Thegreatsourceofourmistakeinthissubject，andoftheunboundedlicenceofconjecture，whichweindulge，is，thatwetacitlyconsiderourselves，asintheplaceoftheSupremeBeing，andconclude，thathewill，oneveryoccasion，observethesameconduct，whichweourselves，inhissituation，wouldhaveembracedasreasonableandeligible。But，besidesthattheordinarycourseofnaturemayconvinceus，thatalmosteverythingisregulatedbyprinciplesandmaximsverydifferentfromours；besidesthis，Isay，itmustevidentlyappearcontrarytoallrulesofanalogytoreason，fromtheintentionsandprojectsofmen，tothoseofaBeingsodifferent，andsomuchsuperior。
　　Inhumannature，thereisacertainexperiencedcoherenceofdesignsandinclinations；sothatwhen，fromanyfact，wehavediscoveredoneintentionofanyman，itmayoftenbereasonable，fromexperience，toinferanother，anddrawalongchainofconclusionsconcerninghispastorfutureconduct。ButthismethodofreasoningcanneverhaveplacewithregardtoaBeing，soremoteandincomprehensible，whobearsmuchlessanalogytoanyotherbeingintheuniversethanthesuntoawaxentaper，andwhodiscovershimselfonlybysomefainttracesoroutlines，beyondwhichwehavenoauthoritytoascribetohimanyattributeorperfection。
　　Whatweimaginetobeasuperiorperfection，mayreallybeadefect。Orwereiteversomuchaperfection，theascribingofittotheSupremeBeing，whereitappearsnottohavebeenreallyexerted，tothefull，inhisworks，savoursmoreofflatteryandpanegyric，thanofjustreasoningandsoundphilosophy。Allthephilosophy，therefore，intheworld，andallthereligion，whichisnothingbutaspeciesofphilosophy，willneverbeabletocarryusbeyondtheusualcourseofexperience，orgiveusmeasuresofconductandbehaviourdifferentfromthosewhicharefurnishedbyreflectionsoncommonlife。Nonewfactcaneverbeinferredfromthereligioushypothesis；noeventforeseenorforetold；
　　norewardorpunishmentexpectedordreaded，beyondwhatisalreadyknownbypracticeandobservation。SothatmyapologyforE/PICURUS\willstillappearsolidandsatisfactory；norhavethepoliticalinterestsofsocietyanyconnexionwiththephilosophicaldisputesconcerningmetaphysicsandreligion。
　　Thereisstillonecircumstance，repliedI，whichyouseemtohaveoverlooked。ThoughIshouldallowyourpremises，Imustdenyyourconclusion。Youconclude，thatreligiousdoctrinesandreasoningshavenoinfluenceonlife，becausetheytohavenoinfluence；neverconsidering，thatmenreasonnotinthesamemanneryoudo，butdrawmanyconsequencesfromthebeliefofadivineExistence，andsupposethattheDeitywillinflictpunishmentsonvice，andbestowrewardsonvirtue，beyondwhatappearintheordinarycourseofnature。Whetherthisreasoningoftheirsbejustornot，isnomatter。Itsinfluenceontheirlifeandconductmuststillbethesame。
　　Andthose，whoattempttodisabusethemofsuchprejudices，may，foraughtIknow，begoodreasoners，butIcannotallowthemtobegoodcitizensandpoliticians；sincetheyfreemenfromonerestraintupontheirpassions，andmaketheinfringementofthelawsofsociety，inonerespect，moreeasyandsecure。
　　Afterall，Imay，perhaps，agreetoyourgeneralconclusioninfavourofliberty，thoughupondifferentpremisesfromthose，onwhichyouendeavourtofoundit。I
　　think，thatthestateoughttotolerateeveryprincipleofphilosophy；noristhereaninstance，thatanygovernmenthassufferedinitspoliticalinterestsbysuchindulgence。
　　Thereisnoenthusiasmamongphilosophers；theirdoctrinesarenotveryalluringtothepeople；andnorestraintcanbeputupontheirreasonings，butwhatmustbeofdangerousconsequencetothesciences，andeventothestate，bypavingthewayforpersecutionandoppressioninpoints，wherethegeneralityofmankindaremoredeeplyinterestedandconcerned。
　　ButthereoccurstomecontinuedIwithregardtoyourmaintopic，adifficulty，whichIshalljustproposetoyouwithoutinsistingonit；lestitleadintoreasoningsoftooniceanddelicateanature。Inaword，Imuchdoubtwhetheritbepossibleforacausetobeknownonlybyitseffectasyouhaveallalongsupposedortobeofsosingularandparticularanatureastohavenoparallelandnosimilaritywithanyothercauseorobject，thathaseverfallenunderourobservation。Itisonlywhentwo
　　ofobjectsarefoundtobeconstantlyconjoined，thatwecaninfertheonefromtheother；andwereaneffectpresented，whichwasentirelysingular，andcouldnotbecomprehendedunderanyknown，Idonotsee，thatwecouldformanyconjectureorinferenceatallconcerningitscause。Ifexperienceandobservationandanalogybe，indeed，theonlyguideswhichwecanreasonablyfollowininferencesofthisnature；boththeeffectandcausemustbearasimilarityandresemblancetoothereffectsandcauses，whichweknow，andwhichwehavefound，inmanyinstances，tobeconjoinedwitheachother。Ileaveittoyourownreflectiontopursuetheconsequencesofthisprinciple。Ishalljustobserve，that，astheantagonistsofE/PICURUS\alwayssupposetheuniverse，aneffectquitesingularandunparalleled，tobetheproofofaDeity，acausenolesssingularandunparalleled；yourreasonings，uponthatsupposition，seem，atleast，tomeritourattention。Thereis，Iown，somedifficulty，howwecaneverreturnfromthecausetotheeffect，and，reasoningfromourideasoftheformer，inferanyalterationonthelatter，orany，additiontoit。
　　T/HERE\isnotagreaternumberofphilosophicalreasonings，displayeduponanysubject，thanthose，whichprovetheexistenceofaDeity，andrefutethefallaciesof；andyetthemostreligiousphilosophersstilldisputewhetheranymancanbesoblindedastobeaspeculativeatheist。Howshallwereconcilethesecontradictions？Theknightserrant，whowanderedabouttocleartheworldofdragonsandgiants，neverentertainedtheleastdoubtwithregardtotheexistenceofthesemonsters。
　　Theisanotherenemyofreligion，whonaturallyprovokestheindignationofalldivinesandgraverphilosophers；thoughitiscertain，thatnomanevermetwithanysuchabsurdcreature，orconversedwithaman，whohadnoopinionorprincipleconcerninganysubject，eitherofactionorspeculation。Thisbegetsaverynaturalquestion；Whatismeantbyasceptic？Andhowfaritispossibletopushthesephilosophicalprinciplesofdoubtanduncertainty？
　　Thereisaspeciesofscepticism，toallstudyandphilosophy，whichismuchinculcatedbyD/ES\
　　C/ARTES\andothers，asasovereignpreservativeagainsterrorandprecipitatejudgement。Itrecommendsanuniversaldoubt，notonlyofallourformeropinionsandprinciples，butalsoofourveryfaculties；ofwhoseveracity，saythey，wemustassureourselves，byachainofreasoning，deducedfromsome
　　originalprinciple，whichcannotpossiblybefallaciousordeceitful。Butneitheristhereanysuchoriginalprinciple，whichhasaprerogativeaboveothers，thatareself-evidentandconvincing:Oriftherewere，couldweadvanceastepbeyondit，butbytheuseofthoseveryfaculties，ofwhichwearesupposedtobealreadydiffident。TheC/ARTESIAN\doubt，therefore，wereiteverpossibletobeattainedbyanyhumancreatureasitplainlyisnotwouldbeentirelyincurable；andnoreasoningcouldeverbringustoastateofassuranceandconvictionuponanysubject。
　　Itmust，however，beconfessed，thatthisspeciesofscepticism，whenmoremoderate，maybeunderstoodinaveryreasonablesense，andisanecessarypreparativetothestudyofphilosophy，bypreservingaproperimpartialityinourjudgements，andweaningourmindfromallthoseprejudices，whichwemayhaveimbibedfromeducationorrashopinion。Tobeginwithclearandself-evidentprinciples，toadvancebytimorousandsuresteps，toreviewfrequentlyourconclusions，andexamineaccuratelyalltheirconsequences；
　　thoughbythesemeansweshallmakebothaslowandashortprogressinoursystems；aretheonlymethods，bywhichwecaneverhopetoreachtruth，andattainaproperstabilityandcertaintyinourdeterminations。
　　Thereisanotherspeciesofscepticism，toscienceandenquiry，whenmenaresupposedtohavediscovered，eithertheabsolutefallaciousnessoftheirmentalfaculties，ortheirunfitnesstoreachanyfixeddeterminationinallthosecurioussubjectsofspeculation，aboutwhichtheyarecommonlyemployed。Evenourverysensesarebroughtintodispute，byacertainspeciesofphilosophers；andthemaximsofcommonlifearesubjectedtothesamedoubtasthemostprofoundprinciplesorconclusionsofmetaphysicsandtheology。Astheseparadoxicaltenetsiftheymaybecalledtenetsaretobemetwithinsomephilosophers，andtherefutationoftheminseveral，theynaturallyexciteourcuriosity，andmakeusenquireintothearguments，onwhichtheymaybefounded。
　　Ineednotinsistuponthemoretritetopics，employedbythescepticsinallages，againsttheevidenceof；suchasthosewhicharederivedfromtheimperfectionandfallaciousnessofourorgans，onnumberlessoccasions；thecrookedappearanceofanoarinwater；thevariousaspectsofobjects，accordingtotheirdifferentdistances；thedoubleimageswhicharisefromthepressingoneeye；withmanyotherappearancesofalikenature。Thesescepticaltopics，indeed，areonlysufficienttoprove，thatthesensesalonearenotimplicitlytobedependedon；butthatwemustcorrecttheirevidencebyreason，andbyconsiderations，derivedfromthenatureofthemedium，thedistanceoftheobject，andthedispositionoftheorgan，inordertorenderthem，withintheirsphere，thepropercriteriaoftruthandfalsehood。Thereareothermoreprofoundargumentsagainstthesenses，whichadmitnotofsoeasyasolution。
　　Itseemsevident，thatmenarecarried，byanaturalinstinctorprepossession，toreposefaithintheirsenses；
　　andthat，withoutanyreasoning，orevenalmostbeforetheuseofreason，wealwayssupposeanexternaluniverse，whichdependsnotonourperception，butwouldexist，thoughweandeverysensiblecreaturewereabsentorannihilated。Eventheanimalcreationaregovernedbyalikeopinion，andpreservethisbeliefofexternalobjects，inalltheirthoughts，designs，andactions。
　　Itseemsalsoevident，that，whenmenfollowthisblindandpowerfulinstinctofnature，theyalwayssupposetheveryimages，presentedbythesenses，tobetheexternalobjects，andneverentertainanysuspicion，thattheonearenothingbutrepresentationsoftheother。Thisverytable，whichweseewhite，andwhichwefeelhard，isbelievedtoexist，independentofourperception，andtobesomethingexternaltoourmind，whichperceivesit。Ourpresencebestowsnotbeingonit:Ourabsencedoesnotannihilateit。
　　Itpreservesitsexistenceuniformandentire，independentofthesituationofintelligentbeings，whoperceiveorcontemplateit。
　　Butthisuniversalandprimaryopinionofallmenissoondestroyedbytheslightestphilosophy，whichteachesus，thatnothingcaneverbepresenttothemindbutanimageorperception，andthatthesensesareonlytheinlets，throughwhichtheseimagesareconveyed，withoutbeingabletoproduceanyimmediateintercoursebetweenthemindandtheobject。Thetable，whichwesee，seemstodiminish，asweremovefartherfromit:Buttherealtable，whichexistsindependentofus，suffersnoalteration:Itwas，therefore，nothingbutitsimage，whichwaspresenttothemind。Thesearetheobviousdictatesofreason；andnoman，whoreflects，everdoubted，thattheexistences，whichweconsider，whenwesay，and，arenothingbutperceptionsinthemind，andfleetingcopiesorrepresentationsofotherexistences，whichremainuniformandindependent。
　　Sofar，then，arewenecessitatedbyreasoningtocontradictordepartfromtheprimaryinstinctsofnature，andtoembraceanewsystemwithregardtotheevidenceofoursenses。Butherephilosophyfindsherselfextremelyembarrassed，whenshewouldjustifythisnewsystem，andobviatethecavilsandobjectionsofthesceptics。Shecannolongerpleadtheinfallibleandirresistibleinstinctofnature:Forthatledustoaquitedifferentsystem，whichisacknowledgedfallibleandevenerroneous。Andtojustifythispretendedphilosophicalsystem，byachainofclearandconvincingargument，orevenanyappearanceofargument，exceedsthepowerofallhumancapacity。
　　Bywhatargumentcanitbeproved，thattheperceptionsofthemindmustbecausedbyexternalobjects，entirelydifferentfromthem，thoughresemblingthemifthatbepossibleandcouldnotariseeitherfromtheenergyoftheminditself，orfromthesuggestionofsomeinvisibleandunknownspirit，orfromsomeothercausestillmoreunknowntous？Itisacknowledged，that，infact，manyoftheseperceptionsarisenotfromanythingexternal，asindreams，madness，andotherdiseases。Andnothingcanbemoreinexplicablethanthemanner，inwhichbodyshouldsooperateuponmindasevertoconveyanimageofitselftoasubstance，supposedofsodifferent，andevencontraryanature。
　　Itisaquestionoffact，whethertheperceptionsofthesensesbeproducedbyexternalobjects，resemblingthem:
　　howshallthisquestionbedetermined？Byexperiencesurely；
　　asallotherquestionsofalikenature。Buthereexperienceis，andmustbeentirelysilent。Themindhasneveranythingpresenttoitbuttheperceptions，andcannotpossiblyreachanyexperienceoftheirconnexionwithobjects。Thesuppositionofsuchaconnexionis，therefore，withoutanyfoundationinreasoning。
　　TohaverecoursetotheveracityofthesupremeBeing，inordertoprovetheveracityofoursenses，issurelymakingaveryunexpectedcircuit。Ifhisveracitywereatallconcernedinthismatter，oursenseswouldbeentirelyinfallible；becauseitisnotpossiblethathecaneverdeceive。Nottomention，that，iftheexternalworldbeoncecalledinquestion，weshallbeatalosstofindarguments，bywhichwemayprovetheexistenceofthatBeingoranyofhisattributes。
　　Thisisatopic，therefore，inwhichtheprofounderandmorephilosophicalscepticswillalwaystriumph，whentheyendeavourtointroduceanuniversaldoubtintoallsubjectsofhumanknowledgeandenquiry。Doyoufollowtheinstinctsandpropensitiesofnature，maytheysay，inassentingtotheveracityofsense？Buttheseleadyoutobelievethattheveryperceptionorsensibleimageistheexternalobject。Doyoudisclaimthisprinciple，inordertoembraceamorerationalopinion，thattheperceptionsareonlyrepresentationsofsomethingexternal？Youheredepartfromyournaturalpropensitiesandmoreobvioussentiments；andyetarenotabletosatisfyyourreason，whichcanneverfindanyconvincingargumentfromexperiencetoprove，thattheperceptionsareconnectedwithanyexternalobjects。
　　Thereisanotherscepticaltopicofalikenature，derivedfromthemostprofoundphilosophy；whichmightmeritourattention，wereitrequisitetodivesodeep，inordertodiscoverargumentsandreasonings，whichcansolittleservetoanyseriouspurpose。Itisuniversallyallowedbymodernenquirers，thatallthesensiblequalitiesofobjects，suchashard，soft，hot，cold，white，black，&c。
　　aremerelysecondary，andexistnotintheobjectsthemselves，butareperceptionsofthemind，withoutanyexternalarchetypeormodel，whichtheyrepresent。Ifthisbeallowed，withregardtosecondaryqualities，itmustalsofollow，withregardtothesupposedprimaryqualitiesofextensionandsolidity；norcanthelatterbeanymoreentitledtothatdenominationthantheformer。Theideaofextensionisentirelyacquiredfromthesensesofsightandfeeling；andifallthequalities，perceivedbythesenses，beinthemind，notintheobject，thesameconclusionmustreachtheideaofextension，whichiswhollydependentonthesensibleideasortheideasofsecondaryqualities。
　　Nothingcansaveusfromthisconclusion，buttheasserting，thattheideasofthoseprimaryqualitiesareattainedby，anopinion，which，ifweexamineitaccurately，weshallfindtobeunintelligible，andevenabsurd。Anextension，thatisneithertangiblenorvisible，cannotpossiblybeconceived:Andatangibleorvisibleextension，whichisneitherhardnorsoft，blacknorwhite，isequallybeyondthereachofhumanconception。Letanymantrytoconceiveatriangleingeneral，whichisneithernor，norhasanyparticularlengthorproportionofsides；andhewillsoonperceivetheabsurdityofallthescholasticnotionswithregardtoabstractionandgeneralideas。[37]
　　Thusthefirstphilosophicalobjectiontotheevidenceofsenseortotheopinionofexternalexistenceconsistsinthis，thatsuchanopinion，ifrestedonnaturalinstinct，iscontrarytoreason，andifreferredtoreason，iscontrarytonaturalinstinct，andatthesametimecarriesnorationalevidencewithit，toconvinceanimpartialenquirer。Thesecondobjectiongoesfarther，andrepresentsthisopinionascontrarytoreason:Atleast，ifitbeaprincipleofreason，thatallsensiblequalitiesareinthemind，notintheobject。Bereavematterofallitsintelligiblequalities，bothprimaryandsecondary，youinamannerannihilateit，andleaveonlyacertainunknown，inexplicable，asthecauseofourperceptions；anotionsoimperfect，thatnoscepticwillthinkitworthwhiletocontendagainstit。
　　PARTII。
　　I/T\mayseemaveryextravagantattemptofthescepticstodestroybyargumentandratiocination；
　　yetisthisthegrandscopeofalltheirenquiriesanddisputes。Theyendeavourtofindobjections，bothtoourreasonings，andtothosewhichregardmatteroffactandexistence。
　　Thechiefobjectionagainstallabstractreasoningsisderivedfromtheideasofspaceandtime；ideas，which，incommonlifeandtoacarelessview，areveryclearandintelligible，butwhentheypassthroughthescrutinyoftheprofoundsciencesandtheyarethechiefobjectofthesesciencesaffordprinciples，whichseemfullofabsurdityandcontradiction。Nopriestly，inventedonpurposetotameandsubduetherebelliousreasonofmankind，evershockedcommonsensemorethanthedoctrineoftheinfinitivedivisibilityofextension，withitsconsequences；
　　astheyarepompouslydisplayedbyallgeometriciansandmetaphysicians，withakindoftriumphandexultation。A
　　realquantity，infinitelylessthananyfinitequantity，containingquantitiesinfinitelylessthanitself，andsoon；thisisanedificesoboldandprodigious，thatitistooweightyforanypretendeddemonstrationtosupport，becauseitshockstheclearestandmostnaturalprinciplesofhumanreason。[38]Butwhatrendersthemattermoreextraordinary，is，thattheseseeminglyabsurdopinionsaresupportedbyachainofreasoning，theclearestandmostnatural；norisitpossibleforustoallowthepremiseswithoutadmittingtheconsequences。Nothingcanbemoreconvincingandsatisfactorythanalltheconclusionsconcerningthepropertiesofcirclesandtriangles；andyet，whentheseareoncereceived，howcanwedeny，thattheangleofcontactbetween
　　acircleanditstangentisinfinitelylessthananyrectilinealangle，thatasyoumayincreasethediameterofthecircle，thisangleofcontactbecomesstillless，even，andthattheangleofcontactbetweenothercurvesandtheirtangentsmaybeinfinitelylessthanthosebetweenanycircleanditstangent，andsoon，？Thedemonstrationoftheseprinciplesseemsasunexceptionableasthatwhichprovesthethreeanglesofatriangletobeequaltotworightones，thoughthelatteropinionbenaturalandeasy，andtheformerbigwithcontradictionandabsurdity。Reasonhereseemstobethrownintoakindofamazementandsuspence，which，withoutthesuggestionsofanysceptic，givesheradiffidenceofherself，andofthegroundonwhichshetreads。Sheseesafulllight，whichilluminatescertainplaces；butthatlightbordersuponthemostprofounddarkness。Andbetweenthesesheissodazzledandconfounded，thatshescarcelycanpronouncewithcertaintyandassuranceconcerninganyoneobject。
　　Theabsurdityofthesebolddeterminationsoftheabstractsciencesseemstobecome，ifpossible，stillmorepalpablewithregardtotimethanextension。Aninfinitenumberofrealpartsoftime，passinginsuccession，andexhaustedoneafteranother，appearssoevidentacontradiction，thatnoman，oneshouldthink，whosejudgementisnotcorrupted，insteadofbeingimproved，bythesciences，wouldeverbeabletoadmitofit。
　　Yetstillreasonmustremainrestless，andunquiet，evenwithregardtothatscepticism，towhichsheisdrivenbytheseseemingabsurditiesandcontradictions。Howanyclear，distinctideacancontaincircumstances，contradictorytoitself，ortoanyotherclear，distinctidea，isabsolutelyincomprehensible；andis，perhaps，asabsurdasanyproposition，whichcanbeformed。Sothatnothingcanbemoresceptical，ormorefullofdoubtandhesitation，thanthisscepticismitself，whicharisesfromsomeoftheparadoxicalconclusionsofgeometryorthescienceofquantity。[39]
　　Thescepticalobjectionstoevidence，ortothereasoningsconcerningmatteroffact，areeither
　　or。Thepopularobjectionsarederivedfromthenaturalweaknessofhumanunderstanding；thecontradictoryopinions，whichhavebeenentertainedindifferentagesandnations；thevariationsofourjudgementinsicknessandhealth，youthandoldage，prosperityandadversity；theperpetualcontradictionofeachparticularman'sopinionsandsentiments；withmanyothertopicsofthatkind。Itisneedlesstoinsistfartheronthishead。
　　Theseobjectionsarebutweak。Foras，incommonlife，wereasoneverymomentconcerningfactandexistence，andcannotpossiblysubsist，withoutcontinuallyemployingthisspeciesofargument，anypopularobjections，derivedfromthence，mustbeinsufficienttodestroythatevidence。Thegreatsubverterofortheexcessiveprinciplesofscepticismisaction，andemployment，andtheoccupationsofcommonlife。Theseprinciplesmayflourishandtriumphintheschools；whereitis，indeed，difficult，ifnotimpossible，torefutethem。Butassoonastheyleavetheshade，andbythepresenceoftherealobjects，whichactuateourpassionsandsentiments，areputinoppositiontothemorepowerfulprinciplesofournature，theyvanishlikesmoke，andleavethemostdeterminedscepticinthesameconditionasothermortals。
　　Thesceptic，therefore，hadbetterkeepwithinhispropersphere，anddisplaythoseobjections，whicharisefrommoreprofoundresearches。Hereheseemstohaveamplematteroftriumph；whilehejustlyinsists，thatallourevidenceforanymatteroffact，whichliesbeyondthetestimonyofsenseormemory，isderivedentirelyfromtherelationofcauseandeffect；thatwehavenootherideaofthisrelationthanthatoftwoobjects，whichhavebeenfrequentlytogether；thatwehavenoargumenttoconvinceus，thatobjects，whichhave，inourexperience，beenfrequentlyconjoined，willlikewise，inotherinstances，beconjoinedinthesamemanner；andthatnothingleadsustothisinferencebutcustomoracertaininstinctofournature；whichitisindeeddifficulttoresist，butwhich，likeotherinstincts，maybefallaciousanddeceitful。Whilethescepticinsistsuponthesetopics，heshowshisforce，orrather，indeed，hisownandourweakness；andseems，forthetimeatleast，todestroyallassuranceandconviction。Theseargumentsmightbedisplayedatgreaterlength，ifanydurablegoodorbenefittosocietycouldeverbeexpectedtoresultfromthem。
　　Forhereisthechiefandmostconfoundingobjectiontoscepticism，thatnodurablegoodcaneverresultfromit；whileitremainsinitsfullforceandvigour。Weneedonlyasksuchasceptic，？Heisimmediatelyataloss，andknowsnotwhattoanswer。A
　　C/OPERNICAN\orP/TOLEMAIC\，whosupportseachhisdifferentsystemofastronomy，mayhopetoproduceaconviction，whichwillremainconstantanddurable，withhisaudience。A
　　S/TOIC\orE/PICUREAN\displaysprinciples，whichmaynotbedurable，butwhichhaveaneffectonconductandbehaviour。
　　ButaP/YRRHONIAN\cannotexpect，thathisphilosophywillhaveanyconstantinfluenceonthemind:Orifithad，thatitsinfluencewouldbebeneficialtosociety。Onthecontrary，hemustacknowledge，ifhewillacknowledgeanything，thatallhumanlifemustperish，werehisprinciplesuniversallyandsteadilytoprevail。Alldiscourse，allactionwouldimmediatelycease；andmenremaininatotallethargy，tillthenecessitiesofnature，unsatisfied，putanendtotheirmiserableexistence。Itistrue；sofatalaneventisverylittletobedreaded。Natureisalwaystoostrongforprinciple。AndthoughaP/YRRHONIAN\maythrowhimselforothersintoamomentaryamazementandconfusionby
　　hisprofoundreasonings；thefirstandmosttrivialeventinlifewillputtoflightallhisdoubtsandscruples，andleavehimthesame，ineverypointofactionandspeculation，withthephilosophersofeveryothersect，orwiththosewhoneverconcernedthemselvesinanyphilosophicalresearches。Whenheawakesfromhisdream，hewillbethefirsttojoininthelaughagainsthimself，andtoconfess，thatallhisobjectionsaremereamusement，andcanhavenoothertendencythantoshowthewhimsicalconditionofmankind，whomustactandreasonandbelieve；
　　thoughtheyarenotable，bytheirmostdiligentenquiry，tosatisfythemselvesconcerningthefoundationoftheseoperations，ortoremovetheobjections，whichmayberaisedagainstthem。
　　PARTIII。
　　T/HERE\is，indeed，amorescepticismorphilosophy，whichmaybebothdurableanduseful，andwhichmay，inpart，betheresultofthisP/YRRHONISM\，orscepticism，whenitsundistinguisheddoubtsare，insomemeasure，correctedbycommonsenseandreflection。Thegreaterpartofmankindarenaturallyapttobeaffirmativeanddogmaticalintheiropinions；andwhiletheyseeobjectsonlyononeside，andhavenoideaofanycounterpoisingargument，theythrowthemselvesprecipitatelyintotheprinciples，towhichtheyareinclined；norhavetheyanyindulgenceforthosewhoentertainoppositesentiments。Tohesitateorbalanceperplexestheirunderstanding，checkstheirpassion，andsuspendstheiraction。Theyare，therefore，impatienttilltheyescapefromastate，whichtothemissouneasy:Andtheythink，thattheycouldneverremovethemselvesfarenoughfromit，bytheviolenceoftheiraffirmationsandobstinacyoftheirbelief。Butcouldsuchdogmaticalreasonersbecomesensibleofthestrangeinfirmitiesof
　　humanunderstanding，eveninitsmostperfectstate，andwhenmostaccurateandcautiousinitsdeterminations；suchareflectionwouldnaturallyinspirethemwithmoremodestyandreserve，anddiminishtheirfondopinionofthemselves，andtheirprejudiceagainstantagonists。Theilliteratemayreflectonthedispositionofthelearned，who，amidstalltheadvantagesofstudyandreflection，arecommonlystilldiffidentintheirdeterminations:Andifanyofthelearnedbeinclined，fromtheirnaturaltemper，tohaughtinessandobstinacy，asmalltinctureofP/YRRHONISM\mightabatetheirpride，byshowingthem，thatthefewadvantages，whichtheymayhaveattainedovertheirfellows，arebutinconsiderable，ifcomparedwiththeuniversalperplexityandconfusion，whichisinherentinhumannature。Ingeneral，thereisadegreeofdoubt，andcaution，andmodesty，which，inallkindsofscrutinyanddecision，oughtforevertoaccompanyajustreasoner。
　　Anotherspeciesofscepticismwhichmaybe
　　ofadvantagetomankind，andwhichmaybethenaturalresultoftheP/YRRHONIAN\doubtsandscruples，isthelimitationofourenquiriestosuchsubjectsasarebestadaptedtothenarrowcapacityofhumanunderstanding。Theofmanisnaturallysublime，delightedwithwhateverisremoteandextraordinary，andrunning，withoutcontrol，intothemostdistantpartsofspaceandtimeinordertoavoidtheobjects，whichcustomhasrenderedtoofamiliartoit。A
　　correctobservesacontrarymethod，andavoidingalldistantandhighenquiries，confinesitselftocommonlife，andtosuchsubjectsasfallunderdailypracticeandexperience；leavingthemoresublimetopicstotheembellishmentofpoetsandorators，ortotheartsofpriestsandpoliticians。Tobringustososalutaryadetermination，nothingcanbemoreserviceable，thantobeoncethoroughlyconvincedoftheforceoftheP/YRRHONIAN\
　　doubt，andoftheimpossibility，thatanything，butthestrongpowerofnaturalinstinct，couldfreeusfromit。
　　Thosewhohaveapropensitytophilosophy，willstillcontinuetheirresearches；becausetheyreflect，that，besidestheimmediatepleasureattendingsuchanoccupation，philosophicaldecisionsarenothingbutthereflectionsofcommonlife，methodizedandcorrected。Buttheywillneverbetemptedtogobeyondcommonlife，solongastheyconsidertheimperfectionofthosefacultieswhichtheyemploy，theirnarrowreach，andtheirinaccurateoperations。
　　Whilewecannotgiveasatisfactoryreason，whywebelieve，afterathousandexperiments，thatastonewillfall，orfireburn；canweeversatisfyourselvesconcerninganydetermination，whichwemayform，withregardtotheoriginofworlds，andthesituationofnature，from，andtoeternity？
　　Thisnarrowlimitation，indeed，ofourenquiries，is，ineveryrespect，soreasonable，thatitsufficestomaketheslightestexaminationintothenaturalpowersofthehumanmindandtocomparethemwiththeirobjects，inordertorecommendittous。Weshallthenfindwhatarethepropersubjectsofscienceandenquiry。
　　Itseemstome，thattheonlyobjectsoftheabstractscienceorofdemonstrationarequantityandnumber，andthatallattemptstoextendthismoreperfectspeciesofknowledgebeyondtheseboundsaremeresophistryandillusion。Asthecomponentpartsofquantityandnumberareentirelysimilar，theirrelationsbecomeintricateandinvolved；andnothingcanbemorecurious，aswellasuseful，thantotrace，byavarietyofmediums，theirequalityorinequality，throughtheirdifferentappearances。
　　Butasallotherideasareclearlydistinctanddifferentfromeachother，wecanneveradvancefarther，byourutmostscrutiny，thantoobservethisdiversity，and，byanobviousreflection，pronounceonethingnottobeanother。Oriftherebeanydifficultyinthesedecisions，itproceedsentirelyfromtheundeterminatemeaningofwords，whichiscorrectedbyjusterdefinitions。That，cannotbeknown，letthetermsbeeversoexactlydefined，withoutatrainofreasoningandenquiry。Buttoconvinceusofthisproposition，，itisonlynecessarytodefinetheterms，andexplaininjusticetobeaviolationofproperty。
　　Thispropositionis，indeed，nothingbutamoreimperfectdefinition。Itisthesamecasewithallthosepretendedsyllogisticalreasonings，whichmaybefoundineveryotherbranchoflearning，exceptthesciencesofquantityandnumber；andthesemaysafely，Ithink，bepronouncedtheonlyproperobjectsofknowledgeanddemonstration。
　　Allotherenquiriesofmenregardonlymatteroffactandexistence；andtheseareevidentlyincapableofdemonstration。Whatevermay。Nonegationofafactcaninvolveacontradiction。Thenon-existenceofanybeing，withoutexception，isasclearanddistinctanideaasitsexistence。Theproposition，whichaffirmsitnottobe，howeverfalse，isnolessconceivableandintelligible，thanthatwhichaffirmsittobe。Thecaseisdifferentwiththesciences，properlysocalled。Everyproposition，whichisnottrue，isthereconfusedandunintelligible。Thatthecuberootof64isequaltothehalfof10，isafalseproposition，andcanneverbedistinctlyconceived。ButthatC/AESAR\，ortheangelG/ABRIEL\，oranybeingneverexisted，maybeafalseproposition，butstillisperfectlyconceivable，andimpliesnocontradiction。
　　Theexistence，therefore，ofanybeingcanonlybeprovedbyargumentsfromitscauseoritseffect；andtheseargumentsarefoundedentirelyonexperience。Ifwereason，anythingmayappearabletoproduceanything。
　　Thefallingofapebblemay，foraughtweknow，extinguishthesun；orthewishofamancontroltheplanetsintheirorbits。Itisonlyexperience，whichteachesusthenatureandboundsofcauseandeffect，andenablesustoinfertheexistenceofoneobjectfromthatofanother。[40]Suchisthefoundationofmoralreasoning，whichformsthegreaterpartofhumanknowledge，andisthesourceofallhumanactionandbehaviour。
　　Moralreasoningsareeitherconcerningparticularorgeneralfacts。Alldeliberationsinliferegardtheformer；
　　asalsoalldisquisitionsinhistory，chronology，geography，andastronomy。
　　Thesciences，whichtreatofgeneralfacts，arepolitics，naturalphilosophy，physic，chemistry，&c。wherethequalities，causesandeffectsofawholespeciesofobjectsareenquiredinto。
　　DivinityorTheology，asitprovestheexistenceofaDeity，andtheimmortalityofsouls，iscomposedpartlyofreasoningsconcerningparticular，partlyconcerninggeneralfacts。Ithasafoundationin，sofarasitissupportedbyexperience。Butitsbestandmostsolidfoundationisanddivinerevelation。
　　Moralsandcriticismarenotsoproperlyobjectsoftheunderstandingasoftasteandsentiment。Beauty，whethermoralornatural，isfelt，moreproperlythanperceived。Orifwereasonconcerningit，andendeavourtofixitsstandard，weregardanewfact，towit，thegeneraltastesofmankind，orsomesuchfact，whichmaybetheobjectofreasoningandenquiry。
　　Whenwerunoverlibraries，persuadedoftheseprinciples，whathavocmustwemake？Ifwetakeinourhandanyvolume；ofdivinityorschoolmetaphysics，forinstance；
　　letusask，No。No。Commititthentotheflames:Foritcancontainnothingbutsophistryandillusion。
　　NOTES
　　[1][COPYRIGHT:c1995，JamesFieserjfieser@utm。edu，allrightsreserved。Unalteredcopiesofthiscomputertextfilemaybefreelydistributeforpersonalandclassroomuse。
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　　，ed。JamesFieserInternetRelease，1995。
　　EDITORIALCONVENTIONS:lettersbetweenslashese。g。，H/UME\designatesmallcapitalization。Letterswithinangledbracketse。g。，designateitalics。Notereferencesarecontainedwithinsquarebracketse。g。，[1]。
　　Originalpaginationiscontainedwithincurlybracketse。g。，。Spellingandpunctuationhavenotbeenmodernized。Printer'serrorshavebeencorrectedwithoutnote。Bracketedcommentswithintheendnotesaretheeditor's。Thisisaworkingdraft。PleasereporterrorstoJamesFieserjfieser@utm。edu。]
　　[2]ThisisnotintendedanywaytodetractfromthemeritofMr。L/OCKE\，whowasreallyagreatphilosopherandajustandmodestreasoner。Itisonlymeanttoshowthecommonfateofsuchabstractphilosophy。[ThisnotewasremovedbyHumefromlatereditionsofthe——
　　J。F。]
　　[3]Thatfacultybywhichwediscerntruthandfalsehood，andthatbywhichweperceiveviceandvirtue，hadlongbeenconfoundedwitheachother；andallmoralitywassupposedtobebuiltonexternalanimmutablerelationswhich，toeveryintelligentmind，wereequallyinvariableasanypropositionconcerningquantityornumber。Butalatephilosopher[FrancisHutcheson]hastaughtus，bythemostconvincingarguments，thatmoralityisnothingintheabstractnatureofthings，butisentirelyrelativetothesentimentormentaltasteofeachparticularbeing，inthesamemannerasthedistinctionsofsweetandbitter，hotandcoldarisefromtheparticularfeelingofeachsenseororgan。Moralperceptions，therefore，oughtnottobeclassedwiththeoperationsoftheunderstanding，butwiththetastesorsentiments。
　　Ithadbeenusualwithphilosopherstodivideallthepassionsofthemindintotwoclasses，theselfishandbenevolent，whichweresupposedtostandinconstantoppositionandcontrariety；norwasitthoughtthatthelattercouldeverattaintheirproperobjectbutattheexpenseoftheformer。Amongtheselfishpassionswererankedavarice，ambition，revenge；amongthebenevolent，naturalaffection，friendship，publicspirit。Philosophersmaynowperceivetheimproprietyofthisdivision。[SeeButler's。]Ithasbeenproved，beyondallcontroversy，thateventhepassionscommonlyesteemedselfishcarrythemindbeyondselfdirectlytotheobject；
　　thatthoughthesatisfactionofthesepassionsgivesusenjoyment，yettheprospectofthisenjoymentisnotthecauseofthepassion，but，onthecontrary，thepassionisantecedenttotheenjoyment，andwithouttheformerthelattercouldneverpossiblyexist；thatthecaseispreciselythesamewithpassionsdenominatedbenevolent，andconsequentlythatamanisnomoreinterestedwhenheseekshisownglorythanwhenthe
　　happinessofhisfriendistheobjectofhiswishes；norisheanymoredisinterestedwhenhesacrificeshiseaseandquiettopublicgoodthanwhenhelaborsforthegratificationofavariceorambition。Here，therefore，isaconsiderableadjustmentintheboundariesofthepassions，whichhadbeenconfoundedbythenegligenceorinaccuracyofformerphilosophers。Thesetwoinstancesmaysufficetoshowusthenatureandimportanceofthatspeciesofphilosophy。[ThisnotewasremovedbyHumefromlatereditionsofthe——J。F。]
　　[4]I/T\isprobablethatnomorewasmeantbythese，whodeniedinnateideas，thanthatallideaswerecopiesofourimpressions；thoughitmustbeconfessed，thattheterms，whichtheyemployed，werenotchosenwithsuchcaution，norsoexactlydefined，astopreventallmistakesabouttheirdoctrine。Forwhatismeantby？Ifinnatebeequivalenttonatural，thenalltheperceptionsandideasofthemindmustbeallowedtobeinnateornatural，inwhateversensewetakethelatterword，whetherinoppositiontowhatisuncommon，artificial，ormiraculous。Ifbyinnatebemeant，contemporarytoourbirth，thedisputeseemstobefrivolous；norisitworthwhiletoenquireatwhattimethinkingbegins，whetherbefore，at，orafterourbirth。Again，theword，seemstobecommonlytakeninaveryloosesense，byL/OCKE\
　　andothers；asstandingforanyofourperceptions，oursensationsandpassions，aswellasthoughts。Nowinthissense，Ishoulddesiretoknow，whatcanbemeantbyasserting，thatself-love，orresentmentofinjuries，orthepassionbetweenthesexesisnotinnate？
　　Butadmittingtheseterms，and，inthesenseaboveexplained，andunderstandingby，whatisoriginalorcopiedfromnoprecedentperception，thenmayweassertthatallourimpressionsareinnate，andourideasnotinnate。
　　Tobeingenuous，Imustownittobemyopinion，thatL/OCKE\wasbetrayedintothisquestionbytheschoolmen，who，makinguseofundefinedterms，drawouttheirdisputestoatediouslength，withoutevertouchingthepointinquestion。Alikeambiguityandcircumlocutionseemtorunthroughthatphilosopher'sreasoningsonthisaswellasmostothersubjects。
　　[5]Resemblance。
　　[6]Contiguity。
　　[7]CauseandEffect。
　　[8]Forinstance，ContrastorContrarietyisalsoaconnexionamongIdeas:butitmayperhaps，beconsideredasamixtureofand。Wheretwoobjectsarecontrary，theonedestroystheother；thatis，thecauseofitsannihilation，andtheideaoftheannihilationofanobject，impliestheideaofitsformerexistence。
　　[9][TheremainderofthissectionwasremovedfromthefinaltwoeditionsofwhichwereauthorizedbyHume——JF]
　　[10]ContrarytoAristotle[cf。1450a]。
　　[11]Theword，Power，ishereusedinalooseandpopularsense。Themoreaccurateexplicationofitwouldgiveadditionalevidencetothisargument。SeeSect。7。
　　[12]N/OTHING\ismoreusefulthanforwriters，even，on，，orsubjects，todistinguishbetweenreasonandexperience，andtosuppose，thatthesespeciesofargumentationareentirelydifferentfromeachother。Theformeraretakenforthemereresultofourintellectualfaculties，which，byconsideringthenatureofthings，andexaminingtheeffects，thatmustfollowfromtheiroperation，establishparticularprinciplesofscienceandphilosophy。Thelatteraresupposedtobederivedentirelyfromsenseandobservation，bywhichwelearnwhathasactuallyresultedfromtheoperationofparticularobjects，andarethenceabletoinfer，whatwill，forthefuture，resultfromthem。Thus，forinstance，thelimitationsandrestraintsofcivilgovernment，andalegalconstitution，maybedefended，eitherfrom，whichreflectingonthegreatfrailtyandcorruptionofhumannature，teaches，thatnomancansafelybetrustedwithunlimitedauthority；orfromandhistory，whichinformusoftheenormousabuses，thatambition，ineveryageandcountry，hasbeenfoundtomakesoimprudentaconfidence。
　　Thesamedistinctionbetweenreasonandexperienceismaintainedinallourdeliberationsconcerningtheconductoflife；whiletheexperiencedstatesman，general，physician，ormerchantistrustedandfollowed；andtheunpractisednovice，withwhatevernaturaltalentsendowed，neglectedanddespised。Thoughitbeallowed，thatreasonmayformveryplausibleconjectureswithregardtotheconsequencesofsuchaparticularconductinsuchparticularcircumstances；itisstillsupposedimperfect，withouttheassistanceofexperience，whichisaloneabletogivestabilityandcertaintytothemaxims，derivedfromstudyandreflection。
　　Butnotwithstandingthatthisdistinctionbethusuniversallyreceived，bothintheactiveandspeculativescenesoflife，Ishallnotscrupletopronounce，thatitis，atbottom，erroneous，atleast，superficial。
　　Ifweexaminethosearguments，which，inanyofthesciencesabovementioned，aresupposedtobemereeffectsofreasoningandreflection，theywillbefoundtoterminate，atlast，insomegeneralprincipleor，conclusion，forwhichwecanassignnoreasonbutobservationandexperience。Theonlydifferencebetweenthemandthosemaxims，whicharevulgarlyesteemedtheresultofpureexperience，is，thattheformercannotbeestablishedwithoutsomeprocessofthought，andsomereflectiononwhatwehaveobserved，inordertodistinguishitscircumstances，andtraceitsconsequences:Whereasinthelatter，theexperiencedeventisexactlyandfullyfamiliarto
　　thatwhichweinferastheresultofanyparticularsituation。ThehistoryofaT/IBERIUS\oraN/ERO\makesusdreadaliketyranny，wereourmonarchsfreedfromtherestraintsoflawsandsenates:
　　Buttheobservationofanyfraudorcrueltyinprivatelifeissufficient，withtheaidofalittlethought，togiveusthesameapprehension；whileitservesasaninstanceofthegeneralcorruptionofhumannature，andshowsusthedangerwhichwemustincurbyreposinganentireconfidenceinmankind。Inbothcases，itisexperiencewhichisultimatelythefoundationofourinferenceandconclusion。
　　Thereisnomansoyoungandinexperienced，asnottohaveformed，fromobservation，manygeneralandjustmaximsconcerninghumanaffairsandtheconductoflife；butitmustbeconfessed，that，whenamancomestoputtheseinpractice，hewillbeextremelyliabletoerror，tilltimeandfartherexperiencebothenlargethesemaxims，andteachhimtheirproperuseandapplication。Ineverysituationorincident，therearemanyparticularandseeminglyminutecircumstances，whichthemanofgreatesttalentis，atfirst，apttooverlook，thoughonthemthejustnessofhisconclusions，andconsequentlytheprudenceofhisconduct，entirelydepend。Nottomention，that，toayoungbeginner，thegeneralobservationsandmaximsoccurnotalwaysontheproperoccasions，norcanbeimmediatelyappliedwithduecalmnessanddistinction。Thetruthis，anunexperiencedreasonercouldbenoreasoneratall，wereheabsolutelyunexperienced；andwhenweassignthatcharactertoanyone，wemeanitonlyinacomparativesense，andsupposehimpossessedofexperience，inasmallerandmoreimperfectdegree。