Sinceeffectiveaccesstolargemarketsimpliesafairlylargebusiness，theeconomyofriskbecomesoneoftheeconomiesofcapitalism，anditscalculationachiefbranchoftheemployer'sskill。Thewatchingofthemarketsoastoreducethewasteofmisdirectedproductionisthemostdelicateoftheintellectualactivitiesofmostmanagers。Ittakeshimoutsidethescopeofhisownbusinessandthepresentprocessofproduction，toconsiderthewholeconditionofthetradeinthepresentandtheprobablefuture。Thesecalculationsandactsofjudgmentissuingfromthebrainofbusinessmanagersarethepsychicalaspectofthewholestructureofmarketsandofthetradeandtrafficarrangementswhichgivesuchunityandorderasarevisibleinwhatistermedtheindustrialsystem。
　　Thus，notmerelyonthefinancialbutonthecommercialside，industryisperceivedtobeagreatfabricofbeliefsanddesires。Though，asweshallrecognise，indealingwithlabour，andwithsaving，risk-takingisbynomeansconfinedtoemployersandentrepreneurs，itswideroperationsbelongtothespeculativeskillwhichcomesunderthegeneralheadofabilityofmanagement。Inthepsychologicalinterpretationofindustrythisfunctionoftheentrepreneurisofquitecrucialsignificance，cooperatingeverywherewiththemoreabstractcalculationsoffinanciersindirectingtheamounts，kinds，anddirections，ofthevariouscurrentsofindustrialenergywhichmoveinthebusinessworld。Sinceitinvolvesaconstantuseoftheconstructiveimaginationintheinterpretationoftheplayofchangingmotivesinmanyminds，andtheforecastingoffutureconditionswhichcanneverbeamererepetitionofthepast，the'creative'facultyobtainshereitshighestexpression。Itisnotfornothingthatthegreatmodernmastereitheroffinanceorindustryisaccreditedwithsomequalityofimaginativepowerakintothatoftheartist。This，however，mustinnotafewinstancesimply，notmerelythegeniusoftheprophet，butthatoftheskilledmanipulatorofeconomicmaterialandopportunity，whohelpstosecuretheduefulfilmentofthepropheciesuponwhichhestakeshisfaith。
　　CHAPTERV:THEHUMANCOSTSOF
　　LABOUR
　　§；1。TheclassicalPoliticalEconomyofthiscountrygavetoLabouraroleofsupremeimportanceintheproductionofwealth。FromAdamSmith，Ricardo，andotherauthoritativeexponentsofthenew'science'manypassagescanbecitedtosupportthethesisthatlabourersaretheonlyproducers。
　　NordoesitappearthatintheseutterancesLabourwasusuallyintendedtoincludetheservicesoforganisationandmanagementorotherintellectualactivities。WealthisbaldlyattributedtoLabourinthesensethatthemanuallabour，whichextractsrawmaterialsfromtheearth，shapesandcomposesthem，andcarriesthemfromoneplacetoanother，alonecountsasacostofproduction。ItisnaturalenoughthatthescientificsocialismofEuropeshouldhaveacceptedandenforcedthisdoctrine。Thoughthemoreintelligentsocialistsand'labourmen'admitthenecessaryworkofsuperintendenceandothermentalworkasusefulandproductive，thematerialismprevalentinthebusinessworldtendstorelegatetoaquitesecondaryplaceallthehigherformsofintellectualandmoralactivity。
　　Itwasuponthewhole，indeed，asoundinstinctwhichthusledtheearlytheoriststouselanguagewhichattributedtomanuallabourtherealburdenofthe'costs'ofproduction。Forcloserinvestigationatteststheforceofthedistinctionbetweentheproductiveenergygivenoutbytheintellectual，thedirecting，andadministrativeclassesontheonehand，andbythelabouring-classesontheother。Moreover，thesocialaswellastheeconomiccleavageissodistinctiveafeatureofourlifethatitwouldbeinconvenienttoignoreit。Thecleavagewillbefoundtocorrespondprettyaccuratelytothedistinctionbetweenthecreativeandtheimitativefunctionswhichweprovisionallyadoptedforastartingpointinouranalysis。
　　Formostoftheproductiveenergygivenoutbytheartistic，inventive，professional，official，andmanagerialclasses，whichhavepassedunderoursurvey，isseentobeinlargemeasurecreative，varied，interesting，andpleasurable。
　　Nowinthelabourofthewage-earningclassesthesequalitiesaregenerallylacking。Alikeinmotivesandinmethods，thecontrastisclearlymarked。
　　Themindoftheartistortheinventor，evenoftheprofessionalmanortheadministrator，isoccupiedwiththeworkinhand，asanobjectofinterestandofdesirableachievement。Thenatureoftheworkandtheconditionsofremunerationconducetofixhisimmediatethoughtsandfeelingsontheperformanceofhiswork。Withthelaboureritisdifferent。Theconditionsofmostlabouraresuchthatthelabourerfindslittlescopeforthoughtandemotionalinterestintheworkitself。Itsdueperformanceishardlyanendtohim，butonlyameanstoalivelihoodconsistingintheconsumablecommoditiesgotinpaymentforhislabour。
　　Butthevitaldistinctionisinthenatureandmethodoftheworkdone。
　　Whereastheartisticorinventive，oreventheprofessionalman，isconstantlydoingsomethingnew，thelabourercontinuallyrepeatsthesameactorsetofacts，inordertoproduceanumberofsimilarproducts。Thesuccessofmostlabourconsistsintheexactitudeandpacewithwhichthisrepetitioncanbecarriedon。Themachine-tenderisthetypicalinstance。Tofeedthesamemachinerywiththesamequantityofthesamematerialatthesamepace，soastoturnoutanendlessnumberofpreciselysimilararticles，istheabsoluteantithesisofart。Itisoftensaidthatthemanwhofeedssuchamachinetendstobecomeasautomaticasthemachineitself。This，however，isbutahalf-truth。Ifthetendercouldbecomeasautomaticasthemachinehetended，ifhecouldcompletelymechanisealittlesectionofhisfaculties，itmightgoeasierwithhim。Butthemaintrendoflifeinthemanfightsagainstthemechanisingtendencyofhiswork，andthisstruggleentailsaheavycost。Forhismachineimposesarepetitionofthesamemuscularandnervousactionuponabeingwhosemusclesandnervousresourcesarecontinuallychanging。Themachine，fedconstantlywiththesamesupplyoffuel，geareduptoasingleconstantpaceofmovement，forcedbyunchangingstructuretotheperformanceofthesameoperation，frictionanderrorreducedtoanalmostnegligibleminimum，worksthroughthelongestdaywithauniformexpenditureofpower。Themachine-tenderisanorganism，fedatsomewhatirregularintervalswithdifferentamountsandsortsoffood，theassimilationofwhichisalsodiscontinuous，andincapableofmaintainingintactandconstantinitsquantitythemuscularandnervoustissueandtheaccompanyingcontractionswhichconstitutethephysicalsupplyof'work'。Thisorganismhasalsomanyotherstructuresandfunctions，physicalandmental，whoseactivitiesandneedsgetinthewayoftheautomaticactivityofmachine-tending。Thustheworkercannotsucceedinbecomingaltogetheramachine-tendingautomaton。Hewillnotalwaysexactlyrepeathimself，andhisattempttodosoinvolvestwosetsoforganiccostsorwastes，duetothefactthat，thoughhislabourtriestomakehimaspecialisedmechanism，heremainsageneralisedorganism。
　　Sofaraslabourconsistsinspecialisedroutine，absorbingthemaincurrentofproductiveenergy，itistheenemyoforganichealth。Itishostileintwoways，first，indenyingtomanopportunityfortheexerciseofhisotherproductivefaculties，secondly，inovertaxinganddegradingbyservilerepetitionthesinglefacultythatisemployed。
　　Astheartistpresentsthesupremeexampleofcreativework，withaminimumofhumancostsandamaximumofhumanutility，sothemachine-tenderpresentsthesupremeexampleofimitativework，withamaximumofhumancostsandaminimumofhumanutility。
　　§；2。Someparticularconsiderationofthesecostsofmachine-tendingwillbethebestapproachtoamoregeneralsurveyofthehumancostsoflabour。
　　TheindictmentofthedominionofmachinerybyRuskin，Morris，andotherhumanistreformers，wasprimarilybaseduponthedegradationoftheworker'smanhoodbydenyinghimtheconditionsofgoodwork。'Itisasadaccount，'saidRuskin，'foramantogiveofhimselfthathehasspenthislifeinopeningavalve，andnevermadeanythingbuttheeighteenthpartofapin。'But，importantasisthischargeofdegradedandjoylesswork，wemustbeginouranalysisofthecostsofmechanicalorfactorylabouratalowerlevel。
　　Fromthegreatbodyofthefactorylabourwhichgoestotheprovisionofournationalincome，thefirstgreathumancostthatemergesistheburdenofinjuriousfatiguewhichresultsfrommuscularornervousoverstrain，andfromtheotherphysicalandmoralinjurieswhicharethenaturalaccompanimentsofthisoverstrain。
　　Modernphysiologyandpathologyhavedonemuchtogiveplainmeaningstothesecosts。Physicalfatigueisnotofnecessityaninjurytothebody，norisallfeelingoffatigueapain。Theideallycorrectconductoftheorganismmay，indeed，appeartopreserveanexactandacontinuousbalancebetweentheanabolicandthecatabolic，thenutritionofcelllifeandtheexpenditureinfunction。SirMichaelFostergivesthefollowingclassicaldescriptionofthisprocess。1
　　'Didwepossesssomeopticaidwhichshouldovercomethegrossnessofourvision，sothatwemightwatchthedanceofatomsinthisdoubleprocessofmakingandunmakinginthehumanbody，weshouldseethecommonplacelivingthingswhicharebroughtbytheblood，andwhichwecallthefood，caughtupintoandmadepartofthemolecularwhorlsofthelivingmuscle，linkedtogetherforawhileintheintricatefiguresofthedanceoflife；
　　andthenweshouldseehow，loosinghands，theyslippedbackintotheblood，asdead，inert，used-upmatter。Ineverytinyblockofmusclethereisapartwhichisreallyalive，therearepartswhicharebecomingalive，therearepartswhichhavebeenalivebutarenowdyingordead；thereisanupwardrushfromthelifelesstotheliving，adownwardrushfromthelivingtothedead。Thisisalwaysgoingon，whetherthemusclebequietandatrest，orwhetheritbeactiveandmoving。Someofthecapitaloflivingmaterialisalwaysbeingspent，changedintodeadwaste，someofthenewfoodisalwaysbeingraisedintolivingcapital。
　　'Thusnutritivematerialsarecarriedbythebloodtothetissues，andthedeadmaterialsofused-upandbroken-uptissuesarecarriedawayfordestructionorejection。Undernormalconditionsofhealthyactivitythismetabolicbalanceispreservedbythealternationofworkandrepose，thetissueandenergybuiltupoutoffoodduringperiodsofrestformingafundforexpenditureduringperiodsofwork，whilethesameperiodsofrestenablethedestructiveandevacuativeprocessestogetridofanyaccumulationofdeadtissueduetothepreviousperiodofwork。Abnormallyintenseorundulyprolongedactivityofanyportionofthebodyusesuptissuesofastthatitsdeadmaterialcannotbegotridofattheproperpace。Itaccumulatesinthebloodorinthekidneys，liverorlungs，andoperatesasapoisonthroughoutthewholesystem。Over-fatiguethusmeanspoisoningtheorganism。
　　'Thepoisonsaremoreandmoreheaped-up，poisoningthemuscles，poisoningthebrain，poisoningtheheart，poisoningatlasttheblooditself，startingintheintricatemachineryofthebodynewpoisonsinadditiontothemselves。
　　Thehuntedhare，runtodeath，diesnotbecauseheischokedforwantofbreath，norbecausehisheartstandsstill，itsstoreofenergyhavinggivenout，butbecauseapoisonedbloodpoisonshisbrain，poisonshiswholebody。'2
　　TheItalianbiologistMossohasdemonstratedthatthedepressingeffectoffatigueisnotconfinedtothelocalcentrewhereitisproduced，butiscarriedtoallpartsofthebody。Whenthebloodofadogfatiguedbycontinuedrunningisinjectedintothevesselsofasounddog，thelatterexhibitsallthesignsoffatigue。Theinabilityofthesystemtodisposeoftheused-uptissue，whichthusaccumulatesandpoisonsthesystem，isoneinjuriousfactorinfatigue。Anotheristheunduedepletionofthestoresofglycogenandoxygen，whichtheorganismprovidesfortheoutputofmuscularactivity。Glycogenisacompoundofcarbon，hydrogen，andoxygenmadebymuscletissueoutofthesugarordextrinesuppliedtoitbytheblood。'Thestoredglycogenofthemuscleskeepsunitingchemicallywiththeoxygenoftheblood。Theglycogenisbrokendownintoasimplerchemicalform，givingoffthegascarbondioxideandotheracidwastes，andreleasingheatandmechanicalenergyintheprocess。Withthereleasedenergycontractionofthemusclestakesplaceandhenceultimatelytheindustriallabourwhichisourspecialtheme。'3
　　'Glycogenis，asitwere，storedforuse。Itisalwaysbeingreplenished，alwaysbeingdepleted……Butwhenthemuscleisactiveandcontractsenergetically，thereisarunuponourglycogen。Itisusedupfasterthanitisbuiltinmuscle。Theglycogenisspentsorapidlythatthereisnottimefortheblood-streamtobringbacktothetissuethepotentialmaterialforitsrepair。'4Thoughtheliverfurnishesanextrastoreofglycogen，thistoomaybedepletedbyunduemuscularactivity。
　　'Thuswehavereachedtheotherfundamentalfactorinfatigue——theconsumptionoftheenergy-yieldingsubstanceitself。Notonlydoestissuemanufacturepoisonforitselfintheveryactofliving，castingoffchemicalwastesintothecirclingbloodstream；notonlyarethesewastespouredintothebloodfasterwithincreasedexertion，cloggingthemusclemoreandmorewithitsownnoxiousproducts；but，finally，thereisadepletionoftheverymaterialfromwhichenergyisobtained。Thecatabolicprocessisinexcessoftheanabolic。Inexhaustion，theorganismisforcedliterallyto"useitselfup。"'5
　　§；3。Somuchforthephysiologicalmeaningofmuscularfatigue。
　　Closelyassociatedwithmuscularfatigueisnervousfatigue。Foreveryvoluntarymuscularactionreceivesitsstimulusfromanervouscentre。
　　Thoughthenatureofthisnervousenergy，accumulatedinthecentralnervoussystemanddistributedinstimuli，isnotwellunderstood，itseconomyisgravelydisturbedbyconductinvolvingheavymuscularfatigue，aswellasbyworkofamentalkindinvolvingheavydrainsonitsresources。A
　　processofbuildingup，storage，anddissipationofnervetissueandenergy-yieldingmaterial，correspondingtothatwhichwehavetracedformuscletissue，mustbeacceptedastakingplace。Fatigueofthenervoussystemwillthusbeattendedbyasimilaraccumulationofpoisonouswasteproducts，andanexcessiveconsumptionofsubstancesneededforthemaintenanceofnervousactivity。
　　Thoughphysiologistsarenotagreedastohowandwhenfatigueactsonthenervouscells，thereisnoquestionoftherealityandoftheimportanceofthisinjuryofexcessiveworkto'theadministrativeinstrumentoftheindividual'which'directs'controlsandharmonisestheworkofthepartsoftheorganicmachineandgivesunitytothewhole。'
　　Stillconfiningourattentiontopurelyphysicalconditions，welearnthatworkdoneinastateofmuscularfatigueinvolvesanincreaseofnervouseffort。
　　'Mossoshowedthatamuchstrongerelectricstimulusisrequiredtomakeaweariedmusclecontractthanonewhichisrested。Hedevisedanapparatus，theponometer，whichrecordsthecurveofnervouseffortrequiredtoaccomplishmuscularactionasfatigueincreases。Heshowedthatthenervecentresarecompelledtosupplyaneverstrongerstimulustofatiguedmuscles。'6
　　ProfessorTrevesatTurinthrowsfurtherlightupontherelationsbetweenthemuscularandthenervouseconomy。Itiswellknownthatinmuscularactivitythereisanopeningperiodduringwhichefficiency，orpracticalresponsetonervousstimulus，increases。Beforefatiguebeginstosetin，themuscleappearstogainstrength，itsworkingpowerbeingactuallyaugmented。
　　Thisperiodofmaximumefficiencycontinuesforanappreciabletime，thenfatigueadvancesmoreandmoreuntilmuscularcontractionrefusesanylongertorespondtoevenaheightenednervousstimulus。This，ofcourse，isalsoanepitomeofthecourseoforganiclifeitself，itsrisetowardsmaturity，itslevelofmaximumpoweranditsdecline。
　　Nowtrainingorpracticecannotoriouslyaffectthisnaturaleconomy。
　　Themuscularsystem，orsomepartofit，canbypracticeaccommodateitselftoincreasingquantitiesoffatigue-poisons，andcandrawfromthegeneralorganicfundalargerquantityofmaterialforrepairoflocalmusculartissueandenergy。Butithaslongbeenrecognisedthatsomerealdangersattachtothisexcessivespecialisationofmuscularactivities。Thepathologicalnatureofover-traininginathleticshasitsplaincounterpartinindustry。
　　This，accordingtoProfessorTreves，liesinthefailureofthesupplyofnervousenergytoriseinproportiontotherequirementsforthishigherpressureuponthemusculartissues。
　　'Accordingtomyexperience，ithasnotbeenfoundthattraininghasasfavourableaneffectupon[nervous]energyasuponmuscularstrength……
　　Thisfactexplainswhymusculartrainingcannotgobeyondcertainlimitsandwhyathletesareoftenbrokendownbytheconsequencesofover-exertion。
　　Andthisfactteachesalsothepracticalnecessityofpreventingwomen，children，andevenadultmenfrombecomingsubjectedtolabour，which，indeed，agradualmusculartrainingmaymakepossible，butatthepriceofanexcessivelossofnervousenergywhichisnotbetrayedbyanyobviousorimmediatesymptoms，eitherobjectiveorsubjective。'7
　　Aseriesofexperimentshasbeendirectedtothemoredetailedstudyoftherelationsbetweenactivityandrepose。Theirgeneralresultistoprovethatmuscularwork，doneafterfatiguehassetin，notonlycostsmorenervouseffortbutaccomplisheslesswork。Theergograph，aninstrumentformeasuringwork，yieldsampletestimonytotherecuperativeeffectofresttakenbeforeexhaustionisreached，ontheonehand，andtherapidrateofdeclineinachievementwhenactivityiscontinuedafterthefatiguepointhasbeenreached。
　　§；4。Tothisaccountofthephysicalcostsofexcessiveworkinmuscularandnervouswastemustbeaddedthegreaterliabilitytoaccidentsandthegreatersusceptibilitytoindustrialandnon-industrialdiseaseswhichfatigueentails。
　　Thestatisticsofindustryinvariouscountriesprovethatfatigueisaveryimportantfactorinindustrialaccidents。Thoughfatigueisnotalwaysproportionatetodurationofwork，thenumberofhoursworkedwithoutintermissionisusuallyavalidindexoffatigue。Afteralongstuntofworktheattentionoftheworkerandhismuscularcontrolarebothweakened。
　　Wefind，therefore，amarkedsimilarityinthecurvesrelatingaccidentstohoursoflabour，accidentsincreasingprogressivelyuptotheendofthemorning'swork，andagaininthelateafternoonastheday'sworkdrawstoitsclose。RecentGermanstatisticsshowthatthehighestrateofaccidentsisduringthefourthandfifthhoursofmorningwork。
　　Thatover-fatigueconnectedwithindustryisresponsibleforlargenumbersofnervousdisordersis，ofcourse，generallyadmitted。Thegrowingprevalenceofcardiacneurosisandofneurastheniaingeneralamongworking-peopleisattestedbymanymedicalauthorities，especiallyinoccupationswherelongstrainsofattentionareinvolved。Butthegeneralenfeeblementandlossofresistancepowertodiseasegermsofallkindsareevenmoreinjuriousconsequencesofover-exertion。Manyexperimentsattestthefactthatfatiguereducesthepowerofthebloodtoresistbacteriaandtheirtoxicproducts。
　　§；5。SofarIhavedweltexclusivelyuponthephysiologicalnatureandeffectsoffatigueascostsoflabour。Butdueaccountmustalsobetakenofthepsychicalorconsciouscosts。Muchworkinitsinitialstagecontainselementsofpleasurableexerciseofsomehumanorganorfaculty，andevenwhenthispleasurehaswornoffaconsiderableperiodofindifferencemayensue。Thoughboredommaysetinbeforeanystrainoffatigue，theearlierperiodofennuimaynotentailaheavycost。But，whenfatigueadvances，theirksomenessbringsagrowingfeelingofpainfuleffort，andalongboutoffatigueproducesasitsconcomitantaperiodofgraveconsciousirritationofnerveswithasubsequentperiodofpainfulcollapse。Wheretheconditionsofworkaresuchastoinvolveadailyrepetitionofthispain，itsaccumulativeeffectconstitutesoneoftheheaviestofhumancosts，aloweringofmentalityandofmoralresistancecloselycorrespondingtothedeclineofphysicalresistance。Drinkandothersensationalexcessesarethenormalreactionsofthisloweredmorale。Thusfatigueranksasamaindeterminantofthe'character'oftheworking-classesandhasasocialsignificanceinitsbearinguponorderandprogressnotlessimportantthanitsinfluenceupontheindividualorganism。
　　§；6。Ihavedweltinsomedetailuponthesephenomenaoffatigue，becausetheyexhibitmostclearlythedefectsoftheworkinglifewhichcarryheaviesthumancosts。Thesedefectsareexcessivedurationoflabour，excessivespecialisation，excessiverepetition，excessivestrainandexcessivespeed。Thoughseparateforpurposesofanalysis，thesefactorscloselyinteract。Meredurationoflabourdoesnotnecessarilyinvolvefatigue，provideditcarriestheelementsofinterest，variety，andachievement。
　　Thedegreeofspecialisationorsubdivisionoflabourcountsonthewholemoreheavily。Butevenahighdegreeofspecialisationisalleviated，whereitcontainsmanylittlechangesofactionorposition，andaffordsscopeforthesatisfactionattendingexpertskill。Itistheconstantrepetitionofanidenticalactionataprescribedpacethatbringstheheaviestburdenofmonotony。
　　Itisuponthiscombinationofconditionsthatthefirstcountagainstthedominionofmachineryisbased。Thebriefphysiologicalconsiderationwehavebroughttobearupontheproblemoffatiguegivesclearersignificancetomonotonyasa'cost'。Itimplies，notmerelyadullanddistastefuloccupation，butonewhich，taxingcontinuallythesamemusclesandthesamenerve-centres，increasesthepoisonoffatigue。Handlabourofanarroworder，ormachine-tendinghoweverlight，entailsthisheavycost，ifmaintainedoveralongperiodoftime。
　　Butwheremonotonousrepetitioniscloselydirectedbytheactionofamachine，asregardsitsmanneranditspace，thereisaspecialnervouscost。Forahand-worker，howeverdullorheavyisthework，retainssomeslightpowerofvaryingthepaceandperhapsofchanginghispositionormodeofwork。Aworkerwhoeitherfeedsamachineoradjustshismovementsinobediencetothoseofamachine，asforinstanceacutterintheclothingtradeorinshoemaking，hasnosuchliberty。Thespecialcosthereentailedisthatoftryingtomakeanorganismconforminitsmovementstoamechanism。
　　Nowahumanbeing，oranyotherorganism，hascertainnaturalrhythmsofmovementforwork，relatedtotherhythmsofheartandlungsandotherorganicprocesses，andtherearenaturallimitsalsotothepaceatwhichheCanefficiently，orevenpossibly，continueworking。Amachinealsohasrhythmsandamaximumefficiencypace。Buttherhythmsofamachinearedeterminedbyitsmechanicalconstructionandtheapparatuswhichfurnishesitspower:theyarecontinuouslyuniform，andarecapableofbeingspeededupbeyondthecapacityofthehumantender。
　　Ahumanrhythmisreallylabour-saving，inasmuchasiteasesthestraintoworkinaccordancewithanaturalswing。Tosetamantofollowtherhythmofamachinenotonlylosesthiseconomy，butentailsanextraeffortofconformity。Thetendencytospeedupamachine，soastogetthemostoutofit，isliabletotakeoutofthemachine-tenderevenmorethanheiscapableofrecognisinginthewayofnervousstrain。Whereconsiderablemuscularactivityisalsorequiredinfollowingahighpacesetbyamachine，anappallingburdenofhumancostsmaybeaccumulatedinafactoryday。
　　Whentosuchdirecthumancostsoflabourareaddedtherisksofindustrialaccidentorofindustrialdiseases，thephysicalinjuriesinvolvedinbadatmosphere，heat，noiseandotherincidentalpainsandinconvenienceswhichbesetmanybranchesofindustry，webegintorealisewithmoredistinctnessthemeaningof'costsoflabour'inthehumanasdistinguishedfromtheeconomicsense。
　　Lateronweshallturntoconsiderhowfartheeconomicormonetary'costs'correspondwiththesehumancosts。
　　Ourpresenttask，however，istoconductabriefsurveyofgeneralindustryinordertoformsomeideaofthemagnitudeofthesehumancostsintheleadingbranchesofproduction，andtoconsiderhowfartheyareoffsetorqualifiedbyfactorsofhumaninterestorutility，suchaswefoundwidelyprevalentintheworkoftheartistic，official，andadministrativeclasses。
　　§；1。Ifitweretruethatallthelabourofthewage-earningclasseswhichwenttoproducetherealnationalincomewere，ortendedtobecome，monotonousandhighlyspecialisedmachinetending，theworkersconstantlyengagedincloserepetitionofsomesinglenarrowautomaticprocess，contributingtosomefinalcompositeproductwhoseformandutilityhadnorealmeaningforthem，thetaleofhumancostswouldbeappalling。
　　Fortunatelythisisnotthewholetruthaboutlabour。Eventhechargeagainstmachineryofmechanisingtheworkerisfrequentlyoverstated。Theonlyproductiveworkthatisentirelyautomaticisdonebymachines。Forthemaintrendofthedevelopmentofindustrialmachineryhasbeentosetnon-humantoolsandpowertoundertakeworkwhichmancouldnotexecutewiththerequiredregularity，exactitude，orpace，byreasonofcertainorganicdeficiencies。While，then，thesub-dividedlabourinmoststapleindustriesismostlyofanarrowlyprescribedandroutinecharacter，itishardlyeversocompletelyuniformandrepetitiveasthatdonebyamachine。
　　Purelyroutinework，demandingnohumanskillorjudgmentisnearlyalwaysundertakenbymachinery，exceptwherehumanlabourcanbeboughtsocheapthatitdoesnotpaytoinventandapplymachinerysoastosecuresomeslightlyincreasedregularityorpaceofoutput。Where，then，asinmostmodernfactories，humanlabourcooperateswith，tendsandfeedsmachinery，thishumanlabourisofalesspurelyrepetitivecharacterthantheworkdonebythemachines。Someportionsofthelabour，atanyrate，containelementsofskillorjudgment，andarenotentirelyuniform。
　　Wecaninfactdistinguishmanykindsandgradesofhumancooperationwithmachinery。Insomeofthemmanisthehabitualservant，inothersthehabitualmasterofthemachine；inothers，again，therelationismoreindirectorincidental。Thoughanincreasingnumberoftheprocessesinthemakingandmovingofmostformsofmaterialgoodsinvolvestheuseofmachineryandpower，theydonotinvolve，asissometimessupposed，theemploymentofagrowingproportionoftheworkersinthemerelyroutinelabouroftendingthemachines。Suchasupposition，indeed，isinconsistentwiththeprimaryeconomyofmachinery，theso-calledlabour-savingproperty。
　　Itmight，indeed，bethecasethatthemachineeconomywasaccompaniedbysovastanincreaseofdemandformachine-madegoods，thatthequantityoflabourrequiredfortendingthemachineswasgreaterthanthatformerlyrequiredformakingbyhandthesmallerquantity。Insometradesthisisnodoubtso，asforinstanceintheprintingtrade，andinsomebranchesoftextileindustrywherethehomemarketislargelysupplementedbyexporttrade。Butthedisplacementofmachine-tendersbyautomaticmachinesisadvancinginmanyofthehighly-developedmachineindustries。Themodernflourorpapermill，forinstance，performsnearlyallitsfeedingprocessesbymechanicalmeanswhileinthetextiletradeautomaticspindlesandloomshavereducedthenumberandchangedthecharacteroftheworkofminders。
　　Moreandmoreofthisworkmeansbringinghumanelementsofskillandjudgmentandresponsibilitytobearinadjustingorcorrectingtheirregularitiesorerrorsintheoperationsofmachinery。Machinesareliabletorundown，becomeclogged，break，orotherwise'gowrong'。Theseerrorstheycanoftenbemadetoannouncebyautomaticsignals，buthumancareisneededfortheircorrection。Thiswork，howevermonotonousandfatiguingtomusclesornerves，isnotandcannotbeentirelyrepetitive。
　　Inmanyotherprocesseswherethemachineissaidtodothework，humanskillandpracticearerequiredtosetandtoregulatetheoperationsofthemachine。Theuseofautomaticlathesisaninstanceofcooperationinwhichsomescopeforhumanjudgmentremains。Themetalandengineeringtradesarefullofsuchinstances。Thoughmachineryisanexceedinglyimportantandinmanyprocessesagoverningfactor，itcannotbesaidtoreducethelabourthatworkswithittoitsownautomaticlevel。Onthecontrary，itmaybetakenasgenerallytruethat，intheprocesseswheremachineryhasreacheditsmostcomplexdevelopment，anincreasedshareofthelabouremployedincloseconnectionwiththemachineryisthatoftheskilledengineerorfitterratherthanofthemeretender。Theheaviestandthemostcostlylabourinthesetradesisusuallyfoundintheprocesseswhereithasnotbeenfoundpracticableoreconomicaltoapplymachinery。Indeed，thegeneraltendency，especiallynoticedinAmerica，inthemetaltrades，hasbeentosubstituteforalargeemploymentofskilledhandlabourofanarrowlyspecialisedorder，asmallemploymentofmoreskilledandresponsiblesupervisorsofmachineryandalargeemploymentoflow-skilledmanuallabourinthelessmechanicaldepartments，suchasfurnaceworkandotheroperationspreparatorytothemachineprocesses。
　　§；2。Thoughaccuratestatisticsarenotavailable，itappearsthatinthiscountrytheproportionoftheworkingpopulationemployedinmanufacturesisnotincreasing，anditismorethanprobablethatanexactanalysisofthenatureoftheworkofourfactoriesandworkshopswouldshowthattheproportionengagedindirectattendanceonmachinerywassteadilyfalling。
　　Foreveninmanufacture，thedepartmentofindustrywheremachineprocesseshavemademostadvance，therearemanyprocesseswherehandlabourisstillrequired，insortingandpreparingmaterialsformachinery，inperformingminorprocessesoftrimmingordecoration，inputtingtogetherpartsorinpacking，etc。Wherefemalelabourisemployed，averylargeproportionofitwillbefoundtobeengagedinsuchprocessesoutsidethedirectdominionofmachinery。Thoughmostofthedistinctivelyhuman'costs'ofmachineprocesses，thelonghours，highpace，monotonyofmusclesandnervestrain，areusuallypresentinsuchwork，itisnotabsolutelymechanical，someslightelementsofskillandvolitionaldirectionbeingpresent。
　　Thereareotherrestrictionsuponthepurelyrepetitiveorroutinecharacterofmanufacture。Thereismuchworkwhichnomachinecanbeinventedtodobecauseofcertaininherentelementsofirregularity。Mostofthesearerelatedtotheorganicnatureofsomeofthematerialsused。Whereexpensiveanimalorvegetableproductsrequiretreatment，theirnaturalinequalitiesoftenrenderapurelymechanicaloperationimpossibleorwasteful。
　　Thekilling，cutting，andcanningprocessesinthemeattrade，thepicking，preparationandpackingoffruit，manyprocessesinthetanningandleathertrade。thefinersortsofcabinetmaking，areexamplesofthisunadaptabilityoforganicmaterialstopurelymechanicaltreatment。Whereveryvaluableinorganicmaterialsareusedinmakinghigh-gradeproducts，similarlimitationsinthemachineeconomyexist。Thefinestjewelleryandwatch-makingstillrequiretheskillandjudgmentofthepractisedhumanhandandeye。Someoftheirregularitiesinsuchprocessesare，indeed，sosmallandsouninterestingastoaffordlittle，ifany，abatementofhumancosts；buttheyremovethelabourfromthedirectcontrolofamachine。
　　Amoreimportantirregularitywhichrestrictsmachineryinmanufactureexistswherethepersonalneedsortasteoftheconsumerhelptodeterminethenatureoftheprocessandtheproduct。Hereagainweareconfrontedbytheantagonismofmechanismandorganism。Forthetruedemandofconsumersisthehighestexpressionoftheuniquenesswhichdistinguishestheorganic。
　　Asnotwoconsumersareexactlyidenticalinsize，shape，physicalormentalcapacities，tastesandneeds，thegoodsrequiredfortheirconsumptionshouldexhibitsimilardifferences。Machineeconomycannotproperlymeetthisrequirement。Itcanonlydealwithconsumerssofarastheirhumannatureiscommon:itcannotsupplytheneedsoftheirindividuality。Sofarastheyarewillingtosinktheirdifferences，consentingtoconsumelargequantitiesofgoodsofidenticalshapes，sizesandqualities，themachinecansupplythem。Butsincenotwoconsumersarereallyidenticalinneedsandtastes，orremainquiteconstantintheirneedsandtastes，thefundamentalassumptionofroutine-economyisopposedtothehumanfacts。
　　Consumerswhorefusetosinktheirindividualityandare'particular'
　　inthesortofclothestheywear，thesortofhousesandfurnitureandothergoodstheywillconsenttobuy，exerciseapowerantagonistictoroutinelabour。Theydemandthatproducersshallputoutthetechnicalskill，thecare，tasteandjudgmentrequiredtosatisfytheirfeelingsasconsumers。Thatistosay，theydemandthelabournotoftheroutine-workerbutofthecraftsman，workwhich，thoughnotcreativeinthefullfreeartisticsense，containsdistinctelementsofhumaninterestandinitiative。
　　§；3。Thepresenceandthepossibilitiesofthisindividualityoflabour，flowingfromtheeducatedindividualityofconsumers，areamostimportantinfluenceinthelighteningofthehumancostsoflabour。Atpresentnodoubtaverysmallproportionofthematerialgoodsturnedoutbytheindustrialsystemcontainsanyappreciableelementofthisindividualityofworkmanship。Itmay，indeed，wellappearthatourrecentcourseduringthedevelopmentofthemachineeconomyhasbeenaretrogradeone。Inthebeginningsofindustryitappearedasifthereweremorescopefortheproducer'sself-expression，morejoyofwork，moreinterestintheproduct，eventhoughdestinedforthecommonestuses。TheguildsintheMiddleAgespreservednotalittleofthishappierspiritofcraftsmanship。Tothosewhobrooduponthesevisionsofthepast，ourmodernindustrialdevelopmenthasoftenseemedacrudesubstitutionofquantityofgoodsforquality，thecharacteroflabourdeterioratingintheprocess。Withtheelementoftruthinsuchajudgmentismingledmuchfalsehood。Therehasneverbeenanageoracountrywherethegreatbulkoflabourwasnottoilsome，painful，monotonous，anduninteresting，oftendegradinginitsconditions。
　　Badasthingsare，whenregardedfromthestandpointofahumanideal，theyarebetterforthemajorityoftheworkersinthisandinotheradvancedindustrialcountriesthaneverinthepast，sofaraswecanreconstructandunderstandthatpast。Machineryhasrenderedagreathumanservicebytakingoverlargemassesofheavy，dull，anddegradingwork。Whenfullydevelopedandharnessedtothesocialserviceofman，itshouldprovetobethegreatliberatorofhisfreeproductivetastesandfaculties，performingforhimtheroutineprocessesofindustrysothathemayhavetimeandenergytodevotehimselftoactivitiesmoreinterestingandvaried。
　　Theuniquenessoftheindividualconsumerhasonlybeguntomakeitsimpressionuponindustry。Foritneedslibertyandeducationforamantorecognisethispropertyoforganicuniquenessandtoinsistonrealisingit。Thefirstmovementsofconscioustastesinanationoraclassarelargelyimitative，takingshapeinfashionssufficientlywide-spreadanduniformtolendthemselvestoroutinemechanicalproduction。Theself-assertionoftheindividualisaslowerfruitofculture。But，asitgrows，itwillofferacontinuallystrongeroppositiontothedominionofmechanicalproduction。
　　Itwilldothisintwoways。Inthefirstplace，itwillcausealargerproportionofdemandtobedirectedtotheclassesofproducts，suchasintellectual，aesthetic，andpersonalservices，whicharebytheirnaturelesssusceptibleofmechanicalproduction。Inthesecondplace，weakeningthetraditionalandtheimitativefactorsintasteanddemand，itwillcauseconsumption，evenofthehigherformsofmaterialcommodities，tobeamoreaccurateexpressionofthechangingneedsandtastesoftheindividual，stampingupontheprocessesofproductionthesameimpressofindividuality。
　　Butthoughthedirectcontrolofmachineryoverhumanlabourisobstructedintheearlierextractiveprocessesbytherefractoryunevennatureofmaterials，andinthefinalprocessesbythenatureandparticularrequirementsofconsumers，itsinfluenceextendsfarbeyondthemiddleprocessesofmanufacturewhereitsprominenceisgreatest。
　　Power-drivenmachineryplaysalargerpartinagricultureeveryyear:miningisthefirstofmachineindustriesinthesensethatitemploysthelargestamountofhorsepowerperman；thetransporttradebyseaandlandismechanisedeveninitsminorlocalbranches；thegreatpublicservices，supplyinglight，water，andothercommonwants，areamongthelargestusersofpower-drivenmachinery；
　　thegreatestofourmaterialindustrieswhichstilldependsmainlyuponhandlabour，thebuildingandroad-makinggroup，isconstantlyincreasingitsdependenceonmachineryforitsheaviercarryingworkandforthepreparationofthemetal，stoneandwoodworkitemploys。Whenweaddthegrowthofnewlargemanufactures，suchaschemicalsandelectricalapparatus，theenormousexpansionofthepaperandprintingtradesunderthenewmechanicalconditions，therecenttransferenceoftheprocessesofthepreparationoffoodsanddrinksandlaundryworkfromtheprivatehousetothefactory，weshallrecognisethatthenetinfluenceofmachinery，asdeterminingthecharacterofhumanlabour，isstilladvancingwithconsiderablerapidity。
　　§；4。Itisnoteasytoanswerthetworelatedquestions，'Howfarismachinerythemaster，howfartheservant，oftheworkerswhocooperatewithit？''Howfardoesmachineryaggravate，howfarlightenthehumancostsoflabour？'Evenwhenwecomparetheworkoftheclassesmostsubservienttomachinery，thefeedersandtendersinourfactories，withthedomesticorearlierfactoryprocessesunderhandlabour，itisbynomeansself-evidentthatthenetburdenofthehumancostshasbeenenhanced。For，thoughthespinningandweavingworkbeforetheindustrialrevolutionhadcertainslightelementsoffreedomandvarietynowabsent，manyofthehygienicconditionswerefarworse，thehoursoflabourwereusuallylonger，andthelargeemploymentofoldfolkandtenderchildren，inworknearlyasunvariedasthatenjoinedbymodernmachinery，enslavedtheentirelifeofthehomeandfamilytothenarrowandprecariousconditionsofasmalllocaltrade。Thereallibertyoftheworker，asregardshiswork，oritsdisposalinthemarket，washardlygreaterthaninthemodernfactory。
　　Inmostofthegreatbranchesofproduction，machineryisratheranadjuncttolabourthanadirector。
　　Thelabourerinchargeofthemachinetendsmoretothetypeoftheengineerthantothatofthefeederormereminder。Thoughthemining，metal，chemical，paper，foodanddrinkmanufacturescontainlargequantitiesofmachinery，alargeproportionofthosewhohavetodealwiththemachinesareskilledmanuallabourers。Sointhetransporttrade，thoughthedisplacementoftheold-timesailorbytheengineerandstoker，ofthehorse-driverbytheengine-driverandthemotor-man，sometimesappearstoinvolveadegradationoflabour，theissueisadoubtfulone，ifalltheprosandconsaretakenintodueaccount。Asregardstheemploymentofmachineryinthebuildingandcontractingtrades，asinthemining，itsfirstandobviouseffecthasbeentorelievehumanlabourfrommuchoftheheaviestmusculartoil。Thoughmostofsuchlabourinvolvestooslightelementsofinterestorskillgreatlytoalleviatethephysicalfatigue，itcannotbesaidthatmachineryhasincreasedtheburden。CHAPTERVII:THEDISTRIBUTIONOF
　　HUMANCOSTS
　　§；1。Inendeavouringtoestimatethehumancostsoflabourintermsofphysicalwearandtearandtheconsciouspainsandpenaltiesentailedbytheconditionsunderwhichmanyindustrialprocessesarecarriedon，wehavehithertoconsideredthesecostsasbornebyworkers，irrespectiveofage，sex，orotherdiscriminations。Butitisself-evidentthatagivenstrainuponmusclesornervesoveraperiodoftimewillvarygreatly，bothintheorganiccostandintheconsciouspainwhichitentails，accordingtothestrengthandendurance，nervousstructure，physicalandmoralsensitiveness，ofthedifferentsortsofworkers。Indeed，agivenoutputofproductiveenergywillevidentlyentailadifferenthumancostineverypersoncalledupontogiveitout:foreverydifferenceofstrength，skill，capacityandcharactermusttosomeextentaffecttheorganicburdenofthetask。
　　Inendeavouring，therefore，torelatethehumantotheeconomiccostsofproductionofanyquantityofmaterialwealthorservices，itwouldbenecessarytoconsiderhowfartheconditionsofemploymenttendtoeconomisehumancostsbydistributingtheburdenproportionatelytothepowertobearit。Thehumanwastesorexcessivecosts，entailedbyconditionsofemploymentwhichimposeunequalburdensuponworkerswithequalcapacitytobearthem，orwhichdistributetheburdenunequallyintimeoverthesamesetofworkers，alternatingslackperiodswithperiodsofexcessiveover-time，areobvious。Unfortunatelytheoperationofourindustrialsystemhasnothithertotakentheseintosufficientaccount。
　　Thoughthephysical，moralandsocialinjuries，duetoalternatingperiodsofoverandunderwork，aregenerallyadmitted，thefullcostsofsuchirregularity，humanandeveneconomic，arefarfrombeingadequatelyrealised。Whilesomeattemptsat'decasualisation'arebeingmade，thelargerandmorewastefulirregularitiesofseasonalandcyclicalfluctuationsarestillregardedasirremediable。