearetoinvoke'commonsense'forthepurposesofaninterpretationoravaluation，itmustevidentlybewhatistermedan'enlightenedcommonsense。'Andhereatoncewearebroughtintodangerlestenlightenmentshouldnotsupplywhatisrequired，viz。，aclearerormorefullyconsciousmodeofcommonsense，butadistortedorsophisticatedmode。Howrealthisdangeris，especiallyintheconductofpublicaffairs，mayberecognisedfromtheexcessivepartplayedbycertainhighlyconsciousandover-vocalinterestsofthecommercialandintellectualclassesintheartofgovernment。ThemostpressingtaskofCivilisationintheself-governingnationsofourtimeissotospreadtheareaofeffectiveenlightenmentastosubstitutethecommonsenseofthemanyforthatofthefew，andtomakeitprevail。
　　Itisthiscommonsense，moreorlessenlightened，thatthedisinterestedstatesmantakesforthesanctionofhisreadingofthegeneralwillwhichheendeavourstoexpressintheconductofpublicaffairs。Thatitisneveratanytimeacertain，aperfectlycoherent，aprecisecriterion，willbereadilyadmitted。Butthatitissufficientlyintelligible，sufficientlysound，isthenecessarypresuppositionofalldemocraticstatecraft。And，sofarasitisthusserviceable，itsuppliesavalidstandardandavalidcalculusofsocialvalues。Thoughthereadingofthisstandardandtheapplicationofthiscalculuswillalwaysbesubjecttosomebiasofpersonalidiosyncrasy，theweightofthegeneraljudgmentcommonlyprevailsinthemoreimportantprocessesofsocialvaluation。
　　But，inpinningourfaithtoenlightenedcommonsenseforaninterpretationorvaluationofindustry，wemustnotallowourselvestobedeceivedastotheamountof'scientificaccuracy'whichattendssuchaprocedure。
　　Whilethisstandardcanandmustsupplytherulesandmeasurementswhichweapplyintheprocessesofdetailedanalysisandcomparisonbywhichweestimatethecostsandutilitiesandthenethumanvaluesofthevariousindustrialactivitiesandproducts，wemustnotputintothisstandardastabilityitdoesnotpossess，orintothequantitativemethodsitusesanauthorityforsocialconductwhichtheyareinherentlydisqualifiedfromyielding。
　　§；2。ThescienceandartofsoCietyhavesufferedsomuchfromwantofexactandmeasuredinformationthatitisonlyrightandnaturalforimmenseimportancetobeattachedtothecollectionofmassesoforderedandmeasuredsocialfacts。Ifasufficientnumberoftrainedinvestigatorscouldbesettoworktogather，measure，siftandtabulate，thevariousordersofcrudefactrelatingtotheemployment，wages，housing，expenditure，health，thrift，education，andotherconcreteconditionsofthepoorergradesoftownandcountrydwellers，itseemsasifanumberofaccurateandvalidgeneralisationswouldemergebyclearinductionuponwhichcouldbeconstructedanabsolutelyscientifictreatmentofpoverty。Or，again，totakeanarrowerandmoredistinctivelyeconomicissue，thatoftheshorterworkingday。Ifacarefulseriesofobservationsandexperimentscouldbemadeinanumberofrepresentativebusinesses，astotheeffectuponthesize，costandqualityofoutputproducedbygivenreductionsinthehoursoflabouramongvariousclassesofworkers，itmightappearasifanaccuratelygradedsocialeconomyoftheworkingdaycouldbeattainedbycalculations。
　　Butthoughstatesmen，philanthropistsandreformersaremoreandmoreinfluencedintheirjudgmentsandpoliciesbythesemeasuredfacts，nosafemechanicalrulesfortheguidanceoftheirconductinanysocialproblemcanbebaseduponthem。Thefactsandfigureswhichappearsohardandsoreliableareoftenverysoftandineffectivetoolsforthesocialpractitioner。
　　Thereareseveraldefectsinthemregardedasinstrumentsofsocialprogress。
　　Itishardlyeverpossibletoprovecausationbymeansofthem。Youmayobtainthemostexactstatisticsofhousingconditionsandofdeath-ratesforthepopulationofagroupoftowns，butyoucannotprovetowhatextent'backtoback'housesaffectinfantmortality。Nofiguresprofessingtomeasurethecausalconnectionbetweendrinkandcrimeorinsanity，incomeandbirth-rate，oranyothertwosocialphenomena，possessthedegreeofvaliditytheyclaim。Why？Becauseyoucanneverisolatethefactorscompletelyinanyorganicorsocialproblem，andyoucanneverknowhowfaryouhavefailedtoisolatethem。Youmay，indeed，byvaryingtheconditionsofyourexperimentsorobservationssufficiently，obtainpracticalproofoforganiccausation，butyoucanseldomexpressthiscausationintermsofanyquantitativeaccuracy。Stillmoreisthistrueofpsychologicalandsocialproblems。
　　Apurelydescriptivescienceofsocietymayattainaconsiderabledegreeofquantitativeaccuracy，butthelawsexpressingthecausalrelationsofthesemeasuredfactswillalwayslackthecertaintyofoperationandthemeasurabilityofactionbelongingtothelawsofchemistryandphysics。
　　Nowthechieffactswithwhichthestatesmanandthesocialreformerareconcernedinformingjudgmentsandpoliciesaretheselawsofcausalrelation，andnotthecrudemeasuredfactsthatconstitutetherawmaterialofstatistics。Thiscomparativeinexactitudeorlackofrigidityinthelawsofsocialscienceconstitutesthe。firstdifficultyinapplyingthesciencetotheartofsocialconductwiththesameamountofconfidencewithwhichthelawsofphysicsandchemistryareappliedtothemechanicalarts。Butanotherdifficultyquiteasgraveasthiswantofrigidityinsocialfactsistheinstabilityofthestandard。Inallprocessesofphysicalmeasurementitiscustomarytomakeallowancesforerrorsduetowhatiscalled'thepersonalequation，'abnormalitiesofobservationintheexperimenter。
　　Butthestandardofhumanvaluation，theenlightenedcommonsenseofacommunity，appliedtointerpretsocialphenomenaintermsof'utility'
　　or'welfare，'willevidentlybesubjecttomuchwidervariations，andtheinterpretationofthisstandardbystatesmen，orotherindividualagentsofsociety，willbesubjectagaintowideerrorsofpersonalbias。
　　Illustratingfromtheeconomicspherewhichisourconcern，thatspecialisationofindustriallifewhichhasmadethreequartersofourpopulationtown-dwellersandismakingournationcontinuallymoredependentuponforeignsuppliesoffood，willhaveaverydifferentvaluesetonitbythenarrowernationalismwhichbelievestheinterestsandambitionsofnationstobeirreconcilable，andbythewiderpoliticaloutlookwhichconceivestheeconomicinterdependenceofnationsasinitselfdesirableandasthebestguaranteeofnationalsecurity。Oragain，adifferenceofvieworsentimentregardingtherelativeworthofthepersonalqualitiesofenterpriseandself-relianceontheonehand，ofploddingindustryandsocialityupontheother，mustmateriallyaffectthevaluesgiventosuchphenomenaasemigration，publicprovisionagainstunemployment，copartnership，taxationofhighincomesorinheritances。
　　Indeeditisquitemanifestthatwitheverydifferenceoftherangeofsympathyandimaginationthemeaningwhichenlightenedcommonsensewillgivetosocialwelfare，andtoeveryfactsubmittedtothistest，willvary。
　　Theseconsiderationsmayseematfirstsighttoinvalidatetheentirepurposeofthisbook，theendeavourtoapplyasocialcalculusforthevaluationofindustry。Solongasthecostandutilityofeconomicmaterialandprocessisexpressedintermsofmoney，youhaveafixedstandardcapableofyieldingexactvaluations。Endeavourtoresolvethiscostandutilityintotermsofhumanwelfareordesirability，youappeartohaveadoptedafluctuatingstandardthatcangivenoserviceableinformation。
　　§；3。Thetruth，ofcourse，isthatascientificvaluationofanythingcanonlyproceedbywayofquantitativeanalysis。Astandardofvaluationwhichshouldregardqualitativedifferencesasultimatewouldnotbescientificatall。Itmightbeaestheticorhygienicorethical，accordingtothenatureofthequalitativedifferencesinvolved。Astrictlyscientificvaluationofwealth，orofcostorofutility，oroflifeitself，mustapplyasinglestandardofmeasurementtoallthevariousobjectsitseekstovalue，i。e。，itmustreduceallthedifferentobjectstotermsofthiscommondenominator。
　　Itcanmeasureandvalueallformsofpurchasablegoodsorservices，howevervariousinnature，throughthemarketprocesseswhichreducethemtoasinglemonetaryequivalent。Itcanmeasureandvaluelabour-costsofdifferentsorts，eitherbyamonetarystandardorbysomemeasureoffatigueorvitalexpenditure。Itcanmeasuretheutilityofvarioussortsoffoodoroffuel，bycomparingthequantitiesofworking-poweroroutputwhichuponanaveragetheyyield。Itcanascertainthevitalvaluesofdifferenttownsandoccupations，incomes，races，intermsoflongevity，fertility，susceptibilitytodiseases，etc。
　　Thismethod，essentialtoscientificanalysis，restsonanassumptionthat£；1worthofbadbooksisofthesamevalueas£；1worthofgoodbooks。Thisassumptionistrueforthepurposetowhichitisapplied，thatofamarketvaluation。Itassumesthatayear'slifeofanimbecileoraloaferisworththesameasayear'slifeofasaintoragenius，andsoitisforthepurposeofvitalstatistics。
　　Thisisofcourseuniversallyadmitted。Scienceproceedsbyabstraction:
　　itdoesnotpretendtodescribeorexplaintheindividualityorparticularqualitiesofindividualcases，buttodiscovercommonattributesofstructureorcompositionorbehaviouramongnumbersofcases，andtoexplainthemintermsofthesecommoncharacters。
　　Sofar，then，astheso-calledvalueofanything，oranyhappening，consistsinitsuniquenessoridiosyncrasy，thisvaluenecessarilyevadesscientificanalysis。Itisonlythecommonproperties，theregularities，theconformities，thatcountforscientificvaluation。Nay，more。Sofarassciencetakesaccountofindividualqualities，itisinthecapacityofeccentricities，i。e。，itmeasurestheamountoftheirvariationfromtheaverageornormal。Itcannotentertainthenotionthatthereisanysortofdifferencewhichisinherentlyimmeasurable，i。e。，thatthereisdifferenceinkindaswellasindegree。1
　　§；4。Ascientificanalysistreatsalldifferencesasdifferencesofdegree。So-calleddifferenceofqualityorkinditeitherignores，oritseekstoreducethemtoandexpressthemindifferencesofquantity。
　　Thisendeavourtoreducequalitativetoquantitativedifferenceisthegreatstumbling-blockinallorganicscience，butparticularlyinthedepartmentsofpsychologyandsociology。Thedifficultyisbestillustratedintherecentextensionofquantitativeanalysisintoeconomicsbythemethodofmarginalpreferences。Notcontentwiththeassumptionthattheparticularcosts，consumablequalities，etc。，ofanytwoarticlessellingfor£；1
　　eachmaybedisregarded，andthesinglepropertyoftheirmarketvalueabstractedforconsideration，themathematicaleconomistsnowinsistthatthestudyofmarginalpreferencesdisclosesimportantlawsofthepsychologyofindividualsandsocieties。
　　Thewholeprocessofexpenditureofincomeappearstoberepletewithinstancesofthecapacityofthehumanmindtomeasureandapplyaquantitativecomparisontothingswhichseemtobedifferentinkind。ItmightseemasifmydesiretohelpthestarvingpopulationofIndiainafamine，andmydesiretoattendaQueen'sHallconcertthiseveningwerefeelings，notmerelyofdifferentintensity，butofsuchwidelydifferentnaturethattheycouldnotbeaccuratelymeasuredagainsteachother。Andyetthismiracleissaidtobeactuallyperformed，whenIdecideupondueconsiderationtodividethe7s6dinmypursesoastogive5stotheFamineFundandtobuya2s6dticketfortheconcert，insteadofthemoreexpensiveticketIshouldhaveboughthadInotbeenluredtotheFaminemeeting。Imighthavegiventhewhole7s6dtotheFamineFund，andmissedtheconcert。
　　WhydidInot？Imusthaveperformedtheverydelicatespiritualoperationofreducingmyhumanitarianfeelingtocommontermswithmyloveofmusic，andtohavestruckabalancewhichcanonlymeanthatIconsidertheadditionalsatisfactionIwouldhavegotfromgivinganother2s6dtotheFamineFundtobealittlelessthanthesatisfactionIwouldgetfromtheconcert。
　　Butthis，ofcourse，isasinglecrudeinstanceofafarmoreelaborateprocessofcomparisonwhichunderliesthewholeexpenditureofmyincome。
　　Aftertheroutineexpenditureuponnecessariesandcomforts，whichmaybesaidtorepresentmyhabitualstandardofconsumption，hasbeendefrayed，therearevariousattractiveusestowhicheveryothersovereignandshillingmaybeput。Allsortsofdifferentappealsofpleasure，duty，pride，presstheirclaimsthroughathousanddifferentchannels。InordertoapportionmyexpenditureasIdo，Imustbeconceivedasreducingalltheseclaimstosomecommonstandardofdesirability，anddecidinghowmuchtolayoutonthis，howmuchonthat。Thatphysicalsatisfactionscanbecomparedwithoneanother，bytheapplicationofsomestandardofpleasuremayappearintelligibleenough。Butthatasenseofmoraldutycanbebroughtintodirectcomparisonwithaphysicalpleasure，orthatvariousdutiescanbecomparedinsizeorstrengthwithoneanother，wouldseemalmostimpossible。
　　Yetthisisdoneincessantlyandquickly，ifnoteasily。Evenwhenitisclaimedthatsomedutiesaresoparamountthatagoodmanwillrefuseto'weigh'anyotherclaimagainstthem，assigningthemavaluewhich，hesays，is'infinite，'themarginaleconomistwillnotadmittheclaimtoexemption。'Thisonlymeansthattohimthetotaldifferencebetweenthecommandofthingsinthecircleofexchangethathealreadyenjoys，andanindefinite，orunlimitedcommandofthem，doesnotweighasheavyinhismindasthedishonourorthediscomfortofthespecificthingheisrequiredtodo。Itdoesnotmeanthathisobjectionis"infinite。"itmerelymeansthatitislargerthanhisestimateofallthesatisfactionthathecouldderivefromunlimitedcommandofarticlesinthecircleofexchange，andthisisastrictly，perhapsnarrowly，limitedquantity。'2
　　Butthoughtherearemenwhosehonourissoincorruptibleasalwaysto'outweigh'otherconsiderations，theethicsofbriberymakeitclearthataweakersenseofhonourcanbemeasuredagainstmaterialsatisfaction，andthatisallthatseemsnecessarytosupporttheviewthatsuchqualitativedistinctionscan'bereducedtoquestionsofquantity。'Norisitmerelyamatterofthemonetaryvaluationthroughexpenditureofincomes。Preciselythesameproblemarisesinthedisposalofone'stimeorenergy。Howmuchshallbegiventotheperformanceofthisorthatpersonalorfamilyduty，torecreation，ortostudy？Inwhatproportionsshallwecombinetheseactivities？Ifacurtailmentofmoneyoroftimeisnecessary，howmuchshallbetakenfromthis，howmuchfromthatemployment？
　　Butitisneedlesstomultiplyexamples。Whenanyscientificvaluationistaken，allqualitiesareabstractedandquantitiesonlyarecomparedandestimated。Asineconomics，soinethics。Themoralstruggletoresistatemptationisnearlyalwayssetinscientificpsychologyasamechanicalproblem，forwhentheethicistprofessestointroducesomeimponderable'freedomofthewill'hehastothrowoverboardhisscience。A'conflictofduties，'asMr。Wicksteedrecognises，impliesthat'dutyitselfisaquantitativeconception。'3
　　§；5。Similarlywiththescientificpoliticianwhoseekstomakefulluseofquantitativeanalysis。Hetooiscompelledtovisualiseandrepresentthepsychologicaloperationthroughwhichapoliticaljudgmentisreachedasamechanicalone，conceivedintermsofsize，weight，strainorintensity。InhisHumanNatureinPoliticsMr。GrahamWallasgivesaveryinterestingexampleofthescientificvaluationofaprocessofpoliticalthinking，viz。，theprocessbywhichMr。Gladstone，intheautumnandwinterof1885-6，mustbeconceivedtohavearrivedathisHomeRulepolicy，'thinkingincessantlyaboutthematter'and'preparingmyselfbystudyandreflection。'
　　Afterdescribing，withtheaidofLordMorley'sLife，thevariousstudiesandcoursesofreflectionemployed，the'calculations'ofthestateoffeelinginEnglandandIreland，theexaminationofvarioustypesoffederation，asfoundinpastandcurrenthistory，thestatisticalreportsuponfinance，lawandotherconcreteissues，considerationsofthetimeandopportunity，theplayoftheemotionalvaluations，'theirresistibleattractionforhimofallthegrandandexternalcommonplacesoflibertyandself-government，'
　　Mr。Wallasseestheresultsofallthisacquisitionofknowledgeandreflectiongatheringandbeingcoordinatedintoaprobleminwhichthefactorsarequantitiesandthesolution'aquantitativesolution，''adelicateadjustmentbetweenmanyvaryingforces。'4'AlargepartofthisworkofcomplexcoordinationwasapparentlyinMr。Gladstone'scaseunconscious，'anoperationhedeclares，'ratherofartthanofscience。'Now，since'thehistoryofhumanprogressconsistsinthegradualandpartialsubstitutionofscienceforart，'itisdesirabletobringoutwithclearerconsciousness，andfortifywithgreateraccuracyofknowledge，theprocessesofpoliticalthinking。'Quantitativemethodmustspreadinpoliticsandmusttransformthevocabularyandtheassociationsofthatmentalworldintowhichtheyoungpoliticianenters。
　　Fortunately，suchachangeseemsatleasttobebeginning。Everyyearlargerandmoreexactcollectionsofdetachedpoliticalfactsarebeingaccumulated；
　　andcollectionsofdetachedfacts，iftheyaretobeusedatallinpoliticalreasoning，mustbeusedquantitatively。'5Sincetheproblemsofpoliticalconductarethusessentiallyquantitative，theycan，intheoryatanyrate，be'solved'byscience。'ThefinaldecisionswhichwillbetakeneitherbytheCommons——orbyParliamentinquestionsofadministrativepolicyandelectoralmachinerymustthereforeinvolvethebalancingofalltheseandmanymoreconsiderationsbyanessentiallyquantitativeprocess。'6
　　§；6。Nowhowfarisittruethatanypoliticalproblemisessentiallyquantitativeandsolublebyaquantitativeprocess？itisofcoursetobeadmittedatoncethatthescienceofstatisticswillfeedastatesman'smindwithavarietyoforderedandmeasuredfacts。Butwillthismind，workingeitherscientificallyorartistically，consciouslyorsubconsciously，gothroughadistinctivelymechanicalprocessofbalancingandmeasuringandregisteraquantitativejudgment？Ascientificsettingoftheprocessmustindeedsopresentit。But，then，ascientificsettingofanyprocesswhatsoeversetsitthusinpurelyquantitativeform。Therealissueishowfarthisscientificsettingiscompetenttointerpretandexplainthefacts，andtodeliverajudgmentwhichshallbeauthoritativefortheconductofanindividualorasociety。
　　Inordertotestthescientificclaimletustakewhatseemstobeaverydifferentsortofactionfromthatofthepoliticianorthebusinessman，thatoftheartist。Followthemindofthepainterasheplieshisart。Eachofhisoperationstooinvolvesconsiderationsofquantityandmeasurement，scopeandfocus，adjustment，coordination，balance，theapplicationofdefiniteblendsofcolours:optics，anatomy，andothersciencesfeedhismindwithexactknowledge。Adelicateadjustmentofquantitiesinlineandcolourisinvolvedineverypartofhisartisticoperations。Butdoestheoperationconsistofthesequantitativearrangementsandcanitbeunderstoodor'appreciated'byanalysingthem？Evidentlynot。Whynot？
　　Becauseinsuchananalysisorexplanationtheessentiallyqualitativeorcreativeactionoftheartist，whichgivesunityandartisticvaluetothewholeoperation，escapesnotice。Sciencekillsinordertodissect。
　　Sointhecaseofeveryotherart。Apoeminvolvescertainorderedarrangementsofsoundwhichmaybeexpressedinquantitativetermsofrhythmandprosody。
　　Butanyattemptto'resolve'itintotheseformslosesitsspirit，itsunity，itsvalueasapoem。StudentsofthedramahavesometimesexplainedorinterpretedatragedyofSophoclesorShakespeareintermsofthegradationofintensityofthevariousemotionsinvolved，thelengthofpausesofsuspense，thebalancing，reliefandinterlacingoftheplotsorepisodes，therelativestrengthorheightoftheclimaxesandsubclimaxes，thegrowingrapidityofmovementtowardsthecatastrophe。Butcanitbepretendedthatthis'mechanics'ofthedramacanfurnishastandardofappreciation，orsupplylawsaccordingtowhicha'good'dramamaybeconstructedorappreciated？
　　No。Anartisticoperationisessentiallyorganic，creativeandqualitative。
　　Noneofthesecharacterscanreallybereducedtoquantity。Sciencebyquantitativeanalysiscanonlydealwiththeskeletonnotwiththelifethatinformsit。
　　Ithinkthiseternalinabilityofscienceadequatelytointerpretvalue，orexplainaworkofart，willbegenerallyadmitted。Itisduetothefactthatthisworkanditsvalueareinherentlyincapableofbeingreducedtoquantities。Thedifferencebetweenonepictureandanother，onepoemandanotherisadifferenceofquality。Itisofcoursetruethatbyamerelylinguisticnecessityweoftenspeakofapictureasbeing'much'
　　finerthananother，andcomparethe'greatness'ofonepoetwiththatofanother。Butweareawareallthetimethatwearereallycomparingunlikes，dealingwithqualitativedifferences。Onnoothersuppositionindeedcanweunderstandthevaluationsetuponaworkofgeniusascomparedwithoneoftalent。
　　"Ohthelittlemore，howmuchitis，Andthelittlelesswhatworldsaway。"
　　Whatthendoeconomistsmeanwhentheyinsistthatqualitativedifferences，thedesiresandsatisfactionswhichhavesuchwidelydiverseoriginsandnatures，canbeweighedandmeasuredagainstoneanother，andthatproblemsofindustryareessentiallyandultimatelyquantitative？Ourexaminationofartisticactivitieshasshownthatineachcasequantitiesareinvolved，butthatinnocasedoquantitiesconstitutetheproblemofaction。Buthow，itmaybesaid，doyoudisposeoftheadmittedfactsthatbymeansofmonetaryvaluationsthesediversedesiresandsatisfactionsarereducedtoacommonstandard，arecompared，andthatacourseofconductisapparentlybaseduponthesequantitativeconsiderations？
　　Theansweristhatthisisanentirelyillusoryaccountofthepsychicalprocessbywhichamanlaysouthismoney，orhistime，orhisenergy。
　　Hedoesnottaketheseveralusestowhichhemightapplythemeansathisdisposal，reducethem，inthoughtorinfeeling，tosomecommonterm，andsomeasuretheamounthewillexpenduponeachobjectthatthe'marginal'
　　or'final'portionofeachuseshallbeexactlyequalintheutilityityields。The'marginalist'7iscorrectinsayingthattheutilityimputedtothelastsovereignIexpendonbreadduringtheyearmustbeconsideredtobeneithergreaternorlessthanthatimputedtothelastsovereign'sworthoftobacco，orbooks，holidayorcharitablesubscriptions。InpreciselythesamesenseitistruethatthelastbrushfulofgreenandbrownandTurkeyredexpendedonapicturehasthesameart-valuetothepainter。
　　Perhapstheissuecanbemadeclearerbyreferencetoanartusuallyconsideredless'fine'andmorecloselyaffectedbyquantitativeconsiderationsthanpainting，theculinaryart。Thecompositionofadishishereexpressedinproportionsofitsvariousingredients，somuchflour，somanyouncesofraisins，somanyeggs，somuchsugar，etc。Themarginalistwoulddwelluponthecrucialfactthatthelastpennyworthoftheflour，raisins，eggsandsugar，takenseverally，hadanequalvalueforthepudding，andthatthesemarginalorfinalincrementswereinsomewaycausaldeterminantsofthecompositionofthepudding，becauseinusingtheingredientsthecooktookcaretousejustsomuchofeach，andneithermorenorless。
　　Anditisquitetruethatthedelicacyoftheculinaryartwillinfactbedisplayedindecidingwhethertoputinanotherhandfulofraisins，anotheregg，oraspoonfulmoresugar。But，fromthestandpointoftryingtoappreciatethevirtueorworthofthedishasaculinarycreation，itcannotbeadmittedthatanyspecialimportanceorcausaldeterminationattachestothelastincrementsoftheseveralingredients。Foritisevidentthatthe'howmuch'andthereforethe'margin'ofeachingredientisitselfdeterminedbytheconceptionofthetoutensembleinthemindofthecreatororinventor。
　　Andthisevidentlyappliestoeveryformofcompositionembodyingsomeunityofdesignorpurpose，whetherthetreatmentofasubjectinpictorialordramaticart，themakingofanewdish，theconstructionofamachine，thearrangementofabusiness，orthelayingoutofagardenorafortune。
　　Sofarasaneconomicaluseismadeofmaterialsormeansofanykindfortheattainmentofanyendthismarginalequivalenceisimplied。Thescientificanalysisofanycompositearrangement，mechanical，organic，conscious，involvesthismarginalassumption。Itisanaxiomofall'economy'whatsoever。
　　Butitexplainsnothing。Nay，indealingwithanyorganicbeingonanyplaneofaction，itdarkenscounsel。Itdoessoinseveralways。Firstbyassumingorassertingthatthehumanmindcananddoesgetridofqualitativedifferencesbyreferringthemtoaquantitativestandard:secondly，byassumingorassertingthatorganicunitycanbebrokenupintoitsconstituentpartsandexplainedintermsofthesemeasuredparts；thirdly，byassumingorassertingauniformityofnaturewhichconflictswiththe'novelties'
　　inwhichcreativeenergyexpressesitself。Allthesefallaciesarejustasmuchinvolvedintheattempttoexplaintheexpenditureofanincomeasapurelyquantitativeproblem，asintheattempttoexplaintheart-valueofapictureintermsoftherespectivequantitiesoflineandcolour。
　　Ineachcasetherootfallacyisthesame，theillicitsubstitutionoftheabstract'quantity'fortheactualstuff，whichisalwaysqualitativeandisneveridenticalinanytwocases，oratanytwotimes。
　　§；7。Inlayingoutmyincome，Idonotinfactcompareallmyseveralneedsortastes，andhavingassignedsomuchutilityordesirabilitytoeach，planmyexpendituresoastospendoneachjustasmuchasitisworth，equalisingallexpenditureatthemarginssoastomaximisetheaggregate。EvenBenjaminFranklinorSamuelSmileswouldnotreallydothis，thoughtheymightthinktheydid，andperhapsdrawupschedulestoenforcethenotion。SofarasIactlikeafree，rationalbeing，notacreatureofblindcustomorroutine，Iemployallmypersonalresourcesofknowledge，taste，affection，energy，time，andcommandofmaterialresources，intryingtorealisemyidealofagoodordesirablelife。Intheexecutionofthisdesign，howeveritberegarded，self-realisationorcareer，Iutilisemyvariousresourcesinamannerstrictlyanalogoustothatinwhichtheartistemploysthematerialsandinstrumentsofhisart。UponthecanvasoftimeIpaintmyself，usingallthemeansatmydisposaltorealisemyideal。Amongthesemeansismymoneyincome。Itsexpendituregoesintotheexecutionofmydesign。SofarasIamjustifiedinseparatingmyexpenditureofmoneyfromtheexpenditureofmytimeandotherresources，andinregardingthedesignasan'economicpicture，'Icanreadilyperceivethattheunityofmyartisticpurposeinvolvesanddeterminestheexpenditureofmyincomeindefiniteproportionsuponthevariousobjectswhose'consumption'contributestothedesign。Buttheseproportionsarenotdeterminedbyacalculationoftheseparatevaluesofthevariousitems。For，strictlyspeaking，theyhavenoseparatevalue，anymorethanhavethelinesorcoloursinapicture。
　　Onlybyconsiderationofwhatwemaytermindifferentlytheartisticororganicpurposeofthewholecanatrueappreciationorvaluationbeattained。
　　Thefullabsurdityofsuggestingthatanythingislearned，eitherinthewayofvaluationorofguidance，bythequantitativeanalysis，orthewonderfuldiscoveryofequivalenceofvalueatthemargins，willnowbeapparent。
　　Thismathematicalanalysiscandonomoretowardsexplainingtheexpenditureofincomethanexplainingtheexpenditureofpaint。Ofcourse，theexpenditureatthemarginsappearstoproduceanequalutility:thattruthisobviouslycontainedintheverylogicofthequantitativeanalysis。Butthatquantitativeanalysis，necessarilyignoring，asitdoes，thequalitativecharacterwhichtheorganicunityofthewholeconfersuponitsparts，failstoperformthepsychologicalinterpretationclaimedforit。
　　Sofarasitistruethatthelastsovereignofmyexpenditureinbreadequalsinutilitythelastsovereignofmyexpenditureinbooks，thatfactproceedsnotfromacomparison，consciousorunconscious，oftheseseparateitemsatthismargin，butfromthepartsassignedrespectivelytobreadandbooksintheorganicplanofmylife。Quantitativeanalysis，inherentlyincapableofcomprehendingqualitativeunityorqualitativedifferences，canonlypretendtoreducethelattertoquantitativedifferences。Whatitactuallydoesistoignorealiketheunityofthewholeandthequalitativenessoftheparts。
　　Noristhisall。Itisnoteventruethatanapplicationofquantitativeanalysisdoesfindexactequivalenceofvaluesatthemargins。Takingaconcreteinstance，itisnottruethatthelastsovereignofmyexpenditureinbooksequals，oreventendsexactlytoequal，inutility，thatofmylastsovereign'sexpenditureonbread。Thiswouldbethecaseifthefuturetendedpreciselytorepeatthepast。Inthateventmyexperienceoftheeconomyoflastyear'sexpenditurewouldprogressivelycorrectanyerrors，andIshouldcometoemploymyresourceswithgreatereconomyorexactitudetotheattainmentofthesamedesign。ButIamnotthesamethisyearaslast，myenvironmentisnotthesame，myresourcesarenotthesame，andtheplanoflifeImakewillnotbethesame。ThisawkwardfactorofNovelty，involvedinorganicnature，belongstoeverycreativeart，beingindeedoftheveryessencealikeofartandofcreation，andimpairstoanincalculableextentthequantitativecalculusanditsmarginalinterpretation。Anadditionof£；100tomyincomethisyearcannotbelaidoutbycalculationsoastoincreaseeachsortofexpendituretoanextentwhichwillsecuremarginalequivalenceofutility。Thatistosay，Icannottellwhatwillbethebestemploymentofmylargerincome，untilIhavetried。Thelargerincomewillproducenowhereastrictlyproportionateincreaseofexpenditureonanumberofseveralobjects。Itwouldshiftmyeconomicplanoflife，makinganewkindoflife，andinvolvingallsortsofchangesintheitems，whichfollowasconsequencesfromthechangedorganicplan。ThisnewplanIcannotaccuratelycalculateorforecast。ItwillworkitselfoutasI
　　proceed。Itsexecutioninvolvesnodoubtelementsofforethoughtandevencalculation，butthecentralandessentialchangewillproceedfromsomenoveltyofconception，somequalitativechangeofpurpose。Inaword，itisthecreativepowerofman，theartist，inspiration，faithandthatiseveratwork，andtheartfacultiesofadventurewillleadhimtoexperimentanewwithhisresources。Asamangainsmoreintelligence，undergoessomenewcriticalexperienceofhisouterorhisinnerlife，encounterssomenewpersonalinfluence，hisentiremodeoflivingwillchange，andinnumerablealterationsintheoutlayofhisincomewilltakeplace。Somearticlesofearlierexpenditurewilldisappear，newarticleswilltaketheirplace，andtherespectiveimportanceofmanyarticlesremainingintheexpenditurewillbeshifted。Achangeofresidencefromcountrytotown，a'conversion，'
　　religiousordietetic，atransferfromanoutdoormanualtoanindoorsedentaryemployment，marriage，oranyothercriticalevent，mustbringaboutsomesuchlargecomplexorganicalteration。Acomparisonoftheitemsofexpenditurebeforeandafterwillshedinterestinglightupontheresultsofthepsycho-economicchangeofwhichtheyaffordaquantitativeregister，butitcannotberegardedasanexplanationofthechangeofheartorofoutlookwhichisthedeterminantactfromwhichtheseshiftsofvaluesflow。
　　§；8。Thelifeofasocietypresentsthissameproblemonalargerscale。Ontheplaneofeconomicconductwhichdirectlyconcernsus，everyoneoftheinnumerableandincessantalterationsinmethodsofproductionandconsumptionranksasanorganicnovelty，and，insofarasitisnovel，necessarilybafflesquantitativeanalysisandscientificprediction。Itwould，ofcourse，beincorrect，eitherinthecaseofanindividualorofasociety，torepresentanychangeasentirelynovel。Organicgrowthitselfislargelyaquantitativeconception:thechangesareproportionateinsizetoformerchanges，andareindefinitequantitativerelationstooneanother。Thedoctrineofcontinuitythusenablesustogofarincalculatingthecharacteroffuturechanges。Sofarthescientificinterpretationofuniformityofnaturecarriesus。Butquantitativegrowth，oranyothersetofquantitativechanges，howevercalculable，alwayscarriessomequalitativeandessentiallyincalculableelementsofchange。Thesearewhatwesignifybynovelty。Itistheiroccurrenceinevolutionthatbafflesthecleanlogicofthegeologist，stillmoreofthebiologist，andfarmoreofthepsychologist。Whethertheyshowthemselvesas'faults'or'sports'or'mutations，'
　　theyrepresentthedisabilityofpastexperiencetofurnish'laws'fortheircalculation，andthepracticalimportancewhichattachestotheseincalculableorqualitativechangesisveryconsiderable。Thoughtheymaybecomparativelyinfrequentandmayappearonfirstinspectionalmostnegligiblebreaksintheotherwisecalculablecontinuityoftheevolutionaryprocess，theirdeterminantimportanceisreceivingevergreaterrecognition。Inhumanconduct，individualorsocial，thesemutationsseemtoplayalargerpart，chieflybyreasonoftheoperationoftheso-called'freedom'ofthehumanwill。Forwhateverphilosophicviewbeheldregardingthedeterminationoftheactsofthewill，itsoperationscattersmutationsthicklyovertherealmofhumanconduct。Henceitremainstruethatsciencecandosomuchlessinexplainingandpredictinghumanhistorythaninanyotherdepartmentofnature。Nodoubthere，aselsewhere，sciencehopestoapplyquantitativeanalysisofsuchincreasingaccuracyastoenableittodetermineandpredictalargernumberofsuchmutations。Sincetheredoubtlessexistquantitativeconditionsforeveryqualitativechange，itmayseemtheoreticallypossibleforsciencesomedaytocatchupwith'theartofcreation。'Thissupposition，however，assumesthatthenumberofpermutationsandcombinationsin'nature'islimited，andthat，therefore，insomeextensiverunhistorydoesrepeatitself。Thefinalvictoryofsciencethusseemstodependupontheadoptionofacyclicalviewofthehistoryoftheuniverse。But，forallpresentpracticalpurposesofsocialprocesses，scienceissofarremovedfromthisperfectionthattheeconomistandthesociologistarecontinuallycompelledtoallowforunpredictablechangesofsuchfrequencyandofsuchdeterminantimportancethattheirclaimtodirect'thegeneralwill'andtomouldtheconsciouspolicyofasocietymustbeverymodestlyexpressed。
　　Suchlawsofcausationastheyderivefrompastobservationandexperimentmustusuallybeconceivedaslawsoftendencies，seldomendowedwithanyrigorousauthorityofclosedetermination，andstillmoreseldomwithaccuracyofquantitativeprediction。
　　§；9。Itissometimessupposedthatthishamperingeffectoftheuniqueness，irregularity，noveltyandfreedomoftheindividualandsocialorganismscanbegotridofbyaprocessofmultiplicationinwhichparticulareccentricitieswillcancel。Toeconomists，inparticular，thereisastrongtemptationtofallbackupontheaverageman，inthebeliefthatscientificdeterminismjustifiesitselfthroughaverages。Nowtheradicaldefectofmeasurementbyaverages，asamodeofsocialvaluation，hasalreadybeendisclosed。Theascertainedfactthattheaveragemoneyincome，oreventheaveragerealincome，oftheBritishpeoplemayhaverisen10%withinthelastdecade，disablesitself，bytheveryprocessofaveraging，frominformingusastotheeffectofthisincreaseofnationalwealthuponnationalwelfare。Forthiseffectdependsuponthedistributionoftheincrease，andtheprocessofaveragingconsistsinignoringthisvitalfactofdistribution。
　　Thisdefectofaveragesforpurposesofinterpretation，ofcourse，involvesaconsequentdefectforpurposesofguidanceineconomicconduct。
　　Thecalculationthatagivencourseofnationalconduct，e。g。，theexpenditureofsomanymillionsuponimprovedtransport，willraisethenationaloraverageincomebysomuch，losesalltheworthofitssuperficialexactitudeunlessweknowhowmuchoftheincreaseisgoingtothelandlordinrisingrent，howmuchtothelabourerinrisingwages。
　　This，ofcourse，involvesnorepudiationofthetrueutilityofaverages，butonlyofthespuriousaccuracywhichtheirformssuggest。TheexactstatementthattheaverageincomeofanEnglishfamilyhasrisen10%inthelastdecadedoesimplyareasonableprobabilitythatanincreaseoftotalnationalwelfarehastakenplace。8Butitgivesnoinformationastotheamountofthatincrease，andisconsistentwiththefactthattheremayhavebeenadecrease，owingtoaworseningofthedistributionofthegrowingincome，orofthelabourandothercostsinvolvedinitsproduction。
　　§；10。Sofaruponthesuppositionthatwelfareisaquantity。Itwilloccurtostatisticiansthattheinformationtobegotfromaveragesofincomemaybejustifiedbynicerdiscrimination。If，inadditiontolearningthattheaverageincomeofallfamilieshasrisen10%，wediscoveredthedifferentpercentageswhichhadbeenaddedtorent，interest，profitsandwages，or，betterstill，theratioofincreaseforthedifferentincomelevels，weshouldsurelythen，bythisextendeduseofaverages，getnearertowardsaquantitativeestimateoftheincreaseofwelfarethathadbeenachieved!
　　Thismustcertainlybeadmitted。Bythenicerandmorecomplexapplicationofthesemeasures，weshouldapproachamoreaccurateaccountofwelfare，sofarasitisultimatelyexpressibleintermsofquantity。Ifwediscoveredthataproposedcourseofnationalpolicywouldnotonlyincreasetheaverageincomeby10%butwouldincreasethelowerincomesofthepopulationinahigherratio，weshouldseemtohavegotascientificwarrantforthepolicy。Buteventhisdegreeofscientificauthoritywouldbepurchasedtosomeextentbyanartificialsimplificationoftheactualproblemofsocial-economy。Tothestatesmannoproblemofactualfinanceiscapableofbeingsetinsuchdistinctivelyquantitativeterms。NotmerelycannotanearthlyChancelloroftheExchequerknowhowmuchcanbeaddedtotheincomesoftheseveralclassesbytheexpenditureofsomanymillionsupontransport，oruponanyothersingleservice，but，ifhecould，hewouldnotbemuchnearertothestandardherequires。Therearemanydifferentwaysofraisingtherevenueinquestionandaninfinitenumberofcombinationsoftheseways。Thesameholdsofexpenditure。Totakethesimplestcase；
　　thetenmillionsthatheraisesmaybeappliedtotransport，ortoeducation，ortodefence，allthesumoranyproportion，toeach。Eachexpenditureclaimstobebeneficial，anoutlayforpublicwelfare。Butthebenefitintheseveraloutlaysisnotequallypresentableintermsofmoneyincome，and，sofarasdefinitelyeconomicgainsaccrue，theyarenotequallyimmediateorequallyassured。Itisevidentthatnoamountofpossessionofstatisticalknowledgecanpossiblyreducetheproblementirely，orevenmainly，tooneofquantitativecalculation。Itisequallytruethatwhentheproblemissolved，itssolutionwillappearinquantitativeshape，i。e。，somuchmoneyfortransport，somuchforeducation，somuchfordefence。Itwillseemtohavebeenworkedoutbyreducingthethreeformsofdesiredbenefitstocommonterms，andthendividingthetenmillionsamongthemsoastosecureanequivalenceofgainsatthemargins。Economistswillpointouttriumphantlytheallegedfactthatthelast£；100spentoneducationproducesanationalreturnofwelfareexactlyequaltothatobtainedbythelast£；100spentongunboats，thoughhisassertionremainsinherentlyinsusceptibleofproof。Intruth，theChancellor'sminddoesnotworkinthisway。Sofarashisstatecraftisdisinterested，orevenallowingforeveryformofbias，hismindformsanidealofsocialprogress，ofahappierorbetterstateofthings，andallotstheoutlayofhistenmillionsinanendeavourtoassistinrealisingthisideal。Nowtheidealitselfisnotchieflyaproductofquantitativecalculus，butofhismoreorlessinformedimagination，andhismoreorlesswholesomesympathies。Hisviewsastothemeansofrealisingthisidealcanneverbepurelyscientific，thoughsciencemayherebeofconsiderableassistance。
　　If，treatingexpendituremorewidelyasanactofpublicpolicy，weconsideritasanoperationofthegeneralwillofthecommunity，atrueactofpoliticaleconomy，theproblemremainsessentiallythesame。Whenlookedatthroughscientificspectacles，itisapurelyquantitativeandmechanicallyorderedact，becausethescientificmethodbyitsverymodusoperandiignoresthequalitativefactors。Sothenationissupposedtobalancethisgainagainstanother，andtolayoutitsrevenuesoastogetthelargestaggregateofsomecommonhomogeneousstuffcalled'welfare'，insuchawaythatthelast£；100spentoneducationisequivalentinitsyieldofthis'welfare'tothelast£；100spentonthelatestsuper-dreadnaught，orthelastlotofold-agepensions。Intruth，thecommonwillnomorefunctionsinthisfashionthanthepersonalwilloftheChancellor。